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Bio BBJD

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Chapter & THE FUNDAMENTAL Unit or LIFE while examining a thin slice of cork, Robert Hooke saw that the cork resembled the structure ofa honeycomb consisting of many jittle compartments. Cork is a substance which comes from the bark of a tree. This was in the year 1665 when Hooke made this chance observation through a self-designed microscope. Robert Hooke called these boxes cells. Cell is a Latin word for ‘a little room’. ‘This may seem to be a very small and insignificant incident but it is very important in the history of science. This was the very first time that someone had observed that living things appear to consist of separate units. The use of the word ‘cell’ to describe these units is used till this day in biology. Let us find out about cells. 5.1 What are Living Organisms Made Up of? Activity 5.1 + Let us take a small piece from an onion bulb. With the help of a pair of forceps, we can peel off the skin (called gpidermis] from the concave side inner ayer) onion. This layer can be put immediately in a watch-glass containing water. This will prevent the Base Fig. 5.1: Compound microscope What do we observe as we look through the lens? Can we draw the structures that we are able to see through the microscope, on an observation sheet? Does it look like Fig. 5.2? Fig. 5.2: Cells of an onion peet We can try preparing temporary mounts of peels of onions of different sizes. What do we observe? Do we see similar structures OF different structures? What are these structures? ‘These structures look similar to each other. ‘Together they form a big structure like an ‘onion bulb! We find from this activity that ‘onion bulbs of different sizes have similar small structures visible under a microscope. The cells of the onion peel will all look the same, regardless of the size of the onion they came from. : ‘These small structures that we see are the basic building units of the onion bulb. ‘These structures are called cells. Not only onions, but all organisms that we observe around are made up of cells. However, there are also single cells that live on their own. Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cells in a cork slice with the help of a primitive microscope. Leeuwenhoek (1674), with the improved microscope, discovered the free living cells in pond water for the firsttime. It was Robert Brown in 1831 who discovered the nucleus in the cell. Purkinje in 1839 coined the term _‘ sm’ for the fluid substance of the cell. The cell theory, that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life, was presented by two biologists, Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839). The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow (1855) by suggesting that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, With the discovery of the electron microscope in 1940, it was possible to observe and understand the complex structure of the cell and its various organelles. BAY Gyo coo cath ‘The invention of magnifying lenses led to the discovery of the microscopic world. It is now known that a single cell may constitute. a whole organism as in Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramoectum z pbeeel organisms are called any organisms (uni = single). cel many cells group Teen fara otter and assume different functions i, ne various body parts in multicellular ct tog (multi_> many) such as some funny and animals. Can we find out name more unicellular organisms? S of Every multi-cellular organism p, from a single cell. How? Cells qii° produce cells of their own kind. All cent come from pre-existing cells. hy Activity __ 52 We can try preparing tempor, mounts of leaf peels, tip of roots q ‘onion or even peels of onions of diferen sizes. After performing the above activity, jg us see what the answers to the following questions would be: (a) Do alll cells look alike in terms o shape and size? (b) Do all cells look alike in structure’ (c) Could we find differences among cells from different parts of a plant body? (d) What similarities could we find? ze Some organisms can also have cells different kinds. Look at the following pictut It depicts some cells from the human boty vec ‘uodle ‘ ¢ ‘ 3; cell we | 4 a i Bone patel eat MM ~ ‘Sperm Fig. 5.3: Various cells from the hue! ‘ovum in body so es: a the shape and size of cells are related to ‘fic function they perform. Some cells the SPT eba have changing shapes, In som. wie Qmoerea shape could be move or less aaa and peculiar for a particular type of cell; for example, nerve cells have a typical shape gach living cell has the capacity to rform certain basic functions that are Praracteristic of all living forms. How does living cell perform these basic functions? We know that there is a division of labour in multicellular_organisms such as human peings. This means that different parts of the human body perform different functions, ‘The human body has a heart to pump blood, a stomach to digest food and so on. Similarly, division of labour is also seen within a single cell. In fact, each such cell has got certain specific components within it known as cell organelles. Each kind of cell organelle erforms a special function. such as making new material in the cell, clearing up the waste material from the cell and so on. A cell is able to live and perform all its functions because of these organelles. These organelles together constitute the basic unit called the cell. It is interesting that all cells are found to have the same organelles, no matter what their function is or what organism they are found in. uestions 1. Who discovered vells aut how? Why is the cell called Ue structural and functional wit of life? 5.2 What is a Cell Made Up of? What is the Structural Organisation of a Cell? We saw above that the cell has special components called organelles. How is a cell Organised? Thwe stud, woul ly a cell under a microscope. we Qa d come across three features in almost Te Rose st Ur oF Lire every cell; plasma membrane, nucleus men cytoplasm. All activities inside the cell ant interactions of the cell with its environment are possible due to these features. Let us see how. 5.2.1 PLASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL MEMBRANE, This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its external environment. The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some Materials in and out of the cell. It also prevents movement of some other materials. The cell membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane. "How does the movement of substances take place into the cell? How do substances move out of the cell? Some substances like carbon dioxide or— “oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion. We have studied the process of diffusion in earlier chapters. We saw that there is spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region where its conce is low. Something similar to this happens in cells when, for example, some substance like CO, (which is cellular waste and requires to be excreted out by the cell) accumulates in high concentrations inside the cell. In the cell's external environment, the concentration of CO, is low as compared to that inside the cell. As soon as there is a difference of concentration of CO, inside and outside a cell, CO, moves out of the cell, from a region of high concentration, to a region of low concentration outside the cell by the process of diffusion. Similarly, O, enters the cell by the process of diffusion when the level or concentration of O, inside the cell decreases. Thus, diffusion plays gaseous exchange be as the cell and its external environment. Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules through such @ selectively permeable membrane is called so ora plant cell into a solution of in water? of water across the osis. The movement vate carveva niembrane js also allected by the amount of ‘substance Thus, osmosis is the Si regi semi-permeable m: water concentration. if we put an animal cell dissolved in water. age of water from a von of high water concentration through a ‘embrane to a region of low What will happen sugar or salt ‘One of the following three things could happen: rrounding the cell has 1. Ifthe medium sur a higher water concentration than the cell, meaning that the outside solution is very dilute, the cell will gain water by osmosis, Such a solution is known as a hypotonic solution. Water molecules are free to pass across the cell membrane in both directions, but more water will come into the cell than will leave. The net (overall) result is that water, enters the cell. The cell is likely to swell up. 2. If the medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell, there will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane. Such a solution is known as an isotonic~ solution. ‘Water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but the amount going in is the same as the amount going out, so there is no overall movement of water. The cell will stay the same size. — If the medium has concentration of water than the jneaning that itisa very concentrated solution, the cell will lose_water. by ‘osmosis. Such a solution is known as a hypertonic solution~ “Again, water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but this time more water leaves the cell than enters it. Therefore the cell will shrink. ‘Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusi a | through a selectively permeable membrane. Now let us try out the following activity: 60 Activity Osmosis with an egg (a) Remove the shell ofan ege by dig it in dilute hydrochloric acid. Th, hy is mostly calcium carbonate, Meh outer skin now encloses the egg the egg in pure water and observe 5 minutes. What do we observe? ‘The egg swells because water pas, into it by osmosis. se Place a similar de-shelled egg in concentrated salt solution and obser, for 5 minutes. The egg shrinks. Why Water passes out of the egg solutiy into the salt solution because the say solution is more concentrated. ~5, (b) We can also try a similar activity with raisins or apricots. Activity 54 Put dried raisins or apricots in plan water and Ieave them for some time Then place them into a concentrated solution of sugar or salt. You will observe the following Each gains water and swells when placed in water. (b) However, when placed in the concentrated solution it loses water, and consequently shrinks. Unicellular freshwater organisms a most plant cells tend to gain water throu osmosis. Absorption of water by plant rot fg.also an example of osmosis. Thus. diffusion is important in exhan of gases and water in the life of a cell additions to this, the cell also obtai nutrition from its environment. Differe molecules move in and out of the c through a type of transport requiring u of energy. ‘The plasma membrane is flexible and made up of organic molecules called lipi and proteins. However, we can observe t! structure of the plasma membrane on through an electron microscope. ‘The flexibility of the cell membrane al enables the cell to engulf in food and oth material from its external environment. Suc processes are known as endocytosis. acquires its food through such processes. ‘Soe (@) y _ 5.5 out about electron microscopes a, find “egources in the school library or proud the internet. Discuss it with |) your teacher. uestions 1, How do substances like CO, and water move in and out of the cell? Discuss 2. Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively permeable membrane? 5.2.2 CELL WALL plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering talled the cell wall. The cell walll lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to plants. When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomerion is known as plasmolysis. We can observe this phenomenon by performing the following activity: Activity 5.6 Mount the peel of a Rheo leaf in water on a slide and examine cells under the high power of a microscope. Note the small green granules, called chloroplasts. They contain a green substance called chlorophyll. Put a strong solution of sugar or salt on the mounted leaf on the slide. Wait for a minute and observe under a microscope. What do we see? Now place some Rheo leaves in boiling water for a few minutes. This kills the cells. then mount one leaf on a slide and observe it under a microscope. Put a strong solution of sugar or salt on the mounted leaf on the slide. Wait for & minute and observe it again. What do we find? Did plasmolysis occur now? 7H Pxoawenn Ur oF Lie What do we infer from this activity? It appears that only living cells, and not dead cells, are able to absorb water by osmosis. Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute (hypotonic) external media without bursting. In such media the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up Pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell. Because of their walls, such cells can withstand much greater changes in the Surrounding medium than animal cells. 5.2.3 Nucieus Remember the temporary mount of onion peel we prepared? We had put iodine solution on the peel. Why? What would we see if we tried observing the peel without putting the iodine solution? Try it and see what the difference is. Further, when we put iodine solution on the peel, did each cell get evenly coloured? According to their chemical composition different regions of cells get coloured differentially. Some regions appear darker than other regions. Apart from iodine solution we could also use safranin solution or methylene blue solution to stain the cells. We have observed cells from an onion; let us now observe cells from our own body. Activity Gd Let us take a glass slide with a drop of water on it. Using an ice-cream spoon gently scrape the inside surface of the cheek. Does any material get stuck on the spoon? With the help of a needle we can transfer this material and spread it evenly on the glass slide kept ready for this. To colour the material we can put a drop of methylene blue solution an it. Now the material is ready for observation under microscope. Do not forget to put a cover-slip on it! What do we observe? What is the shape of the cells we see? Draw it on the observation sheet. 61 ej Was there a-darkly coloured, spherical or oval, dot-like structure near the centre of each cell? This structure is called nucleus. Were there similar structures in onion peel cells? ‘The nucleus has a double layered covering called guclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm (which we will talk about in section 5.2.4). ‘The nucleus contains chromosomes, which age visible as rod- structures only when the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein, DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells. Functional ents of DNA are called genes. In a cell which is not dividing, this DA's present as part of chromatin material. Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes. ‘The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single cell divides and forms two new cells. It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way the cell will develop and what form it will exhibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the cell. In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to the absence of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a nucleoid. Such organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are called prokaryotes (Pro = primitive or primary: karyote = karyon = nucleus|_Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells (see Fig. 5.4) also lack most of the other cytoplasmic organelles 62 oN present in eukaryotic cells, Man functions of such organelles pa Hy, performed by poorly organised par * *, cytoplasm (see section 5.2.4), The chlo in photosynthetic prokaryotic baci, associated with membranous vesicge * like structures) but not with plastigs i. eukaryotic cells (see section 5.2.5, “8 Fig. 5.4: Prokaryotic cell 5.2.4 CyToPLasM When we look at the temporary mounts ¢ onion peel as well as human cheek cells, we can see a large region of each cell enclosei by the cell membrane. This region takes wy very little stain. It is called the cytoplasm ‘The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also contains mat] specialised cell organelles. Each of thest organelles performs a specific function for tt cell. Cell organelles are enclosed bf membranes. In prokaryotes, beside tht absence of a defined nuclear region, th membrane-bound cell organelles are als absent. On the other hand, the eukaryot# cells have nuclear membrane as well ® membrane-enclosed organelles. = The significance of membranes can illustrated with the example of viruses Viruses lack any membranes and hence ® not show characteristics of life until they a a living body and use its cell machinery muluply., sox oo eC nestion 1. Pillar table the gaps in the followin 9 illustrating differences prokaryotic and Pere eet] 1. Size: generally large ( 5-100 um) 1. Size : generally small ( 1-10 pm) 1pm = 10%m 2. Nuclear region: 2. Nuclear region: well defined and surrounded by a nuclear membrane and known as__ 3. Chromosome: single 3. More than one chromosome 4, Membrane-bound 4. cell organelles absent 5.2.5 CELL ORGANELLES Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate from the external environment. Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities to support their complicated structure and function. To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other, these cells use membrane-bound little structures (or ‘organelles’) within themselves. This is one of the features of the eukaryotic cells that distinguish them from prokaryotic cells. Some of these organelles are visible only with an electron microscope. We have talked about the nucleus in a Previous section. Some important examples of cell organelles which we will discuss now are: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus. lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids and vacuoles. They are important because they carry out some very crucial functions in cells. Th Pexpavenra User oF Lire 5.2.5 (i) Enpoprasmic revicuLuM (EB) The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is @ large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles). The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane. ‘There are two types of ER- rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells. are the sites of protein manufacture. The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell depending on need, using the ER. The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules. or lipids. important for cell function. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is known as membrane biogenesis. Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones. Although the ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it always forms a network system. ‘Smooth endoplastni rewculum Nuclear dwvelope foyer reticulum Fig. 5.5: Animal cell Thus, one function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials (especially proteins) between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing « surface for some of the biochemical activities of the cell. In the liver cells of the group of animals Called vertebrates (see Chapter 7), SER plays @ crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and augs,———— Rough endoplasmic reticulum Z7* cal wall A Mitochondrion Aig. 5.6: Plant cell 5.2.5 (ii) Gorer apraraus The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns. These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER and therefore constitute another portion of a complex cellular membrane system. The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. In some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars In the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes |see 525 64 | Camillo Golgi was born at Gorieno near Brescia in 1843, He studied medicine al the University of Pavia. After graduating in 1865, he continued to work in Pavia at the Hospital of St. Matteo. At that time most of his investigations were concerned with the nervous In 1872 he accepted the post of cj" Medical Officer at the Hospital for if! Chronically Sick at Abbiategrasso, He started his investigations into the n¢ SBram ina ide kitchen of this hosppss Which he had converted into a laboraton However, the work of greatest importanc, which Golgi carried out was a revolutionay | method of staining individual nerve and cj structures. This method is referred to ag the ‘black reaction’. This method uses , weak solution of silver nitrate and | particularly valuable in tracing the| processes and most delicate ramifications | of cells. All through his life, he continued | to work on these lines, modifying and| improving this technique. Golgi received the highest honours and awards in| recognition of his work. He shared the Nobel prize in 1906 with Santiago Ramony | Cajal for their work on the structure of the | | nervous system. eee | 5.2.5 (iii) Lysosomes Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign materia as well as Worn-out cell organelles. Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break them up into small pleees. Lysosomes are able to do this ecause they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking lovin all organic material. During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when the cell gets Semnet jysosomes May burst and the ttt gigest their own cell. Theretore, es Oie also Known as the “suicide me ell Structurally. lysosomes are pound sacs filled with digestive bran ese enzymes are made by RER, somes (iv) MitocHonpai 525 sate jondria are Known as the powerhouses cell, The energy required for various ofthe Gy activities needed for life ts released aiemjochondria in the form of ATP vy mine triphopshate) molecules, ATP is se energy currency of the cell. The saeimises energy stored in ATP for making yehemical compounds and for mechanical weg Mitochondria have two membrane Merings instead of just one, The outer membrane iS very porous while the inner rrenbrane is deeply folded. These folds Create qlarge surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions. Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sensethat they have their own DNA and tosomes, Therefore, mitochondria are able iomake some of their own proteins. 525 (v) PLasribs Plstids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids - chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids). Plastids containing the pignent—chTorophyll are known as | , UIORBLSIS, Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll. Leucoplasts_are Primarily organelles in which materials such % starch, ofls and protein granules are stored, cont internal organisation of the plastids tmist® Of humerous membrane layers Pacatt @ material called the stroma. tena: Ate Similar to mitochondria in Plann’! Structure. Like the mitochondria. lastias Fass also have their own DNA and, MH Re 5.2.5 (vi) Vacvonrs Vacuoles are storage sa conte ‘s for solid or liquid ‘nts. Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume. In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These include amino acids, sugars. various organic acids and some proteins. In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuol contains the food items that the Amoeba has consumed. In some unicellular organisms. specialised vacuoles also play important roles in expelling excess water and some wastes from the cell. uestions 1. Can youname the wo organelles we have studied that contain their own genetic material? 2. If the organisation of a cell destroyed due: 1 some physical or chemical mylucnce, what will happen? 3. Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags? 4, Where are proteins synthesised inside the cell? Each cell thus acquires its structure and ability to function because of the organisation of its membrane and organelles in specific ways. The cell thus has a basic structural organisation. This helps the cells to perform. {unctions like respiration, obtaining nutrition, and clearing of waste material, or forming new proteins. Thus, the cell is the fundamental, structural unit of living organisms. It is also the basic functional unit of THe

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