Chapter-1 The Fundamental Unit of Life Level-| (For CBSE & Olympiads)The aerial Unit of Our earth is inhabited by different kinds of living organisms, which look very citferent from each other. These ving organisms include archaebacteria, bacteria, proists, fungi, plants and animals. The body of living organisms is made up of microscopic units called ‘ells. The cell has the same central postion in biology as the atom has in physical sciences. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. Study of form, structure and composition of cells is called ‘cytology. The branch of biology that deals with various aspects of structure, chemistry, development, genetics and functioning of ceis is called cell biology. EVENTS RELATED TO CYTOLOGY The word ‘cell’ comes from the Latin word cellulae, meaning ‘a small room In 1665 while examining a thin slice of cork, Robert Hooke saw that the slice of cork resembled the structure of a honey comb consisting of many litle ‘compartments, He called these boxes or compartments as ‘cells’. He published his work in the book “Micrographia”. Leeuwenhoek (1674) discovered free living cells in pond water with the help of an improved version of microscope. Leeuwenhoek observed lving cells such as human sperms, RBC, protozoa and bacteria for the frst time. Purkinje (1839) coined the term ‘protoplasm’ for the fluid substance of the cell INCLUDES Events Related to Cytology What are Lving Organisms Made up of? Instruments for Studying Cells ‘Structural Organisation of a Cell Plasma Membrane © Cell Wal + Nucleus: © Types of Cell > Prokaryotic Cells > Eukaryotic Cells ‘+ Gytoplasm ‘© Gell Organelies, > — Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) > Golgi Apparatus > Lysosomes > Mitochondria > Plastids > Vacuoles > © Cell ‘© Quick Recap Assignment Animal Cell and Plant Cell ision[The Fundamentel Unit of Life (CBSE & Olympiads (Level) Huxley (1868) called protoplasm as the ‘physical basis of life’. ‘Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) proposed the Cell Theory stating that all plants and animals are composed of cells which are the basic structural unit of life Rudolf Virchow (1855) expanded the call theory and suggested that all cells arise from pre-existing cells. (Omnis collua-e-celula) WHAT ARE LIVING ORGANISMS MADE UP OF? Al living organisms are made up of cells. Although, these cells may differ in shape, size and number in different organisms but they all share a common basic structure Based on the number of cells present in an organism, they are either unicellular or multicellular. Unicellular organisms : Organisms made up of a single cell are called unicellular organisms In 2 unicellular organism, a single cell is able to perform all the essential life processes like nutrition, respiration, excretion, growth and reproduction. Examples - Bacteria, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas and Paramoecium. Mind Blowing i uaa Viruses lie on the borderline, separating the living organisms from the non-living things. They are considered neither living nor non-iving and thus are acellular. Viruses are acellular i.e. they lack cytoplasm and membrane-bound cell organelles. They do not have their own metabolic machinery. Hence, they do not show characteristics of lfe until they enter any living cell. Viruses use cellular machinery of the host for their multiplication. (Chlamydomonas Fig. 2: Algae Fig. 3 : Protozoa ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deli-110005, Ph.011-47623456‘Multicettular organisms : The organisms made up of two or more celis are called multicellular organisms e.g, fungi, plants and animals. A multicellular organism may develop from a single cell (zygote) by repetitive divisions. Gradually, cells assume different shapes, sizes and get differentiated. These differentiated cells aggregate to form different tissues. Tissues form organs and organs give rise to organ systems that perform ‘specialized functions. Thus, there is division of labour in a multicellular organism, where a group of cells perform a specific function. Fig. 4: Fungi ‘Shape and size of the cells : The shape and size ofthe cells are related to the specific function they perform. Fateot ——ptneta cel Fig. 5 : Various types of cells showing different shapes Cell shape :Diferent ces vary considerably in their shapes. Some cells can change their shape ike Amoeba and white blood cells, while most ofthe plant cells and animal ces have a fixed shape. Celis which are fixed in shape can be polygonal (e... liver cells). spherical (e.g., eggs of many animals), spindle-shaped (e.g, smooth muscle fore), elongated (e.g. nerve cells), branched (chromatophores or pigment cells of skin) discoidal (e.g, erythrocytes), cuboidal (eg., germ cell, stellate (eg., bone cell) and elliptical (.9, ft cel). Cell size : The size of different calls range between broad limits. Most cells, however, are visible only under ‘microscopes since they are only a few micrometers in diameter. The size of cells varies from very small cells (of bacteria (0.1-0.5 mm) to a very large egg cell of an ostrich (18 cm). The prokaryotic cells usually range between 1 to 10 wm. The eukaryotic cells are typically larger, mostly ranging between § to 100 pm [1 ym = 10-* ml. The size of an organism is dependent on the number of cells present and not on the size of cells. Thus, the cells of an elephant are not necessarily larger than those of tiny animals like rats, The elephant is larger due to larger number of cells present in its body as compared to rat[The Fundamental Unit of Life (CBSE & Olympiads (Level) INSTRUMENTS FOR STUDYING CELLS Cells are to0 small to be seen by naked eye. So, they are studied with the help of an instrument called microscope. It is a high resolution instrument that is used for observing fine details of very small objects. There are different types of microscopes and the most common types of microscopes are as follows (a) Compound microscope : It is @ high resolution instrument that uses glass lens for magnification and Visible light for ilumination. It was invented by Z. Janssen. Eyepiece lens 1D, Fine aayssent 6 : Compound microscope Working of the microscope : The slide of the specimen to be observed is kept on a stage under an objective fens, which has lens of varying power (10X, 45x, 100X). Light is passed through the specimen, ‘with the help of a mirror and condenser located below the stage, A magnified image of the object can be seen from the eyepiece lens located on the top of the body tude. A sharp image is obtained by focussing the object with the help of side knobs. The large upper coarse adjustment knob is used for achieving the desired focus of the object and the small lower fine adjustment knob is used for obtaining a sharp image. The real and inverted image of the abject formed by the objective lens is changed into, fan erect and virtual image by the eyepiece lens. Magnification of the image can be increased or decreased by changing the objective lenses to high or low power respectively. (0) Electron microscope : Its an instrument that uses electromagnets instead of glass lens for magnification and electrons instead of visible light for ilumination. The instrument was developed by Knoll and Ruska and was put to use in 1940. It uses high voltage electricity for observing subcellular structures which ‘cannot be seen by a compound microscope. 1. The smallest cell in the living wortd is. (1) Ostrich egg (2) Mycoplasma (3) Nerve colt (4) Cork colt 2. The shape of an erythrocyte is. (1) Spherical (2) Polygonal (@) Discoidal (4) Cuboidal 3. Which of the following is a unicellular organism? (1) Spirogyra (2) Amoeba (3) Rhizopus (4) Mucor 4, Electron microscope was developed by (1) Robert Hooke (2) Purkinje (@) Huxiey (@) Knoll and Ruska ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Dehi-110005, Ph011-47623456STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL Each living call has a capacity to perform certain basic functions that are characteristic of all ving organisms. The cell possesses special components or cytoplasmic structures called organelles. Each kind of cell organelle performs a special function, such as making new material in the cell, clearing the waste material, protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, RNA synthesis etc. It is interesting that all cells have the same organelles, irrespective of their function or the organisms in which they are present A cell is able to live and undertake all its life functions because of its cell organelles. ‘A cells a tiny mass of protoplasm which is surrounded by a membrane and is capable of performing all basic functions of life. A typical cell contains three parts (Plasma membrane or cell membrane i) Nucleus (ii) Cytoplasm Plasma mombrane soparatos the inner components of the cell from their external environment. It regulates the movement of substances inside and outside the cell. Cytoplasm is the major site of cellular activities that keeps a callin living state and nucleus controls all the collular activities. Together, the nucleus and cytoplasm constitute the protoplasm, Plant cells, fungi and many bacteria have an additional outer covering, over their plasma membrane called cell wall PLASMA MEMBRANE This isthe outermost covering ofthe cell that separates the contents ofthe cell rom its extemal environment. Its flexible and made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins. it allows or permit the entry and ‘exits of some materials in and out of the cal. Therefore iti called a selectively permeable membrane, Functions 4. Shape : It provides a defrite shape to the col 2. Mechanical barrier : It acts as a mechanical bartier between the inner components ofthe cell and the ‘extemal environment. 3. Selective permeability : Plasma membrane is solectivaly permeable as it allows movement of selected substances in and out of the cel 4. Specialisation : Plasma membrane gets modified according to different functions, it has to perform at ent situations, eg. the inner ining of the intestine ts modified to form microvili, so as to increase the surface area for absorption. 5. Gell continuity : The colls are sometimes interconnected with each other through cell junctions. These are small channels through which exchange of materials can occur between the cells 6. Movement of substances across the cell membrane : Plasma membrane aciltales the movement ‘of substances across it through diffusion, osmosis, active transport, bulk transport otc “Transport tough eal membrane Passive vansport ‘Acive Fanspor . Fasiiatod 7 ‘ranspor Ditision Osmosis ton Bulk anspor pump f ¥ Endocytosis Exocytsio Requies special ATP enerayis membrane proteins notrequiredPassive transport Its a movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy input (2) Diffusion : Diffusion is defined as the spontaneous movernent of substances or molecules from a region Of their higher concentration to a region where their concentration is low. For example, difusion process ocours when a gas such as CO, (which is an end product of respiration) accumulates in higher concentration inside the cell as compared to that in the external environment of the cell. Due to this difference in concentration of CO, between internal and external environment of the cell, CO, moves out of the celle, from a region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration. Ina similar way, oxygen (O,) enters the cell by the process of difusion when the concentration of O, inside the cell is low as compared to the external environment ofthe cell Difsion a rt te ca Soliton containing «—f {es5 0, nthe (mare CO, nce }—+.cei memorane ition of 9, out ofthe call Fig. 7 : Amoeba showing gaseous exchange by diffusion Hence, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the call and its external ‘environment, (b) Osmosis : The movement of solvent from a region of its higher concentration (or lower solute concentration) to a region of its lower concentration (or higher solute concentration) through a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis. ‘Semégermeable membrane watkr Fig. 8 : Process of osmosis Ina cell, the movement of water across the plasma membrane is affected by the concentration ofthe extemal solution i¢., the amount of solute present in the external solution, Therefore, when a cell, either plant cell ‘or animal cell is placed in a solution with a different solute concentration than the cell then, the water tends to move either IN or OUT of the cell by the process of osmosis,Depending upon the concentration of solute or solvent inside the cell (cytoplasm) and the concentration of solvent or solute of external solution, the external solution may be () Hypotonic : Ifthe external solution has lower solute (or higher solvent) concentration than the cell, then it is called a hypotonic solution or in other words, the solution is said to be more dilute than the cytoplasm of the cell. Isotonie : Ifthe external solution has a similar solute or solvent concentration as the cell, then itis called an isotonic solution (ill) Hypertonic : Ifthe external solution has a higher solute (or lower solvent) concentration than the cell, then itis called a hypertonic solution or in other words, the solution is said to be more concentrated than the cytoplasm of the cell Let us study, what happens when a cell (plant and animal) is placed in a hypotonic, isotonic or hypertonic solution ()_ Hypotonic solution : In this case, the external medium surrounding the cell has a higher concentration of water than the cell and therefore, the cell gains water by osmosis. Hypotonic Solution Fig. 9 : Effect of hypotonic solution During osmosis, the water molecules (solvent) are free to cross the plasma membrane in both the directions. However, more water wil flow into the cell due to osmosis as compared to wirat lows out ofthe cell. This, process of entry of water into 2 cell through osmosis is called endosmosis. ‘When an animal cellis placed in a hypotonic solution, it swells up due to endosmosis and builds a pressure against the cell membrane. The swollen cell bursts under pressure, as the plasma membrane cannot withstand such a high pressure whereas, when a plant cel is placed in @ hypotonic solution, water moves inside the ‘cell due to osmosis and the cell swells up, building a pressure against the cell wall. But, the swollen plant cell does not burst as it consists of a rigid cell wall which can withstand high pressure. The cell wall exerts an ‘equal pressure against the swollen cell and prevents the plant cell from bursting. Thus, the net result is that the plant cell swells up, i.e. itbecomes turgid Hence, animal cells when placed in a hypotonic solution burst due to lack of cell wall, but plant cells, do not(ld) Isotonic solution : In this case, the external medium has the same concentvation of water as that of the cel, and thus, there is no net gain or oss of water from the call, This is because net movement of water is nil Isotonic Solution ‘animal ca esuce renee ‘totam NORMAL CELL ‘euman RBC} ase Fig. 10 : Effect of isotonic solution Though, the water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but the amount of water moving inside the cell is equal to the amount of water moving out and therefore, the size of the cell remains. the same. (ill) Hypertonic solution : In this case, the external medium has a lower concentration of water than the Cell and therefore, the cell will jose water to the surrounding medium by osmosis, Hypertonic Solution ‘CRENATED CELL "men aC) Plant coll Plant call ‘Cytoplasm Vacuole eee cytopl Col wat emerane PLASMOLYSED CELL eons 11: Effect of hypertonic solution The net result is that the cell shrinks. The process of withdrawal of water from a cell through osmosis, is called exosmosis. In this condition, plant coll is said to be plasmolysed and animal cal is said to be crenated (wrinkled appearance).Plasmolysis : When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there is shrinkage or contraction ‘of the protoplasm away from the cell wall. This phenamencn is called plasmolysis. Plant cells possess € rigid cell wall and therefore, when the cell loses water, the plasma membrane shrinks and moves away {rom the cell wall, I plasmolysed cell is again kept in'a hypotonic solution, it will again gain water due to endosmosis and would become turgid. This process is called deplasmolysis. Soaca between cl ‘alae poops Hypertonic sluton, same 2s resent outsie the ell 8 Fig. 12 : Plasmoiysis. A @ turgid or rormal plant cell; B-O - successive stages in the shrinkage of cell content (protoplasm) from the cell wall ‘Animal cells tke RBCS burst and haemolyse when placed in @ hypotonic solution. They shrink and show crenation when placed in a hypertonic solution. Their size remains normal when placed in an isotonic solution like Ringer's solution. [load + Fongorsslubon Sood War re Le] Fig. 13 : Slide showing normal RBCs (A), swollen and haemolysed RBCs (8) ‘and shrunken or crenated RBCs (C) Applications : i) Unicellular fresh water organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis. Absorption of water by plant roots occurs by osmosis. (ii) Exchange of gases in plants and animals occurs through diffusion, {w) WBCs in our body phagocytose the foreign bodies,‘The fexibilty of the cell membrane enables the cell {o engulf in food and other materials from its external environment, Such processes are known as endocytosis. Amoeba acquires its food through such processes. CELL WALL Cell walls @ rigid (semi-lastic), supportive, protective and fully permeable covering present outside the plasma membrane in plant cells, fungi, bacteria except Mycoplasma, and in some protists. Plant cell wal is mainiy made up of cellulose, but in fungi, cell wall is made up of chitin (fungal cellulose) and in bacteria, cell wall is mado up of peptidoglycan (Murein). Celuise is a complax substance (fibrous polysaccharide) which provides structural strength to plants. It is the most abundant organic molecule found on earth but it is not digested by human beings and several other animals. Funetions of Coll Wall (0. Itprovides mechanical strength and suppor tothe cell {i) tis freely permeable to water and substances in the solution. (i) Htprotects the cell against pathogens and mechanical injury (¥) Cell wall permits the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to survive in very dite (hypotonic) extemal media without bursting NUCLEUS: It is a dense protoplasmic body which is described as the "control room or brain of the cell’, as it directs and controls all the cellular activites. it was discovered by Robert Brown. The shape and size of the nucleus varies considerably indifferent types of cells. It may be spherical, rounded, cylindrical, oval et. It isthe largest coll structure which occupies @ central position in animal and young plant cells. Later, in mature plant cells, the nucleus is pushed to penpheral position due to the development of a large central vacuole. The nucleus is covered by two membranes called nuclear membranes, which form the nuclear envelope. The two nuclear membranes enclose a space between them and are connected to a system of membranes, the endoplasmic reticulum, The nuclear membrane has pores which allow the movement of material between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. These pores are called nuclear pores. Structure ofanucieus Connections of nuciear envelope with endoplasmic reticulum Fig. 14 : Nucieus Nucleoplasm (Nuclear sap) is a transparent, semisluid and colloidal substance, which fils the nucleus. It contains two major nuclear structures — nucleolus and chromatin materialNucleolus is not bounded by any membrane and may be one or more in number. is rich in protein and. RNA and is the site of ribosome formation. Hence, itis also known as ribosome factory. Chromatin material : in a non-dividing cell, the DNA is present as part of an entangled mass of thread-lke structures called chromatin material. The chromatin fibres comprise of DNA and histone proteins, Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organised or condensed into chromosomes. Chromosome : Chromosomes are rod like structures visible only during cell division. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from parents to the offsprings in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) ‘molecules. DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing ‘and organising cells. The chromosomes consist of two arms (two similar threads) called chromatids. These chromatids are held together by a small constriction, called centromere or primary constriction. The chromosomes contain genes which are defined as the functional unit of DNA or chromosome. They contain information necessary for synthesizing proteins which help to control different cellular activities. Genes are located at a specific position (locus) on the chromosome. Chromats Centomere Sistér chromatids Fig. 15: Achromosome Chromosome number The chromosome number varies from one species to another bul, is fixed for each species. In most organisms, chromosomes occur in pait. In each pair, one chromosome is inherited from the father while the other is inherited from the mother, The organisms with two set of chromosomes are called diploid (2n) organisms e.g., humans containing 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes. Only a single set of chromosomes is present in the gametes of diploid organisms. This condition is known as haploid (n) condition ‘A Genome is the complete set of genetic information in an organism Functions (The nuclous pays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single coll divides and forms new cells (i) Nucleus contains genetic information which controls and helps in synthesis of proteins thereby, helping to control all the cellular activities (ii) It contains genes, which are transferred (inherited) from the parents to their offsprings during reproduction. (¥) The nucleolus present in the nucleus helps in the synthesis of ribosomes and RNA molecules, ( It controls al the metabolic activities of the cell by controlling the synthesis of enzymes required during metabolic reactions. ‘TYPES OF CELL Based on the structural differences, cells are of two types : Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell, Prokaryotic Cells (Pro = primitive or primary; Karyon = nucleus) Cells which do not have a well defined nucleus are called prokaryotic cells. The nuclear region in these cells Js not bound by a nuclear membrane, Instead, the genetic material (circular ONA) is localized in a region of cytoplasm, called the nucleoid. The membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondria, golgi apparatus, ER etc.) are also absent in them. The only organelle present in them is ribosome (70S type). In photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria, chlorophyll is found associated with membranous vesicies (bag like structure)[7] [ne rosonenr unr ature era en] Example - Bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) ote Fig. 16 ; Bacterial cell Eukaryotic Cells (Eu = True or Well Developed, Karyon = Nucleus) Eukaryotic cells are the cells which have a welldefined nucleus i, its nuclear region is surrounded by a nuclear membrane. These cells contain membrane-bound cyloplasmic organelles. Differences between Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell foe Eine Eukaryotic cells include plant cel! and animal cel CYTOPLASM ‘The jelly-ike, semiluid part of the protoplasm which occurs between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope is called cytoplasm. Cytoplasm has two parts, cytosol and cell organelles, Cytosol is the Mid part of the cytoplasm, It is viscous, nearly homogeneous and crystallocolloidal liquid that contains a number of substances such as water, ions, enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins etc. Cell organelles are submicroscopic structures which are embedded in the cytosol and specialised to perform ‘specific cellular functions. The eukaryotic calls perform several metabolic activities to support their complicated structures and functions, so the membrane-bound organelles are present in eukaryotic cells but are absent in prokaryotic cells.(CBSE & Olympiads (Level) ‘The Fundamental Unit of Lie 6 A plant cell becomes turgid due to (1) Plasmolysis: (2) Exosmosis. (3) Endosmosis (4) Electroysis 7. Which of the following compounds forms an integral component of cell wall in bacteria? (1) Caltuose @) chitin (@) Calcium pectate (4) Peptidoglyean 8, Which ofthe following is called as “bain of the cel"? (1) Nucleus (2) Mitochondria (@) Ribosomes (@) Plasma membrane 9. The chromatin material is made up of (1) DNA (2) DNA + histone proteins (@) RNA (8) RNA + histone proteins (i2)6 (We ()2 (0) suv] CELL ORGANELLES Each and every cell is bounded by a membrane, which keeps its internal contents separate from the external environment. Mutticelular organisms need a lot of chemical activities to support their complicated structure ‘and function. To keep the different activities separate from each other, cells have developed membrane bound organelles within themselves. Cell organelles are embedded in the cytosol. On the basis of number of membranous covering, cell organelle are of three types () Double membrane bound (nucleus, mitochondria and plastids) (i) Single membrane bound (endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles). (ii) Membranetess organelles (ribosomes and centrosome), Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) ER was discovered by Porter. Its a large network of single membrane bound tubules and sheets present in the cytoplasm, The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane, When observed under ‘a microscope, it appears in three forms ~ tubules, cisternae and vesicles. One end of ER is connected to the outer membrane of the nucleus and other end is connected to the plasma membrane, ER is absent in prokaryotes and in mature mammalian erythrocytes (RBC). 17: Various parts of ER Types of ER : Depending upon the presence or absence of ribosomes, ER is of two types ~ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) ‘Corporate Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deli-110005, Ph.011-47623456(i) RER : ER with ribosomes attached on its surface for synthesizing proteins is called RER. It is present in all active cols. The RER appears rough under the microscope due to the presence of ribosomes on its surface, The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell depending upon the requirement. SER : ER which does not contain ribosomes on its surface is called SER. It helps in the synthesis of fats or lipids, glycogen etc. SER appears smooth under the microscope due to the absence of ribosomes on its surface. It is often peripheral. it may develop from RER and may be connected with, plasma membrane Functions (ER serves as channels for the transport of materials (proteins) between various regions of the cytoplasm. (i) ER functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing surface for some of the biochemical activities of the cell (ii) RER is concerned with the synthesis and transport of proteins in the cell (W) SER is involved in the process of detoxification of many poisons and drugs in Iver cells of vertebrates. (SER plays an important role in the biosynthesis of cholesterol (lipid). (W) SER synthesizes steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol. (ui) Lipids from SER and some proteins from RER help in building the cell membrane, This process is known as membrane biogenesis Golgi Apparatus ‘The Golgi apparatus was first described by Camillo Golgi. It consists of a set of membrane-bound, fuid filed vesicles, tubules and flattened cisternae, which are arranged parallel to each other in stacks. These ‘membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER. They are speciaized to modify, package and secrete complex biomolecules. It is found in all eukaryotic cells except in mature mammalian RBCs. In plant cells, go'gi apparatus is simpler and present as single units called dictyosomes. Normally, the apparatus receives vesicles from the ER and other cell components on its formative or convex or cis face for ‘modification and packaging of their contents. They are then dispatched to intracellular and extracellular targets through vesicles developed on the sides and the maturing or concave or trans face of the apparatus 2° [fo See Forming face Fig, 18 : Golgi ApparatusFunctions (i) Its functions involve storage, modification and packaging of the products in vesicles coming trom ER. “Tho material synthesised in the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets in the form of vasiclos inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. So, its chiefly secretory in function, (i) ILis also involved in the formation of lysosomes, cell wall and plasma membrane. (ii) It plays an important role in the formation of acrosome of the sperm. Lysosomes (\ysis-digestive, soma-body) (digestive bags) Lysosomes were discovered by Christian de Duve. They are simple, tiny, spherical, single membrane-bound ssacs filed with digestive enzymes (called lysozymes) for intracellular digestion and waste disposal. These enzymes (hydrolytic enzymes) are capable of digesting or breaking down most of the organic materials. Lysosomal enzymes are made by RER, They are found in all animal cells except mammalian RBCs. Functions : () Lysosomes help in disposal of wastes from the cell. (i) They help in keeping the call clean by digesting foreign materials as well as worn-out cell organelles. ‘Therefore, they are also known as cellular scavengers or demolition squads. (li) Pathogens which enter the call such as bactena or viruses are also destroyed by the lysosomes. (W) During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, like when a cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and release hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases) to digest their awn cellular contents. Because of their ablity to kill and digest their own cellular components, lysosomes are also called suicidal bags of the cell (During metamorphosis, the larval organs are digested by lysosomes to provide raw materials for formation (of the adult organs Mitochondria Mitochondria were discovered by Kolliker and named by Benda. They are tiny bodies of varying shapes distributed in the cytoplasm, Each mitochondrion is bounded by a double membrane envelope. The outer ‘membrane is porous and the inner membrane is deeply folded into eristae which are studded with small rounded bodies known as oxysomes, also called Fy-F, particles, These oxysomes contain metabolic enzymes which are required for ATP synthesis. Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix of mitochondria, The folds of the inner membrane (cristae) create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions. Mitochondria have their own circular DNA and 70S type ribosomes which help to make some of their own proteins. Hence, they are regarded as semiautonomous organelles. These are considered to be strange organelles as they possess their own DNA and ribosomes. Mature mammalian RBCs are devoid of mitochondria. Mitochondria are absent in prokaryotes and anaerobic eukaryotes.nee ero er coenber Fig. 19 : A longitudinally cut mitochondrion showing its internal structure Functions : Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration. During respiration, oxidation of food releases. ‘energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). It is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work. Since the mitochondria synthesize energy rich molecules ie., ATP, they are known as the power house of the cell Plastids The term plastid was introduced by E. Haeckel in 1866. Plastids are present in plant cells and in some protists. They are specialized to synthesise and store organic substances, Like mitochondria, plastids are also double membraned cell organelles. Fig. 20 : A chloroplast ‘Types of plastids : On the basis of pigments present in them, plastids are of three types () Chromoplasts : These are coloured plastids (other than green). They occur in lowers, fruits and roots eg, carrot. They contain coloured pigments called carotenoids, including carotene and xanthophylls, which provide yellow, orange and red colour to the flowers and fruits to attract animals for pollination. (ii) Leucoplasts : These are colourless plastids. They are of three types depending upon the type of storage product ~ amyloplasts (store starch), aleuroplastsiproteinoplasts (store protein) and elaioplasts (store cil) (iil) Chloroplasts : These are green coloured plastids. They contain photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll. It provides green colour to the plants and helps in photosynthesis, The intemal organisation of chloroplast consists of numerous grana (singular : granum) embedded in matrix called stroma, Each granum consists of stack of membrane bounded, flattened sacs called thylakoids. Chloroplasts also contain their own circular DNA and 70S type ribosomes. So, they can also make some of their own proteins and hence are semi-autonomous in nature.Functions : (| Chromoplasts provide colour to fruits and flowers to attract animals for pollination and fruit dispersal (i) Leucoplasts take part in storage of protein, starch and oil (ii) Chloroplasts trap solar energy to manufacture food through the process of photosynthesis. Hence, Chioroplasts are also known as ‘kitchen of the cell” (W) Chloroplasts help to maintain the balance between the two gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) by utiizing CO, and releasing ©, during photosynthesis. Vacuoles Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs for storage of solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells and large sized in plant cells. The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume due to which nucleus and other cell organelles are pushed to the sides, Types of vacuoles : Depending upon the function, they are of various types. (i) Sap vacuoles : These are the most common type of vacuoles. They contain cell sap. The sap vacuoles are bound by a membrane called tonoplast. These vacuoles store amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins. They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cells and are also required for absorption of water. (i) Contractile vacuoles : These help in osmoregulation, .e., maintenance of water and salt balance in Unicellular organisms like Paramoocium and Amoeba. (iil) Food vacuoles : These are found in some unicellular organisms like Amoeba and other protozoans. ‘These vacuoles contain food particles ingested by the process of phagocytosis. They also contain digestive ‘enzymes which digest the complex food particles into smal, simpler particles. (iv) Gas vacuoles : These occur in some prokaryotes. They contain metabolic gases which help in maintaining buoyancy of the cell. They are not surrounded by any membrane. Functions (0) Help in osmoreguiation and excretion. (i) Help in storage of a number of substances ike salts, sugar, amino acids, organic acids and some proteins. (Gi) They function as dump house of waste products in plant cells. (v) Provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cells. () Maintain osmotic concentration of cytoplasm requiced for absorption of water in plant cells. ‘Animal Cell and Plant Celt Differences between Animal coll and Plant coll Animal cell Plant cellparatus Plasma 0. membrane Smooth Contriole ‘endoplasmic roticulum tial Aysosome Nuciear Ribosomes envelope ZEOY— nitochondrion y Rough endoplasmic . reticulum lucevs Gytoplasm Fig. 21 : Animal cell Rough endoplasmic ‘Sobeulun endopiasmr "obeutarn Golgi apparatus Nuclear envelope Plasma mremorane djacent calla cola wotasm | © \ sitoctondrion bd Ribosomes Chlerosast Fig. 22 : Plant cell CELL DIVISION [New cells formed in organisms in order to grow, to replace old, dead and injured cells, and to form gametes required for reproduction. The process by which new cells are made is called cell division, There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for growth is called mitosis. In this process, each call called mother cell divides to form two identical daughter calls. The daughter calls have the same ‘number of chromosomes as mother cell. It helps in growth and repair of tissues in organisms, a) @= ~@ @a-g Fig. 23 : Mitosis Fig. 24 : Meiosis Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals and plants divide to form gametes, which after fertilisation give rise to offspring. They divide by a different process called meiosis which involves two ‘consecutive divisions. When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead of just two. The new cells only have haif the number of chromosomes than that of the mother cells.