DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

TECHNICAL DRAWING
OMAGWA M I

COURSE SYLLABUS
Course Objectives
At the end of the course the student should be able to:
1. Identify the use of drawing equipment;
2. Draw common objects using standardized rules;
3. Represent given data on graph.
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction to engineering drawing:
 Drawing
 Classification of drawings
2. Drawing equipment and drawing materials
 Drawing board, T-square, set –square, instrument box, scales, pencil and sand paper block, protractor, clinograph,
rubber or eraser, erasing shield, drawing pins or cello-tape, irregular or French curves, duster or handkerchief,
drawing ink, tracing paper and tracing cloth, drawing paper, sketch book.
3. lettering and conventions
 requirements of good lettering , general proportions of lettering, , spacing of letters, sizes of letters, uniformity in
lettering, classification of lettering, convention for lines, uses of various lines, conventions for various lines,
conventions for various materials, conventional breaks
4. Drawing sheet layouts
 Border or margin lines, title block, numbering of sheets, fixing the drawing sheet on the board
5. Rules for dimensioning and scales
 Notation of dimensioning, types of dimensioning, system of placing dimensions, unit of dimensioning, general
rules of dimensioning, scales uses of scales, sizes of scales units of measurement, scale factor, scales on drawing,
classification of scales, points to note while drawing scale.
6. Geometrical constructions
 Terms used in geometrical construction: point, line, straight line, curved line, compound line, parallel straight
lines, angle, triangle, quadrilateral, polygon, circle, drawing lines, bisecting lines, perpendicular to lines, dividing
lines into parts, drawing scales, drawing diagonal scales, finding centre of arcs and circles, constructing angles,
construction of ellipse, hyperbola and parabola.

7. Orthographic projections.
 First and third angles, projection of points and lines
8. Pictorial drawing.
Introduction, isometric drawing, constructing isometric curves, the 4-arcs method of drawing isometric circles,
estimated one point and two point perspective drawing
9. Free hand drawing,
 Uses of sketching in engineering, sketching materials, sketching small circles, sketching arcs, sketching ellipse,
orthographic sketches, and isometric sketches.

REFERENCES
1). Theory and practice of drawing for engineers by A.W. Barnes and A.W. Tilbrook.
2). Technical drawing 3: Building drawing by S.C..O.A. Wzeji and G.I. NWOKE., 1997
3). Technical drawing, by A. Yarhood, 2005
4) Graded exercises in Technical Drawing by S. Bland.
5). Civil Engineering drawing, 2nd Edition by D.V. Jude.
6). Engineering Drawing by R.k. Dhawan, 2005
7) BS 308: Engineering drawing practice.
8). BS 1192: Drawing office practice for architects and builders
9). BS 3429; Specifications for sizes of drawing sheets

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(I) Introduction to Engineering Drawing
 Engineering drawing is a way of communication using the language of
systematic lines
 An Engineer must have knowledge of this language to project his ideas
correctly on paper and then execute the job efficiently and effectively with
the help of the drawing.
 Engineering depends mainly upon Engineering drawing, hence need for
Engineers to acquire a good working knowledge about the subject in order to
express and record the shape, size and other information necessary for the
construction of various objects such as buildings, roads, bridges, machines
etc.
Drawing
 The art of representation of an object by systematic lines on a paper is called
drawing.

Classification of Drawings
1. Artistic drawing (free hand or model drawing)
2. Engineering drawing (buildings, roads, bridges dams etc)

Why Learn Engineering Drawing

1. Engineering drawing is a universal language. Many people can
understand drawings and other forms of graphics more easily and
quickly than they can understand words.
2. Engineering drawings are the means by which those working in
industries such as Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering,
Architecture, Electrical Engineering etc. Communicate their ideas of
the shape, form and dimensions of the articles being made.
3. Encourages tidy and accurate methods of presenting those ideas in the
form of drawings.
4. Allows Engineers to think in three-dimensions: height, width and
depth of objects being drawn.
5. It is an important design tool for communicating ideas between people
working on any project.

(II) Drawing Instruments and other drawing materials.

1. Drawing Board
 It is made of a well seasoned soft wood.

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Uses of Drawing board
a) The flat surface of the board is used to hold the drawing paper while the
drawing is being made.
b) The ebony edge of the board is used as a guide for the stock of the T-Square

Precautions taken in handling drawing board

1. Handle the drawing board carefully so that the top flat surface of the
board should not be damaged.
2. The ebony working edge of the board must be straight against which
the stock of T-Square moves.

2. T-Square
 It is made of hard quality wood such as mahogany, or plastic.
 There are two essential parts of T-Square namely, the stock and the
blade
 The blade is fitted with an ebony or plastic piece to form working
edge of T-Square.
 The working length of T-squire is equal to the length of drawing
board.

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Uses of T-Square
a) Drawing Horizontal lines
b) As a base for drawing various angles with the help of set squares.

 While drawing horizontal lines, the pencil should be slightly

inclined towards the edge of the T-square form left to right.

Precautions taken while handling T-Square

1. Should be placed in such a way on the drawing board that it may not drop
on the floor, otherwise it will not draw true parallel lines.
2. Clean the blade with moist cloth to remove pencil graphite lead.
3. Should be hung on a nail against the wall or table when it is not being used.
4. Do not draw horizontal lines with the lower edge of the T-square.
5. Do not use the T-square as a hammer.
6. Do not use the edge of the T-square as a guide for cutting the paper with a
knife.
7.

Testing T-square
i. Check all screw heads and tighten, if necessary.

3. Set Squares
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There are two types of set-squares.
a) The 300 – 600 set square
b) The 450 – set square.

Uses of Set Squares

a) Used to draw all straight lines except the horizontal lines which are usually
drawn with T-square.
b) The perpendicular lines or lines at 300, 600 and 900 to the horizontal can be
drawn using set-squares.
c) The perpendicular lines or the lines inclined at 450 and 900 to the horizontal
can be drawn using set-square.
d) Angles of 150, 750 and 1050 can be drawn.

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4. Instrument Box
The instrument box contains the following:-
1. Large size compass with inter-changeable pencil and pen legs.
2. Large size divider.
3. Small bow compass
4. Small ink bow compass
5. Small bow divider
6. Lengthening bar (large)
7. Pin pint
8. Ink point
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 9. Small lengthening bar.
10.ruling pen or liner
11.Holder
12.lead case

 The compass is used for drawing circles and arcs of circles of required sizes.
 The divider is used for dividing straight or curved lines in desired number of
equal parts, it is used to transfer dimensions form one part to another part of
the drawing, it is also used to set-off given distances from the scale to the
drawing.
 Ink bow compass – is used to draw circles in ink

5. Ruler
This is s a measuring scale with different divisions.

6. Ruling Pen or line

Used in drawing straight lines in ink

7. Pencil
 Are used for preparing drawings on the papers.
 The accuracy and appearance of drawing depend upon the quality of the
pencil used.
 Pencils are of various grades easily recognized by the letters marked on
pencils.

Grade of Pencil Hardness

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9H Hardest
6H, 5H,4H Extremely Hard
3H Very hard
2H Hard
H Moderately hard
F Firm
HB Medium
B Moderately soft and black
2B Soft and black
3B Very soft and black
4B, 5B and 6B Very soft and very black
7B Softest

 Usually had pencils such as H, 2H are used for making the engineering
drawing, but fro the purpose of lettering, figures and sketching, soft pencils
such as HB or B are used.
 For complicated drawing harder pencils such as 4H, 5H and 6H grades
should be used.

8. Rubber of Eraser
 Used for erasing extra pencil lines.
 Frequent use of rubber should be avoided. Rubber crumbs should be swept
away with duster and should not be brushed off with hands.

9. Erasing Shield
 Used to protect adjacent liens on the drawing when some part of a line is
being erased

10. Drawing Pins, cello tape and clips

 Used for fixing the drawing paper on the drawing board.
 It is recommended to use cello tape in fixing the paper

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11. Irregular or French Curves
 Used for drawing smooth curved lines or circular arcs between various
points.

Fig. 1.41
12. Duster or Handkerchief
 Used for cleaning drawing instruments and other drawing materials.

13. Drawing Ink

 Used for preparing drawings in ink on tracing paper or tracing cloth.

14. PROTRACTORS
 Used for measuring or constructing angles, which can not be obtained with
the set-squares.
 They can be flat, circular and semi-circular.

15. Drawing paper or Drawing sheet

 The quality of paper to be used for a drawing depends upon the nature of the
drawing.
 Drawing paper should be of uniform thickness and high quality.
 One of the sides of the drawing paper is usually rough and the other one
smooth. The smooth surface is the proper side for drawing work.
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  The ISO
specifies and
‘A’ size
series of
drawing
sheets for
engineering
drawing.
 Fig. 1.42
shows the
basic AO
sheet, the
area of which
is 1M2.
 Other size
sheets are:-
A, A2, A3, A4 and A5
 All A size sheets have their edge lengths in the same proportion ration of
short side: long side = 1:√2

A0 = 841mm x 1189mm = 1 square metre

A1 = 841mm x 594mm
A2 = 594mm x 420mm
A3 = 420mm x 297mm
A4 = 297mm x 210mm
A5 = 210mm x 148mm

 Commonly used sizes for learning purposes are A2, A3 and A4

2. DRAWING SHEET LAYOUT

 The drawing sheets can be either in upright position which is known as

portrait or in horizontal position known as landscape.

Border or margin lines: these are lines that surround the drawing.
 For A4 size these should be 10mm
 For A3 size these should be 15mm

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The idea of a margin is so that the outer edges of the drawing area are protected if
the sheet edges become damaged- atleast the drawing area may not be affected.

For learning purpose the following layout will be adopted for A3 and A2 drawing
sheets.

Fig.2.1.

Title block
 The title block is an important feature in drawing because it gives all the
information of the prepared drawing.
 It is provided at the right hand bottom corner of the sheet.
 The recommended size of the title block is 185mm by 65mm for all
designations of drawing sheets.
All the title blocks should contain atleast the following information
1. title of the drawing
2. drawing number
3. scale
4. symbols denoting method of projection
5. name of the firm
6. initials with dates, staff who designed, drawn, checked standards and
approving authority
Details of the title block for engineering students

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 Fig 2.2.

3. LETTERING AND CONVENTIONS

 The art of writing the alphabets A,B,C,…Z and numbers such as 1,2,3,…0 is
known as lettering
3.1 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD LETTERING
In engineering drawing good lettering must fulfill the following purposes:
1. The knowledge of shape and proportion of each letter.
2. The knowledge of the order and direction of the strokes used in
making letters.
3. The knowledge of general composition of letters.
4. The knowledge of the rules for combining lettering into words.
5. the knowledge of writing letters in plain and simple styles so that
the lettering can be done freehand and speedy
3.2. GENERAL PROPORTIONS OF LETTERING.
 This is the relationship between the height, width and spacing of each letter.
The following are the important proportions of lettering:
i) Normal lettering
ii) Condensed lettering
iii) Extended lettering.
Normal lettering: The normal lettering has normal height and width. They are
used for general purposes.
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Condensed lettering: These are those which are written in the narrow space. They
are used when the space is limited.
Extended lettering: The extended lettering are those which are wider than the
normal letters but of the same height

Fig. 3.1
3.4. Spacing letters.
 This is the space between two adjacent letters in all types of letters. Spacing
should be uniform throughout and should be judged by observation and not by
measurement.
 The reasonable ratio of 1:4 between space and adjacent letters is generally
followed in double stroke lettering. This means that 1 square is to be left after
covering 4 squares leaving few letters such as L, W, A and Y alphabets i.e. in
the word “RAILWAY”

Fig.3.2

3.5. SIZE OF LETTERS

 In engineering the size of letters means the height of the letters.
Sizes of alphabets for drawing
Table.3.1

3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERING

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 1. Gothic lettering
2. Freehand lettering.
Gothic lettering: The lettering in which all the alphabets are of uniform width or
thickness. They are classified into two groups: vertical or upright gothic lettering
inclined or inclined gothic lettering. These groups can be
i) single stroke vertical gothic lettering
ii) double stroke vertical gothic lettering
iii) lower case vertical gothic lettering
iv) single stroke italic gothic lettering
v) double stroke italic gothic lettering
vi) lower case italic gothic lettering

a) Vertical or upright gothic lettering

This is lettering in which the direction of alphabets is vertically upwards. The
figure below shows the method of writing vertical or upright gothic lettering.

Fig. 3.3
i) single stroke vertical gothic lettering
This is lettering in which the alphabets are of the same thickness.
Figure 3.4 shows the single stroke vertical gothic lettering and numbers in the ratio
of 7:4 and 6:5 drawn with the help of instruments

Fig. 3.4

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 ii) double stroke vertical gothic lettering
This is lettering in which the alphabets are written by double stroke of the pencil or
pen with a uniform spacing in between the strokes.
Figure 3.5 shows the double stroke vertical gothic lettering and numbers in the
ratio of 7:4 drawn with the help of instruments

Fig. 3.5
iii) lower case vertical gothic lettering
This is lettering in which the alphabets are of small letters. This type of lettering is
usually used in maps, architectural drawings and Engineering drawings.
Figure 3.6 shows lower case gothic lettering in which the drawing of the alphabets
along with the various new terms such as cap line, drop line, base line, ascender
space and descender space

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 Fig. 3.6

b) Inclined or italic Gothic lettering

This is the lettering in which the direction of alphabets is inclined to the horizontal
line. An inclination of about 75o is recommended from the right towards the left.

Fig. 3.7
i) Single stroke italic gothic lettering.
This type of lettering is drawn by taking the recommended inclination in the same
way as the single stroke gothic lettering

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 Fig. 3.8
ii) Double stroke italic gothic lettering.
This type of lettering is drawn by taking the recommended inclination in the same
way as the double stroke gothic lettering

Fig. 3.9

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3.7 FREEHAND LETTERING
This is art of writing the alphabets without the use of drawing instruments. Free
hand lettering is of the following types:
a) vertical or upright freehand gothic lettering
i) single stroke vertical freehand gothic lettering
ii) lower case vertical freehand gothic lettering
b) Inclined or italic freehand gothic lettering
i) Single stroke italic freehand gothic lettering
ii) lower case italic freehand gothic lettering
Vertical or upright freehand gothic lettering
This is the lettering which is written in a vertical upward direction without
the use of drawing instruments
Single stroke vertical freehand gothic lettering
This is the lettering in which the alphabets are written vertically with a single
stroke of a pencil or pen without the help of drawing instruments.

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 Fig 3.10

Lower case vertical freehand gothic lettering.

This is the lettering in which the vertical small size alphabets are written freehand.

Fig. 3.11

Inclined or italic freehand gothic lettering

This is the lettering which is written with some inclination to the horizontal line
without the use of drawing instruments. An inclination of 75o from right towards
the left is recommended.

Single stroke italic freehand gothic lettering.

This is the lettering in which the alphabets are written inclined with a single stroke
of pencil or pen without the help of drawing instruments

Fig. 3.12

Lower case italic freehand gothic lettering

This is the lettering in which the italic small size alphabets are written freehand.

Fig. 3.13

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3.8. Mechanical lettering devices
They are used for producing the letters and numbers perfectly and quickly. The
most commonly used devices are:
Lettering guide: the lettering guide consists of plastic stencil contains outlines of
letters and numbers. The guides are available with letters of various heights. The
letters and numbers are written by placing the lettering guide over the portion of
paper on which the lettering is to be done and trace the outline with a pencil.
Lettering instrument: it consists of a template or guide with grooved letters and
numbers.
Pencils for lettering: It is recommended that HB and H grade pencils sharpened to
a conical point should be used for lettering.
FOR PRACTICE
Write freehand in a single stroke of letters vertical and inclined, using the
following ratio 7:5 the following statement:
a) Drawing is the graphic language of Engineers
b) Laboratory is a temple where search for truth is made

Assignment 1

1. Write vertical gothic lettering upper case, lower case and numbers 0 to 9.
Height of letters should be taken as 15mm.
2. Write italic lettering upper case, lower case and numbers 0 to 9 angle of
inclination taken from left to right take as 75o
Use A3 size of paper for each question. Height of letters should be taken as
15mm
3.2 CONVENTION FOR LINES
 It is essential for students to know the different types of lines since engineering
is systematic combination of lines. This makes it easier in interpreting
engineering drawing
3.21. Uses of various types of lines:
1. Visible outline or object line
 This is a thick line and is used to show the outer visible feature of the object in
a drawing.
2. Section line or Hatching line:
 It is a thin continuous line and is used for the purpose of sectioning an object
3. Centre line
 Presented by long and short dashes, closely and evenly spaced in any drawing.
They are used to show the centre and the location of cylindrical, conical,
circular and spherical objects.
 Centre lines should not end at outline representing surfaces but should extend
approximately from 2 to 5mm beyond the outer lines of the object.
 Where centre lines cross, the short dashes should intersect symmetrically.
Incase of very small circles the dashes should be avoided while drawing centre
lines.

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4. Hidden line: is represented by short dashes, closely and evenly spaced. It is
used to show invisible or hidden parts of the drawing
5. Construction line:
 It is a thin continuous line and is used for constructing an object.
 These lines do not appear in finished drawings except in geometrical
drawings where these are not removed.
6. Dimension line.
 It is thin continuous line for giving dimensions.
 This line terminates arrow heads where the dimension lines meet the
extension lines.
7. Extension line
 It is a thin continuous line used for dimensioning an object
8. Projector line:
 It is a thin continuation of outlines and is used for drawing projector.
9. Cutting plane line
 The cutting plane line is represented by thick and long line at the ends with
thin long and short lines at the centre.
 It is used to show the edge of the cutting plane.
10. Short break line:
 Is represented by thin freehand
 Used to show the break of an object for a short length. Saves time and
drawing details are interact.
11. Long break line.
 The long break line is represented by thin ruled line provided with freehand
zig –zags at suitable intervals
 Used to show a break for considerable length of the object.

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3.3.CONVENTIONS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
 In engineering practice, there are different types of materials used for
manufacturing various parts of a machine. The conventions of materials save
time and labour for drawing work. Conventions for various materials are shown
in the table below.

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4 RULES FOR DIMENSIONING AND SCALES
Notation of dimensioning, types of dimensioning, system of placing
dimensions, unit of dimensioning, general rules of dimensioning, scales uses of
scales, sizes of scales units of measurement, scale factor, scales on drawing,
classification of scales, points to note while drawing scale

DIMENSIONING is the art of writing the various sizes or measurements on

the finished drawing of an object.
 Notations of dimensioning consists of:
 Dimension lines
 Extension lines
 Arrow heads
 Dimension figures, notes, and symbols.

4.1 DIMENSIONING

The art of writing the various sizes or measurements on the finished drawing of an
object is known as dimensioning.
Dimensioning expresses all the sizes and other information necessary to define the
object completely. It must be done with due regard to manufacturing processes
and inspection requirements. The dimensioning also includes expression of
tolerances necessary for the correct functioning of the part given to be assembled.

4.2 NOTATION OF DIMENSIONING.

The notation of dimensioning consists of dimension lines, extension lines, arrow

heads, dimension figures, notes, symbols, etc. These notations arte explained
below:-

1. Dimension Line: Dimension line is a thin continuous line used to indicate

the measurement which is shown by figure in a space above the dimension
line or a space left in the dimension line

Fig. 4.1

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 Extension Line: Extension line is also a thin continuous line extending
beyond the outline of the object. It should extend about 3 mm beyond the
dimension line (see Fig. 4.1)

2. Arrow Heads: Arrow heads are used to terminate dimension lines. This
touch the extension lines and indicates the extent of a dimension. The length
of the arrow-head is about three times its width. The space in the arrow-
heads should be filled in (see fig. 4.2). The size of the arrow-heads should
be proportionate to the thickness of the liens of the drawing (see fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.2

3. Dimension figure: A numeral that indicates the size of a particular

feature of an object is called dimension figure (see fig. 4.1)

4. Leader (pointer line): A leader is a thin continuous line drawn form note
of the figure to show where it applies. It is terminated by an arrow-head or a
dot (see fig. 4.4). The arrow-head touches the outline, whereas the dot is
placed within the outline of the object.

The leader if generally drawn at any convenient angle, usually 300, 450 and
600 but of not less than 300

5. Notes: A note on drawing gives complete information regarding specific

operation relating to a feature. It is generally placed outside a view and read
in such a way that the drawing is viewed form the bottom edge (see fig. 4.1)

6. Symbol: A symbol is the representation of any object by some mark on

the drawing. It is used to save time and labour of drawing work.

4.3THEORY OF DIMENSIONING

An object may be considered to be made up of a number of geometrical shapes

such as prism, cylinder, pyramid, cone, sphere, etc. it then becomes very simple to
dimension these geometric forms in manner that will show their individual sizes
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and location to each other. Thus the following two types of dimensions are
commonly used in engineering drawing:

1. Size dimensions
2. Location dimensions

1. Size dimensions: The dimensions which indicate the various sizes of the
object such as length, breadth, diameter, etc. are know as size dimensions.
The dimensions are represented by the letter ‘S’ as shown in fig. 4.5

Fig. 4.5
2. Location dimensions: The dimensions which locate the position of one
feature with respect to the other feature are known as location dimensions.
Distances between the centre lines of the holes form the edges of features
are given by location dimensions. These dimensions are marked by letter
‘L’ as shown in fig. 4.5
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4.4 SYSTEM OF PLACING DIMENSIONS

The following are the two recommended systems of placing dimension on a

finished drawing :

1. Aligned System
2. Unidirectional system

1. Aligned System: In this system, all dimensions are so placed that they may
be read from the bottom or the right hand edges of the drawing sheet [see
fig. 4.6]. Here all the dimensions are placed normal and above the
dimensions lines.

Aligned system of placing dimensions is commonly used in engineering

drawing.

Fig. 4.6
2. Unidirectional system: In the system, all dimensions are so placed that
they may be read from bottom edge of the drawing sheet [see fig.4.6]. Note,
there is no restriction on the controlling the direction of the dimension lines.

Unidirectional system or placing dimensions are used on large drawings as

of air-crafts, automobiles etc. where it is convenient to read dimensions form
right hand side.

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 Fig. 4.6

4.5UNIT OF DIMENSIONING

As far as possible, all dimensions should be given preferably in one unit only, i.e.
in millimeters. The symbol of unit “mm” can therefore be omitted while writing
each dimensions but a note is added in a prominent place near the title block that
“All dimensions are millimeters”.

The decimal point in a dimension should be in line with the middle of the figure.
When the dimension is less than unity it is recommended that zero should precede
the decimal point e.g. 0.72 and may be omitted when the decimal point is preceded
by a symbol

4.6GENERAL RULES FOR DIMENSIONING

The following general rules should be followed for dimensioning a drawing:-

1. All the dimensions necessary for the correct functioning of the part should
be expressed directly on the drawing.
2. Dimensions should be given on the view which shows the relevant features
most clearly.

3. Dimensions marked in one view need not be repeated in another view expect
reference purposes.

4. Dimensions should be placed outside the view, as for as possible (see fig.
4.7)

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 Fig. 4.7

5. Dimensions should be taken form visible outlines rather than from hidden
lines (see fig. 4.8)

Fig. 4.8
6. Dimensions should be given form a base line or centre line of a hole or an
important hole or a finished surface. Dimensioning to a centre line should
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 be avoided, except when the centre line passes through he centre of a hole
(see figs. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9

7. The crossing of dimension lines should be avoided, if possible.

8. Dimensions should never be crowded. If the space is insufficient, arrow-

heads may be replaced by dots (see fig. 4.10).

Fig. 4.10

9. As far as possible, dimensions should be given in one unit only, preferably

millimeters.

10.Circles of different sizes should be dimensioned as illustrated in fig. 4.11.

When the space for dimensioning is restricted, one of the methods should be
used.

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 Fig. 4.11
11.Arcs of circles should be dimensioned by their respective radii (see fig.
4.12). While dimensioning small radii, the arrow should be reversed as
shown in fig. 5-16. Radii of arcs, the centers of which need not be located,
should be dimensioned as shown in the fig.

Fig. 4.12
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12.Dimensions of angles, chords and arcs should be given as shown in fig 4.13

Fig. 4.13

13.Dimensions on a sectioned view should be given as shown in fig. 4.14. A

small portion around the figure should be left unsectioned.

Fig. 4.14
14.Avoid hatched area while giving dimensions to circles

15.Dimensions of parts which are not drawn to scale should be underlined.

However when it is required to draw the whole drawing not to scale, the
abbreviations ‘NTS’ may be used or the column of scale be scored off.

16.While dimensioning an object, the use of long leaders should be avoided

(see fig. 4.15).

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 Fig. 4.15

17.Dimensions in a series may be given on the views in any one of the

following arrangements:

(i) Chain Dimensioning: In this system, dimensions are arranged in a

straight line (see fig. 4.16). When overall dimensions are given, one of the smaller
or least important dimensions generally omitted.

(ii) Parallel dimensioning: In this arrangement, all the dimensions are

given from a common base line. The smaller dimensions are placed nearer the
view and the larger further away so that the extension lines do not cross
dimensions lines (see fig. 4.16)

Fig. 4.16
(iii) Combined dimensioning: Combined dimensioning is the result of
the simultaneous use of chain and parallel dimensioning.

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 Fig. 4.17
(iv) Progressive dimensioning: In this arrangement, one datum point or
surface is selected which reads as zero. All the dimensions are referred to that
point or surface (see fig. 4.17). If the reading at a certain point reads as 85, it
means that the total distance of that point form the datum point or surface is 85.

18. Dimensions of hole sizes should be given as shown in fig 4.18

Fig. 4.18

Bisecting lines

A line is bisected when it is divided exactly into two equal parts. To bisect a line
follow the example shown in Drawing 1 of Figure 4.19
1. Draw a horizontal line 105mm long. Its length can be measured with your
ruler.
2. Set a compass to about two-thirds of the length of the lien.
3. With the compass centred at A draw two pairs of arcs, above the line, and
below the line.
4. Without altering the compass draw another pair of arcs crossing the first pair
with the compass centred at B
5. C and D are the intersections of the arcs
6. Draw a line from C to D with either the edge of a set square or with a ruler.

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 Fig 4.19
Perpendiculars to lines

Two lines are perpendicular to each other if they are at a right angle (90 degrees)
with each other.
To draw a line perpendicular to a line form a point on the line

1. Draw the line AB 80mm long. Mark the point C 40mm above the line and
25mm from the left hand end.
2. Set a compass, centred at C, to suitable size so as to draw an arc which cuts
the line AB at E and F.
3. Re-set the compass and, with the compass centred at E, then at F draw the
crossing arcs G.
4. Draw a line CG. The line CD is perpendicular to AB

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 Fig 4.20
To draw a line perpendicular to a line form a point on the line

1. Draw the line HJ 70 mm long. Mark the point K 30 mm along HJ from J.

2. With a compass centred at K draw arcs across the line HJ to give the points
M and N.
3. Re-set the compass and, with the compass centred first at M, then at N draw
the crossing arcs L.
4. Draw the line KL. The line is perpendicular to line HJ.

Fig 4.21
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Dividing a line into parts

The method shown can be used either for dividing a line into parts of equal lengths
or into lines which are proportional in length to each other.

Dividing a line into parts of equal length

1. Drawing 1 (Figure 4.22) – Draw line AB 93 mm long with a Tee square.

2. Draw line AC from A at any angle to AB. The angle should be similar to
that shown in Figure4.22.
3. Set a compass to about 20 mm and with it, step off five equal spaces along
line AC – giving the points 1 to 5.
4. Set up a ruler with a set square along its edge, so that one edge of the set
square is along the line B5.
5. Hold the ruler firmly on the paper, slide the set square along the ruler until
its edge is at point 4 on line AC. Draw a line to touch the line AB. This line
is parallel to line B5.
6. Draw other parallels in the same way through points 1, 2 and 3 on AC.
7. AB is divided into 5 equal parts at the points where the parallel lines touch
AB.

Fig. 4.22
Dividing a line into proportional parts
1. Drawing 2 (Figure 4.23) – Draw line DE 147 mm long.
2. Draw line DF at any suitable angle.
3. Set a compass to about 20 mm and with t mark off the 7 equal spaces along
DF.
4. Draw line E7 as indicated in previous exercise.
5. Using the same method of drawing parallel lines as was used in Drawing 1,
draw a parallel to E7 through point 4 on line DF.
6. DG is now 4/7ths of DE.

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 Fig. 4.23
Constructing angles of 60 and 120 degrees.

1. Drawing 2 – Figure 4.24. Draw a line BC 50 mm long.

2. Set a compass to about 30 mm and with centre B draw an arc crossing BC at
D.
3. Without altering he compass and centred at D draw an arc crossing the first
arc at E.
4. Draw BF through the intersection of the two arcs.
5. The angle CBF is 60 degrees.

To bisect an angle

1. Drawing 4 – Figure 4.25. Draw an angle. Draw an arc PQ. Set compasses
to a sensible size and with the compass centred first at P, then at Q draw
crossing arcs at R.

2. Draw MS passing through R. The angles NMS and SMO are equal.

To construct a regular polygon, given one side of the polygon.

 Let the number of the sides of the polygon be six and each side be equal to
AB.
 Draw the given line AB. With A as centre and radius equal to AB, draw semi-
circle BL.
 Divide the semi-circle into six equal parts using a divider.
 Mark the divisions as 1,2,3, etc., starting from L and join A with second point
2.
 With O as centre and radius equal to OA, describe a circle.

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 With AB as radius and starting from B, cut the circle at points C, D, E and 2.
 Now draw lines BC, CD, DE and E2. Then ABCDE2 is the required hexagon
figure 4.26

To construct a regular pentagon, given the length of one side.

 Let AB be the given length of one side of a regular pentagon.
 Draw a line AB. Bisect it at K and draw KD perpendicular to it
 Cut off KM=AB. Join BM and extend it to N so that MN= half of AB
 With B as centre and radius equal to BN, draw an arc meeting KD in D
 With D as centre and radius equal to BN, draw an arc EC.
 With A and B as centers and having same radius cut the previous arcs at E and
C.
 Join BC, CD, DE and EA. ABCDE is the required pentagon figure 4.27

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To inscribe a circle in regular pentagon
 Let the regular pentagon be ABCDE
 Bisect any two angles by two lines thereby intersecting each other at O.
 Through O, draw a perpendicular to any one side of a pentagon, say on AB
so as to meet at M
 With O, as centre and radius equal to OM, draw the required circle.

To inscribe a circle in regular triangle

 Let the given triangle be ABC

 Bisect the angles CAB and CBA by AO and BO thereby intersecting each
other at O.
 From O, draw perpendicular OM to OB. With O as centre and radius equal
to OM, draw the required circle
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To inscribe as many equal circles as the figure sides each circle touches one
side of the polygon and two of the other sides (pentagon).
 Let the regular pentagon be ABCDE
 Bisect the angle A and B by AO and BO intersecting each other at O.
 Join C, D and E to O and in each and in each triangle inscribe the required
circle touching one side and the two other circles

To draw an arc of given radius touching two given straight lines at right
angles to each other
 Let OA and OB be the given lines and r be the given radius.
 With O as the centre and radius r draw arcs cutting OA at M and OB at N.
with the same radius and M and N as centers, draw arcs to intersect at P.
 With P as centre and of radius r draw the required arc MN figure 4.28.

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To draw an arc of given radius touching two given lines which subtend any
angle between them.
 Let OA and OB be the two given lines and r be the radius
 Draw two lines MN and PQ parallel to and at a distance r from OA and OB
thereby intersecting each other at C.
 With C as centre and radius r draw the required arc figure 4.30

CONIC SECTIONS
 ELLIPSE: This is section obtained when the section plane is inclined to the axis
of the cone and cuts all the generators on one side of the apex
 PARABOLA: The parabola is a plane curve generated by a point so moving
that its distance from fixed point (focus) is always equal to the distance from a
straight line (directrix). Among its practical applications are: search rights,
parabolic reflectors, some loud speakers, road sections and certain bridge arches
 HYPERBOLA: This section obtained when the section plane makes a smaller
angle with the axis than that of the angle made by the generator of a cone

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 Circle: The section obtained when the section plane passes parallel to the base
of a cone.
 The section obtained when the section plane passes through the apex of the
cone in such away that it is perpendicular to the base is called triangle

ELLIPSE CONSTRUCTION BY PARALLELOGRAM METHOD.

 This method can be used either with the major and minor diameters or with
any pair of conjugate diameters.
 On the given diameters construct a parallelogram.
 Divide AO into any number of equal parts and AG into the same number of
equal parts, numbering points from A.
 Through these points draw lines from D and E. Their intersections will be
points on the curve.

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FOUR ARCS METHOD OF DRAWING AN ELLIPSE
 Draw the 30 degrees lines which represent the square circumscribing the
circle. Lines AB, BC, CD and DA are all at 30 degrees and are of the same
length.
 Draw the diagonal AC.
 Draw BF and DE in which E is the centre point of AB and F is the center
point of CD.
 With G, the intersection of AC and BF, as centre, draw an arc of radius GF.
 Draw an arc of centre H and radius HE.
 With centre B and radius BF draw an arc
 With centre DB and radius DE draw an arc
 You have now drawn the 4 arcs to complete the construction

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PARABOLA CONSTRUCTION BY PARALLELOGRAM METHOD
 The dimensions of enclosing rectangle i.e. width and depth (span and rise) are
given.
 Divide OA and AB into the same number of equal parts.
 From the divisions on AB, draw lines converging at O
 From the divisions on OA, draw lines parallel to the axis. the intersections of
these with the lines from the corresponding divisions on AB will be the points
of the curve

PARABOLA CONSTRUCTION BY EQUIDISTANT METHOD

 Draw vertical line d1d2. This is directrix of the parabola.
 Draw the axis at right angles to the directrix. On the axis mark the point f (the
focus) in this example is 20mm from the directrix
 Mark V (the vertex) half-way between F and d2d2
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 Draw a number of lines parallel to the directrix at known distances (8mm apart)
 With a compass centered always at the focus and set to the distance each
parallel line from the directrix, strike arcs across each parallel line in turn. This
produces points 1 to 5.
 Draw affair curve through the points

HYPERBOLA CONSTRUCTION BY EQUIDISTANT METHOD

 Draw vertical line d1d2. This is directrix of the hyperbola.
 Draw the axis at right angles to the directrix. On the axis mark the point f (the
focus) in this example is 20mm from the directrix
 Mark V (the vertex) 5/9 of the distance from the focus to the directrix. This
makes the ratio Vf: d1d2=5:4 or an eccentricity of 1.25.
 Draw a number of lines parallel to the directrix at known distances (in the
example these are 8mm apart)
 With a compass centered always at the focus and set to 1.25 of the distance
each parallel line from the directrix, strike arcs across each of the parallel lines
in turn.
 This produces the points 1 to 4 both below and above the axis.
 Draw a smooth curve through the points to complete the hyperbola

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 SCALES

The proportion by which we either reduce or increase the actual size of the object
on a drawing is known as drawing to scale or simply scale.
The scale is actually a measuring stick, graduated with different divisions to
represent the corresponding actual distances according to some proportion, thus
giving rapidity in marking off distances on drawing. Numerically scales indicate
the relation between the dimensions on the drawing and actual dimensions of the
object.

The scales are either flat or triangular and the material used in their construction
may be wood, celluloid, metal, etc. in drawing, scale should not be selected
arbitrarily, but standard recommended scales should be adopted as far as possible.

USES OF SCALE

The following are the main uses of scale in engineering practice:-

1. The scales are used to prepare reduced or enlarged size drawings.

2. The scales are used to set off dimensions.
3. The scales are used to measure distances directly.

SIZES OF SCALE
The following are the sizes of scale which are used in engineering practice:-

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 1. Full size scale
2. Reducing scale
3. Enlarging scale

1. Full Size Scale: The scale in which the actual measurements of the object
are drawn to same size on the drawing is known as full size scale. It is written on
the stick as under:

1.1 - drawing made to actual size.

2. Reducing Scale: The scale in which the actual measurements of the object
are reduced to some proportion is known as reducing scale. The standard reducing
proportion are:

1:2 - drawing made to one-half of the actual size

1:5 - drawing made to one-fifth of the actual size

1:10 - drawing made to one-tenth of the actual size

1:20 - drawing made to one-twentieth of the actual size

1:50 - drawing made to one-fiftieth of the actual size

1:100 - drawing made to one-hundreth of the actual size

3. Enlarging Scale: The scale in which the actual measurements of the object
are increased in some proportion is known as enlarging scale. The standard
proportion are:

2:1 - drawing made to twice the actual size

5:1 - drawing made to five times the actual size

10:1 - drawing made to ten times the actual size

6.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The Indian Standard Institution has introduced the metric system of measurements
in place of British measures for its practical convenience and other reasons. As in
this system of measurements, every successive unit is ten time the proceding one.
The following are the basic units of measurements along with their symbols.

METRICT MEASURES

(I) Linear Measures

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 10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
10 centimetres (cm) = 1 decimetre (dm)
10 decimetres (dm) = 1 metre (m)
10 metres (m) = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametres (dam)) = 1 hectometre (hm)
10 hectometres (hm) = I kilometer (km)

SCALES ON DRAWING

In order to prepare a drawing of any size, a scale is essential. After the

construction of the figure, a scale must be stated as scale 1 cm = 1 metre (m) or
1:100 or full size.
6.6INFORMATION NECESSARY FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
SCALE

When out of a set of recommended scales, the required scale is not available, it is
then constructed on the drawing sheet. For its construction, the following
information are required:-

1. The representative fraction (R.F) of the scale

2. The units to be presented either in Metric or British measures
3. The maximum length of scale.

6.7CLASSIFICTION OF SCALES

1. Plain or simple scales

2. diagonal scales

PLAIN SCALES

A plain scale is simply a lien which is divided into suitable number of equal parts
or units, the first part of which is further sub-divided into small parts or sub-units
of main unit. The plain scale are used to represent either two nits or one unit and
its fraction such as kilometers, hectometers or metres or decimeters or metres and
1/10th of metres, etc.

DRAWING DIAGONAL SCALES

 Diagonals scales are used where great accuracy is required.
 The scale to be constructed here is 1:2.5 to read in millimeters up to 300mm.
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 To scale of 1:2.5, 100mm is represented by 40mm
 Draw AB 120mm long.
 Set off 40mm divisions along AB.
 Draw verticals at division points.
 Draw 10 lines above and parallel to AB at a distance of 3mm apart
 Divide the first 40mm division DE into 10 equal parts
 Draw a line from the first 1/10 division from E to the first division point F on
AB.
 Draw parallels to the line.
 Number the scale
 The bottom drawing shows how measurements greater than 100mm are taken
from the scale

5. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

Projection is any kind of representation of an object on a paper, screen or similar

surface by drawing or by photography.
Orthographic projection is the projection obtained on a plane of projection when
the projectors are parallel to each other, but perpendicular to the plane of
projection
When making orthographic projections the following items should exist:
1. the object to be projected
2. the projectors
3. the plane of projection
4. The observer’s eye or station point.

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How to get orthographic projection.

 Plane of projection is assumed to situated in front of the object

 If imaginary lines called projectors are drawn to the transparent plane from
various points on the contour of the object, the figure formed by joining the
different points in the correct sequence will give the projection of the front
surface of the object in the true shape and proportion. The figure below
shows orthographic projection of the front surface.

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4.1. Types of plane
1. Reference planes (R.P). Two planes used for projection, these planes
intersect at right angles to each other. They are also known as principle
planes of projection
2. Vertical plane (V.P). The plane which is vertical, it is also known as frontal
plane since front view is projected on this plane.
3. Horizontal plane(H.P). The plane which is horizontal but at right angle to
the V.P.
4. Auxiliary plane (A.P). Any other plane placed at any angle to the principle
planes.
5. Profile plane (P.P). The plane which is at right angles to the two principle
planes is also called auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P).
6. Ground line (G.L). The line of intersection of two principle planes of
projections.
7. Front view or elevation. The projection of the object on vertical plane.
8. Top view or plan. The projection of an object on the horizontal plane.
9. Side view or side elevation or profile view. The projection of an object on
an auxiliary plane or profile plane.
10. Auxiliary view. The projection of an object on an auxiliary plane

4.2 FOUR QUADRANTS

Assume the vertical and horizontal planes of projections are assumed to extend
beyond the line of interaction four quadrants are formed which are designed as 1st,
2nd, 3rd, and 4th angles.

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 Fig. four quadrants.

TYPES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

1. First angle projection
2. Third angle projection.

FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

The object is assumed to be situated in the first quadrant. The position of the
object can be situated on the H.P and in front of V.P.

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 Fig.
Six views
If the same object is assumed to be situated in a transparent box in which the object
appears to be suspended in air, then the required projections of all the six
respective planes of the object on a paper can be drawn by unfolding the various
planes.

Fig.

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4.3 ARRANGEMENT OF VIEWS OF AN OBJECT IN THE FIRST ANGLE
PROJECTION
1. Bottom view placed above the front view.
2. Top view placed below the front view.
3. Left side view placed on the right of front view.
4. Right side view placed on the left of front view.
5. Rear view may be placed on the left or on the right of the front view as
found convenient.

Symbol of first angle projection

4.4 THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION.

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The object is assumed in the third quadrant. The object is said to be below H.P.
and behind the V.P.

SIX VIEWS
Assume the object is situated in a transparent box in which the object appears to be
suspended on air, then the required projections of all the six respective planes on a
paper can be drawn by unfolding the various planes

ARRANGEMENT OF VIEWS OF AN OBJECT IN THE THIRD ANGLE

PROJECTION
1. Top view placed above the front view.
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2 Bottom view placed below the front view.
3. Left side view placed on the left of front view.
4. Right side view placed on right of front view.
5. Rear view may be placed on the left or on the right of the front view as
found convenient.

Symbol of third angle projection

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58 @OMAGWA M I 2019
SPACING OF VIEWS.

WAYS OF PROJECTING THREE VIEW DRAWINGS

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INVISIBLE LINES IN ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
1. An invisible line should intersect a visible line with a dash in contact
2. An invisible line should intersect another invisible line at crossing
point of two dashes in contact.
3. Invisible lines meeting at a corner should have two dashes at the
center.
4. Three invisible lines meeting at a corner should have three dashes
intersecting at a corner.
5. An invisible line can be shown as a continuous line of a visible line.
The invisible line begins with space.
6. Invisible arcs should begin with a dash.
7. When arcs are too small to be made dashed, they should be made
solid.
8. when two invisible arcs meet, the intersection at the point of tangency
should be located with a dash on each arc

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 PROCEDURES FOR PREPARING ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
 Determine the overall dimensions of the required views and select a suitable
scale so as to accommodate the required view on the drawing sheet.
 Draw different rectangles for the views, keeping suitable space between
them and from the borders of the drawing sheet.
 Draw the centre lines in all the views. When any cylindrical portion or a
hole is seen as rectangle, draw only one centre line, but if the circle is visible
draw two centre lines intersecting each other at right angles at its centre.
 Draw simultaneously the required details in different rectangles i.e.
i) the circles and the arcs of circles
ii) the straight lines for proper shape of the object
iii) The straight lines, small curves etc. for minor details.
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  After completion of the required views, rub all the unnecessary lines
except the centre lines and mark the outlines so as to give good
appearance.
 Give the dimensions, the scale and print the title along with the other
required particulars such as notes etc.
 Check the drawing carefully and see that it is complete in all aspects.

ASSIGNMENTS ON FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

1. Draw the front view, top view, bottom view, left side view and right side view
of a given objects using first angle projection method.

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2. Draw the front view, top view, left side view and right side view of a given
objects using third angle projection method.

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 PICTORIAL DRAWINGS
 The projection in which the length, breadth and height of an object is
shown is known as pictorial projection

Types of pictorial projections

a) Axonometric projection
i) Isometric projection
ii) Diametric projection
iii) trimetric projection
 The projection obtained on a plain of a paper when the projectors are
perpendicular to the plane and parallel to each other is known as
axonometric projection.

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 Fig. 1

Isometric projection: Is the projection on a plane of paper when the projectors are
parallel but inclined at an angle of 30o to the plane of projection.

Fig. 2
Diametric projection: Is the projection on where two planes are equally fore
shortened and the two axes are equally spaced.

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 Fig. 3
Trimetric projection: Is the projection on where all the three faces are unequally
fore shortened and the three axes are unequally spaced.

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 Fig.4
b) Oblique projection.

i) Cavalier projection
ii) Cabinet projection
 The projection of an object on a plane of projection where one face of
the object is parallel but the other adjacent face is inclined at an angle
of 45o to the plane of projection is known as oblique projection.

Fig. 5

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Cavalier projection: when the projection lines make an angle of 45o with the
plane of projection.

Fig.6
Cabinet projection: when the angle that the projecting lines make with the
plane of projection is such that the scale on the receding axis is about half as
long as the two axes.

Fig.7

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c) perspective projection

 The projection obtained on a plane when the projectors converge to a

point.

Fig.8

ii) Parallel or one point perspective: If the principle face of the object is
parallel to the plane of projection and there is only one vanishing point.

iii) Angular or two point perspective: when the two faces of the object are
at an angle with the plane of projection, where the third face is
perpendicular to it, the two principal vanishing points occur and the
projection is known as angular projection.
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 iv) Oblique or three point perspective: If the three principal faces of the
object are inclined to the plane of projection, the projection is known as
three point perspective

ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS
Theory of isometric projection.
 Inclined lines in isometric view are known as isometric lines
 The three edges meeting at a point are equally inclined to each other and
therefore the angle between the two edges will be equal to 120o
 If we consider these three lines represented by the three edges of a cube and
the sides parallel to these three lines, then the view obtained is isometric
view.

Fig.9

ISOMETRIC LENGTH
 Consider again the above cube in tilted position

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  Due to tilting effect the dimensions of the object will be shortened, the
square faces will become rhombuses, but the diagonal DF which is parallel
to the horizontal line through O  will remain equal to its true length

Fig. 10
 Draw the square DMFN on the diagonal DF with its sides equal to its
true length and the included angles between the sides equal to 90 o, this
show that the true length DN has fore shortened and is equal to DC. The
ratio to which these lengths are fore-shortened may be calculated as
follows

In triangle DOE
OD DE 1 1 2
 cos 30o or   
DE OD cos 30o 3 3
2

In triangle DOM

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OD DM 1 1
 cos 45o or    2
DM OD cos 45 o
1
2

DE 2
OD  3 , Isometric length/True length
DE

2
 0.815 or 9/11
DM 2 DM 3
OD 1
approximately
 Isometric lengths are 0.815 of true lengths. For example a square is
reduced to a rhombus; a circle is reduced to an ellipse.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:

i) Isometric scale: the proportion by which the actual distances are reduced
to isometric distances.
ii) Isometric axes: the three lines meeting at a point and making 120o angles
with each other.
iii) Isometric lines: lines which are parallel to isometric axes.
iv) Non-isometric lines: lines which are not to isometric axes
v) Isometric plane: planes representing the faces of the cube as well as other
planes parallel to these planes.

DRAWING OF ISOMETRIC VIEW OR PROJECTION

1) Draw isometric scale

Fig.11
2) Draw the orthographic projections of the given block by using isometric
scale.
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 Fig. 12
3) Draw horizontal line xy and take any point O. through O draw the three
isometric axes OA , OB , OC  with the help of set-square such that OC  ; is
perpendicular to xy line, BOY  AOX  30O
4) Cut off OA, OB and OC the length, breadth and height of the object along
the axes OA , OB and OC  respectively.
5) Through A, draw a line AD parallel to OC  and through C, draw a line CD
parallel to OA so as to meet each other at a point D. Through B draw a line
BF parallel to OC  and through C, draw a line CF parallel to OB so as to
intersect each other at a point F. Similarly, through D draw a line DE
parallel to OB and through F, draw a line FE parallel to OA so as to meet
at E. Now complete the rectangular block after showing the positions of
hidden lines as shown in fig. 12

Fig.12

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 VARIOUS POSITIONS OF ISOMETRIC AXES
The different positions are used to show clearly the required faces.

Fig 13
OBJECTS WITH ISOMETRIC LINES
These are objects in which all the edges or lines are parallel to the isometric lines,
such as cubes, rectangular prisms and combination of these.
Practice
1). A cube of 40mm sides rests centrally on a square block of 60mmedges and
20mm thick. Draw the isometric projection of the two objects with the edges of the
two blocks mutually parallel to each other.

Fig. 14

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2) Three cubes of 30mm, 20mm and 40mm respectively are resting one upon
another such that the vertical axes of all the three cubes are in the same straight
line. From the given orthographic projections draw the isometric projection.

Fig. 15
OBJECTS WITH NON-ISOMETRIC LINES
 These are object with the edges or lines are not parallel to the isometric
axes
 These objects include pyramids, frustrum of pyramid etc.
 It is advisable to enclose the objects in square or rectangle so as to form
isometric lines then you can draw isometric drawing easily.
Practice
Draw the isometric projection of the frustrum of the hexagonal pyramid when two
orthographic projections are given

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Hexagonal pyramid of 20mm side and 50mm height is resting on a horizontal
plane. Draw the isometric projection of the pyramid

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A CIRCLE

1. Enclose a given circle in a square
2. Draw isometric projection which will be a rhombus
3. Make the mid-points of the sides of a rhombus
4. with C2 and C1 as centres and radius R1=C2F=C2G=C1E=C1H, draw arcs
FG and EH
5. with C and A as centres and radius R2=CF=CE=AG=AH, draw arcs EF and
GH

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1. Draw the isometric bracket shown below. Using first angle of projection
draw front elevation, end elevation and top view. All fillet radii are 3mm
and can be drawn freehand

2. Copy the orthographic projections shown below. Draw isometric view of

the object.

FREE HAND SKETCHING

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The drawing prepared without the use of drawing instruments.
Uses of sketching in engineering
1. formulating, expressing and recording new ideas in technical drawing
and project
2. designing and production of temporary fixtures
3. showing different arrangements for making of actual drawings of
various objects.

sketching materials
1. paper
2. pencil
3. rubber
Sketching straight lines
Straight lines are drawn by making succession of short distances or points or short
straight lines. The gap is then filled up from one to another

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Fig. 1 fig. 2

a) Draw free hand sketch of front elevation, top view and side
view of fig.1
b) Draw free hand sketch of isometric view of orthographic
projections given in fig. 2.

Fig. 1 fig. 2

c) Draw free hand sketch of front elevation, top view and side
view of fig.1
d) Draw free hand sketch of isometric view of orthographic
projections given in fig. 2.

C.A.T. 2
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1. Fig.1. shows orthographic projections of a casting. Draw free hand
sketch of isometric view. Do not copy the orthographic projections.

2. Fig.1. shows isometric view of a block. Draw to full size the

following views by third angle projection method.

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