Group Dynamics

UNIT 2 GROUP PROCESS: SOCIAL

FACILITATION, SOCIAL LOAFING ,
GROUP INTERACTION, GROUP
POLARIZATION AND GROUP
MIND

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Group Processes
2.2.1 Development of Group
2.2.2 Group ‘as a whole’ Processes
2.3 Social Facilitation
2.3.1 Drive Theory of Social Facilitation
2.4 Social Loafing
2.4.1 Characteristics of Social Loafing
2.5 Group Interaction
2.6 Group Morale
2.7 Group Polarization
2.8 Group Mind
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Unit End Questions
2.11 Glossary
2.12 Suggested Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be dealing with group dynamics, which refers to the attitudinal
and behavioural characteristics of a group. It concerns how groups form, their
structures and processes, and how they function in different situations. There are
mainly five stages of group development, viz., forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning. It will be taken up in detail. We will then deal with
group processes followed by development of group. Next we will take up social
facilitation which refers to the influence of the presence of others in improving
an individual’s interaction. Group mind will then be taken up and dealt in detail.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Define group processes;
• Describe the characteristic features of group process;
• Explain the factors involved in group process;
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• Define social facilitation and the factors related to the same; Group Process: Social
Facilitation, Social Loafing,
• Define social loafing; Group Interaction, Group
Polarization and Group
• Describe the characteristic features of social loafing; Mind

• Explain the group interaction process; and

• Analyse group mind and group think.

2.2 GROUP AND GROUP FORMATION

The word ‘group’ has a variety of meaning. It refers to any aggregation of human
beings including the pedestrians on the road or gathering of people in any place.
A structured group has certain characteristics. Group development refers to the
concerns as to how groups form, their structures and processes, and how they
function in different situations, etc. There are mainly five stages of group
development, viz., forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

Forming is a stage which is characterized by some confusion and uncertainty.

Forming is actually an orientation period when members get to know one another
and share expectations about the group.

Storming is the stage where one can see the highest level of disagreement and
conflict. Members mainly voice concern and it is important to note that criticism
occurs in this stage.

Norming is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and shared

expectations. Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides
how it will evaluate progress.

Performing occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of
cohesiveness. In this stage, members of the group make decision through a rational
process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues.

Adjourning indicates that members of the group often experience feelings of

closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.

Thus, group is a collection of individuals and as mentioned earlier it refers to

two or more persons who interact with one another, share common goals and
recognize that they belong to a group. It must be remembered that no person can
live in isolation. This is so because groups help us to satisfy important
psychological needs and social needs. Different persons perform different types
of tasks. Group may choose a person to serve as a leader and other persons as
followers. There is link among the members. Not only this, interaction among
the group members is a very important aspect for smooth running of the activities
of the group.

2.2.1 Development of Group

A very common question that is asked is that why and how groups develop.
There are several theories regarding group development. A classic theory,
developed by George Homans, suggests that groups develop mainly on the basis
of activities, interactions and sentiments. Basically, this theory indicates that
when individuals share common activities they will have more interaction and
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Group Dynamics will develop attitudes (either positive or negative) toward each other. The main
element is the interaction of the individuals involved.

Another important theory is social exchange theory which offers an alternative

explanation for group development. According to this theory individuals form
the relationship on the basis of implicit expectation of mutually beneficial
exchanges based on trust and ‘felt’ obligations. Also it is a perception that
exchange relationships have to be positive if persons are to be attracted to and
affiliate with a group.

Besides this, another important theory is social identity theory which offers
explanation for group formation. This theory suggests that individuals get a sense
of identity and self esteem based on their membership in salient groups. The
group is demographically, culturally and organisationally based.

One of the most important activities that groups perform is decision-making.

This is the process through which individuals or groups combine and integrate
information from the several possible actions. Most people believe that the groups
by utilising the expertise and knowledge of their members and by avoiding
extreme courses of action usually reach better decisions than when decision is
taken by single individuals.

When groups begin to discuss any issue, it is seen that their members generally
express unanimous agreement. During the decision period, members convey a
wide range of views. Generally, social decision process happens in phases, that
is, the first phase is the discussion phase which helps to confirm or strengthen
the most popular view, which rarely gets reversed. The second phase is with the
correct situation or decision that will ultimately emerge in the forefront.

Besides the above, there are several aspects of the group’s procedure such as the
rules it follows in addressing management of the group, management of
interactions among members and so on. Some persons, knowing about the
opinions, especially the influential members, incline to join the majority and
thereby tilt the decision in the required direction.

2.2.2 Group ‘as a whole’ Processes

This refers to those behaviours and dynamics that apply to the group as a distinct
psychological construction. Cohesion is the most important factor in this process,
especially in the clinical, theoretical and empirical areas. While conceptual and
operational definitions of the term vary, cohesion generally refers to the emotional
bonding amongst members of the group as well as a shared commitment to the
group and its primary task.

Cohesion is often regarded as the equivalent of the concept of therapeutic alliance

in individual psychotherapy. It is the group process which is generally linked to
positive therapeutic outcome. This cohesion can range from massification (the
act of taking all people in a group together as a whole, without reference to their
individual characteristics or needs ), fusion (Greene, 1983), oneness (Turquet,
1974), deindividuation (Deiner, 1977), contagion (Polansky et al., 1950) and
groupthink (Janis, 1994) at one extreme, to aggregation (Hopper, 2003),
fragmentation (Springmann, 1976), individuation (Greene, 1983) and the anti
group (Nitsun, 1996) at the other extreme.
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In extreme form, cohesion in group may divert the group from meaningful work. Group Process: Social
Facilitation, Social Loafing,
Hence there is a need for the leader to monitor the nature of the emotional bonds Group Interaction, Group
and commitment of the members and help the group attain a dialectic balance Polarization and Group
between needs for relatedness and communion on one hand, and needs for Mind
autonomy and differentiation on the other.

Cohesion generally refers to the emotional bonds among members for each other
and for a shared commitment to the group and its primary task. It is often regarded
as the equivalent to the concept of therapeutic alliance in individual psychotherapy
and is the group process variable generally linked to positive therapeutic outcome.

Beyond the level of cohesion, the group as a whole can be perceived, experienced
and represented in the minds of the members with a range of positive (e.g.,
engaging) and negative (e.g., conflictual) attributes. The leader must take into
account these attributes understand them as positive or negative and as these
can affect task accomplishment.

The group may be experienced in a positive way as being protective, and

containing capacities to help the group grow and develop. Or the group may
also be negatively experienced which may annihilate the group or engulf it and
not allow it to grow or develop in a positive way. These contrasting images of
the group are formed from socially shared projections.

Other negative group processes and formations have been identified that can
serve defensive and work avoidant needs. Where the group is a dependent group,
or where a group takes a stand of confrontation or has the tendency to run away
or escape from conflicting situation, members within such groups develop or
show anxiety. This regressive process needs to be dealt with on a priority basis
through the process of interpretation or confrontation. This would in turn allow
the group to shift towards more task oriented and less defensive behaviour.

Splits and subgroups: To cope with group induced anxieties, as mentioned above,
members of one group can take an approach of ‘us versus them’, or ‘in versus
out’ polarities. These internal arrangements are typically seen as defensive
arrangements that can subvert task accomplishment and ultimately need to be
managed by the group leader.

The Pair or Couple: The pair or couple in a group can represent a re enactment
and recapitulation of Oedipal or neurotic level wishes and tensions. This can
also represent primitive group level defensive processes, which may manifest in
the form of certain disorders such as depression etc.

Such dynamic process can be acted out via extra group liaisons (sexual or
otherwise). Or it can be enacted by the group in such a manner it may affect the
development process itself. The leader or the group therapist has to then take
care of the potentially destructive processes through exploration, interpretation
or confrontation.

The Individual Member and Leader Roles

In certain groups there may be a scapegoat on whom all negative aspects are
transferred. The formation of scapegoat and other non rational restrictive,
delineated roles such as the spokesperson, hero, and difficult person or member
are prominent group phenomena. It is important to understand that these roles
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Group Dynamics emerge not only from the needs and personalities of the individuals filling them,
but also from collusive enactments, co-constructions etc., between the individual
and the group. Such unique roles are not “all bad” or destructive. They may
serve important functions for the entire group, including speaking the unspeakable,
stirring emotions and revitalising the group, carrying unacceptable aspects of
others, and even creating a sense of hope (Shields, 2000).

Self Assessment Questions

1) What are the five stages of group development?
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2) What theories are associated with group development?
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3) What is meant by “Group as a whole Process”?
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4) Describe the various aspects related to the “Group as a whole Process”
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 Group Process: Social
2.3 SOCIAL FACILITATION Facilitation, Social Loafing,
Group Interaction, Group
Polarization and Group
Social facilitation may be defined as the improvement in performance produced Mind
by the mere presence of others. It indicates that the persons perform the same
task independently. The basic idea behind Zajonc’s drive theory of social
facilitation is the presence of others which produces increments in arousal.

Allport (1920) defined the term social facilitation as one of the improvements in
performance produced by the mere presence of others, either as audience or as
co-actors that is the persons performing the same task, but independently. Some
basic principles are as follows:
1) When arousal increases, the tendency to make dominant responses also
increases.
2) Dominant responses may be correct or incorrect for any given task.
3) The presence of other person will facilitate performance when an individual’s
dominant responses are the correct ones in a given situation or vice-versa.
4) Learning to perform a new task has a significant role in this context.
5) Social facilitating was not always facilitating, sometimes it appears to be
misleading.
6) Individuals sometimes believe that their performance may be observed and
evaluated by others.
7) There are large individual differences with respect to basic form of group
influence.
8) Evaluation apprehension takes an important role in social facilitation.
9) Good sense improves the performance.
10) Mere presence of others is arousing and influences performance, but that
the possibility of being evaluated by others increases even more, and produces
even stronger social facilitation effects.
11) When individuals have little reason to pay attention to others present on the
scene, social facilitation fails to occur, when they have strong reasons for
paying attention to others, social facilitation occurs.
12) Social facilitation is the ‘simple type of group influence’.

2.3.1 Drive Theory of Social Facilitation

The basic idea behind Zajonc’s drive theory of social facilitation is that the
presence of others produce increments in arousal, which affect our performance.
Thus, it can be said that the presence of others will facilitate performance when
a person’s dominant responses are the correct ones in a given situation but the
presence of others will impair performance, when a person’s dominant responses
are incorrect in a given situation. When individuals have little reason to pay
attention to others present on the scene, social facilitation fails to occur, but
when have strong reason for paying attention to others, social facilitation occurs.

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Group Dynamics
Self Assessment Questions
1) Define social facilitation.
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2) What are the basic principles of social facilitation?
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3) Discuss the drive theory of social facilitation.
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2.4 SOCIAL LOAFING

One may observe in many situations that there are some persons in a group who
work hard while others may work little, doing less than their share of what they
might do if they work alone. Social psychologists want to see the effects giving
the term as ‘social loafing’. This is a very common feature in many situations.
The effect of this is known as social loafing.

Thus social loafing is the reduction in motivation and effort when individuals
work collectively in a group compared to when they work individually or as
independent co actors. Social loafing seems to be a basic fact of social life. The
activities of sports teams, committees, juries etc. are under the category of social
loafing.

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2.4.1 Characteristics of Social Loafing Group Process: Social
Facilitation, Social Loafing,
The important characteristics of social loafing are: Group Interaction, Group
Polarization and Group
• As group size increases, each member feels less and less responsible for the Mind

task being performed. Each person exerts decreasing effort on it.

• According to Expectancy-Valence theory it can be said that individuals will
work hard on a given task only to the extent that
i) hard work will lead to better performance (expectancy),
ii) better performance will be recognised and rewarded (instrumentality)
and
iii) the rewards available are ones they value and desire (valence).
• Expectancy – the perception that increased effort will lead to better
performance.
• Instrumentality – the belief that good performance will be recognised and
rewarded, may also be weaken when people work together in groups. Social
loafing occurs and within the framework of the collective effort model.
When individual works together with others, the relationship between their
own effort and performance and rewards is more uncertain than when they
work alone.
• Collective effort – Perceived links between individuals’ effort and their
outcomes are weaker when they work together with others in a group.
• Social loafing is a serious problem. It is most likely to occur under conditions
in which individuals’ contributions can’t be evaluated, when people work
on task they find boring or uninspiring and when they work with others,
they don’t respect and don’t know very well.
• In many situations social loafing poses a threat to performance in many
settings.
• Groups can reduce social loafing by increasing group members’ commitment
to successful task performance.
• Social loafing is reduced when individuals consider their contributions to
the task as unique rather than merely redundant with those of others.
• Social loafing can be reduced by strengthening group cohesiveness.
• Social loafing is not an unavoidable feature of task-performance groups. It
can be reduced especially when appropriate safe guards are built into the
situation.

2.5 GROUP INTERACTION

Group interaction is a two-way process where each individual or group stimulates
the other and in varying degrees modifies the behaviour of the participants. The
personality characteristics and behaviour of the individual members of a group
affect the behaviour of others and make a significant impact over the functioning
of a group as a whole. Social psychology is concerned with the interactions
between individuals and between individuals and groups. Interaction can take
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Group Dynamics place in a face-to-face situation as and when two friends or a parent and a child
are interacting with each other. Interaction refers to a set of observable behaviours
which takes place where there are two and more persons. When a person is in a
class and a lecturer makes some interesting remarks, this is automatically followed
by interaction amongst students as well as interaction with the lecturer. In the
process one would also find certain degree of interpersonal influence.
Interpersonal influence is that in which there are simultaneous effects of two or
more persons on each other, that is, there exist reciprocal effects. Human
interaction is based on communication. It is communication of the information
that is most vital for the survival and promotion of culture. Sharing of information
will make information of the common property of the whole group, and thus
enhances the cultural life of the group.
Individual has his own motives and attitudes when he enters into interaction
process. On the other hand, each group has its own shared rules or norms which
affect the interaction process. As a result of the interaction, the motives and
attitudes of the individual may be affected and some change brought in him.
Lastly, it is seen that the changes in the individuals who are interacting may
bring about changes in the characteristics of the group. Not only this, the concept
of interaction helps us to understand the problem.
Sherif (1956) has described that there are four properties which are essential in
the formation and functioning of small informal groups. These are:
a) Common motives conducive to interaction among individuals: Informal
groups may arise only through the interaction of individuals with common
motives. Common motives are conducive to interaction. The individuals
perceive, the others also face the same problem and that co-operation with
them has some relevance to solve the problem. By this in-group feeling
develops. The sense of belongingness may provide a sense of security and
importance.
b) Differential effects of intercommunication of members: When we interact
with each other, we perceive the other people as unique individuals with
certain abilities or disabilities. The individuals in the course of their
interaction understand in a more or less definite way of intelligence and
maintain more or less same character qualities with each other.
c) Formation of group members: The differential way of interaction will bring
about certain expectations and if those expectations are fulfilled by the
individuals, there will be hierarchical status within the group. One individual
may become the leader of the group because of his talents and courage. He
may assume leadership and group may accept him as a leader.
d) Formation of group norms: In connection with the emergence of group
structure, there will be an emergence of group norms too. Norms may also
develop regarding the behaviour of the members of the group towards those
who are not members. This makes for social distance. Time is an important
condition for the formation of the group. Actually group formation occurs
after a series of episodes. When the individuals join together at varying
intervals and engage themselves in the group activities the group is
undoubtedly knit together.

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 Group Process: Social
Besides this, it can further be said that the effectiveness of the group depends Facilitation, Social Loafing,
upon its structural characteristics like the size, status, channels of communication Group Interaction, Group
Polarization and Group
etc. Satisfaction is greater for the individuals in small groups. There seems to be
Mind
indication of sense of belongingness which ultimately contributes to group
effectiveness. It may further be stated that the basis of attraction of the group
may lie in the interaction itself because of the mutual satisfaction of needs.

According to Cartwright and Zander (1968) group cohesiveness includes such

factors as attraction of individual members to each other interpersonally, the
attraction of the members do the activities and functions of the group. These two
factors enable the group to become organised as a system. A structured group
has certain characteristics. There will be norms regulating the activities and
behaviour of members. On the other hand, we can say about another group,
known as, “reference group”. This group takes as a basis for self-evaluation and
attitude formation. The normative function involves the setting of standards for
attitude, belief and behaviour. One individual can compare self with other
individuals and evaluate self in terms of reference group.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Define social loafing.
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2) What are the characteristics of social loafing?
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3) What is meant by group interaction?
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4) Describe the properties for functioning of the small groups.
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Group Dynamics
2.6 GROUP MORALE
This implies that individuals by being members of a group, have self control
and a sense of discipline. Individuals by being member of a group, recognise the
presence of a positive goal for the group to achieve. They experience a feeling
of togetherness by being members of the group, awareness of a danger to the
group (which they are able to sense as a member of the group) and also have the
conviction that conditions can be improved so that the goal can be reached.

Participation in the activities of a group with high morale is stimulating as well

as gratifying to the members of the group. It may thus be stated in this context
that significance of social control depends not only on the nature of the group
norm but also on the state of the group morale. One can study the group as a
whole and the various changes that occur in the behaviour of the members of
the group and also how these changes are transmitted to all the individuals, so
that the behaviour of the group is altered. The group behaviour can be understood
only if both the personality of the individual and the character of the social
situation are taken into consideration. Thus, it can be said that group behaviour
is a function of both individual and social situation. Psychological effects take
an important role in this regard.

2.7 GROUP POLARIZATION

The tendency of group members to shift towards more extreme position than
those they initially held as a result of group discussion. Groups are actually more
likely to adopt extreme positions than individuals making decision alone. It is
seen that sometimes a group may show a pronounced tendency to shift towards
certain views that are more extreme than the ones with which they initially began
considering many different kinds of decisions and many different contexts. This
is group polarization. It is remarkable to note that group polarization does not
refer to a tendency of groups to split apart into the opposite poles, on the contrary,
it refers to a strengthening of the group’s initial preferences.
The occurrence of polarization may lead many decision making groups to adopt
positions that are increasingly extreme. Research evidence suggests that social
comparison may be relatively more important in some context, especially where
group polarization plays a significant role. It is seen that many important decisions
are taken by the group and group decisions can be predicted by social decision
schemes which are the simple rules relating to individual views held by members
in regard to the group’s final decision.
Group polarization does not refer to a tendency of groups to split apart into two
opposing camps or poles. On the contrary, it refers to a strengthening of the
group’s initial preferences. Social comparison is an important factor for group
polarization. The occurrence of polarization may lead many decision making
groups to adopt position that are increasingly extreme.

2.8 GROUP MIND

Group is not a mere sum of the individual minds, but that a group has certain
characteristics of its own and influences the individuals who are members of the
group. Social psychology is concerned not only with the behaviour of the groups
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and with social situations but also with collective behaviour of groups. Group Process: Social
Facilitation, Social Loafing,
Marx(1818-1883) had stressed the fact that social structure determines the Group Interaction, Group
individual’s belief, attitudes etc. Some of them also stressed the fact that social Polarization and Group
groups have a continuity and unity that each group manifest certain uniformities Mind
of behaviour through their custom and institutional practices. McDougall (1920)
used the term “group mind” and the term is used mainly on the following factors:
• The members of the group must be aware of the origin of their group and its
various characteristics which indicates the continuity.
• Every member must feel that he is a part of the group which means self-
consciousness.
• There must be free exchange of ideas between the members of the group
and there must be a common body of thought which indicates interaction.
• The group must have certain traditions which are shared by each other.

Any individual is a member of a certain group. They may behave in a particular

way. But such behaviour can be explained without positing a mysterious “group
mind” which compels people to behave in certain ways. In crowd, with the loss
of individuality, a form of group consciousness develops, a fusion of mind with
mind, a sympathetic participation of each with each on the emotional level which
is common to all of the participants.

In this context, we can use another term “group think”. Group think is the tendency
of high cohesive groups to assume that their decisions can not be wrong. In
other words, all members are expected to support the group’s decision and ignore
information contrary to it. Group think is a strong tendency for decision-making
groups to close ranks and support the decision strongly, and also neglect or ignore
any information contrary to it. Once the collection of state of mind develops, the
group becomes unwilling to change its course of action. The first and foremost
factor for the group mind is that there exists a very high level of cohesiveness
among the group members. The second factor is the kind of emergent group
norm which suggests that group is correct and normally superior.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Define Group morale.
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2) Describe Group Polarizatrion.
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Group Dynamics
3) What is Group Mind?
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4) What factors are involved in group mind?
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2.9 LET US SUM UP

Groups are the products of interaction. Evevery one deals with groups and is
part of groups, which are already well established, as for instance, such as the
family, the church, the political party and so on . When individuals with common
motives interact with each other for a fairly long time, group structure emerges.
The differential effects of interaction will bring about certain expectations and if
these are fulfilled by the individuals there will be hierarchical status within the
group. Differences in ability and character bring about differences in expectations.
Thus status forms with the group, as well as, in the taking up of definite roles.
When this group structure emerges and the group formation is successful, there
will be solidarity within the group making it strong. The effectiveness of the
group depends upon its structural characteristics like the size, structure, channels
of communication etc. Generally, satisfaction is greater for the individuals in
small groups. There is a sense of belongingness to the group and this contributes
to group effectiveness.

Presence of a positive goal for the group to achieve, a feeling of togetherness in

the members of the group, awareness of a danger to group, a conviction that
conditions can be improved so that the goals can be reached and finally, there
lies an awareness of advancement towards the group goals. The tendency of
highly cohesive groups is that they assume that their decisions can not be wrong
and that all members must support the groups’ decisions and ignore information
which are contrary to it. Once groupthink takes hold in a decision-making group,
pressure toward maintaining high levels of group consensus overrides the
motivation to evaluate all potential courses of action as accurately as possible.

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 Group Process: Social
2.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS Facilitation, Social Loafing,
Group Interaction, Group
1) What do you mean by the term ‘group interaction’? Briefly discuss. Polarization and Group
Mind
2) What is the relationship between group mind and group polarization?
3) Briefly discuss about the steps regarding ‘group formation’.
4) What is social loafing? Elucidate with examples.

2.11 GLOSSARY
Group : Two or more people who interact and influence
one another.

Group dynamics : The way in which changes take place in the

behaviour of other members of the group. Groups
can mobilise powerful force which may be
constructive or destructive.

Group structure : The differences of roles and status relations

within a group.

Group thinks : The tendency of highly cohesive groups to

assume that their decisions can not be wrong.

Group polarization : Group produced enhancement of members’

preexisting tendencies, a strengthening of the
member’s average.

Group-decision process : A procedure in which a group is presented with

a problem and communication giving the various
alternatives, followed by a discussion and
decision regarding the solution of the problem.

Society : The complex type of human group composed of

many subgroups.

Social change : Alteration in structure of a society.

Social cohesion : Degree to which group members share common

beliefs, practices and values and thus act as
united.

Social conflict : The clash which arises between two groups in a

society in order to obtain control over scarce
resources.

Social distance : Degree to which individuals are willing to

interact with people from different social
backgrounds.

Social facilitation : The tendency of people to perform simple or

well-learned tasks better when others are present.
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Group Dynamics Social loafing : The tendency for people to exert less when they
pool their efforts toward a common goal than
when they are individually accountable.

2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, R.A. and Byrne, D. (2000). Social Psychology, 8th Edition, Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi – 110001.

Kuppuswamy, B.(2002), Elements of Social Psychology, 7th Revised Edition,

Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Kuppuswamy, B.(1980), An introduction to Social Psychology, 2nd Revised

edition, (reprinted,2004), Asia Publishing House, Mumbai.

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