Energy System 244

Chapter 3 – Power Transformers

JC Bekker
2022
Fakulteit Ingenieurswese
•
Faculty of Engineering
Overview:

• Ideal Transformers
• Equivalent Circuit for Practical Transformers
• Per-unit system
• Three-phase transformer connections and phase-
shift
• PU-system equivalent circuit of balanced three-phase
two-winding transformers
• Three-winding transformers

2
Real Transformers:

3
 3.1 Ideal Transformers:
In this chapter it is assumed that the transformers are
operating under sinusoidal steady-state excitation.
Ideal transformer assumptions:
• The windings have zero resistance, i.e. I2R losses in the windings are zero.
• The core permeability μc is infinite, which corresponds to zero core reluctance.
• There is no leakage flux, i.e. the entire flux Φc is confined to the core and links
both windings.
• There are no core losses.

4
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Using Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws together with the above mentioned
assumptions one can derive the ideal transformer relationships:
∫ H tan dl = I enclosed ,
Ampere’s Law: 

if the core centre line is selected as the closed path, and Hc is constant along the path as
well as tangent to the path, then Ampere law can be rewritten as:
Hclc=N1I1-N2I2 ………...(1)
For constant core permeability μc , the magnetic flux density Bc within the core, also
constant, is:
Bc= μcHc [Wb/m2] ………...(2)
and the core flux Φc is:
Φc=B𝑐𝑐 Ac [Wb] ………...(3)

5
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Substituting equations (2) and (3) into (1) yields:
Bc  l 
N 1 I 1 − N 2 I 2 = lc =  c  Φ c ............(4)
µc  µc Ac 
Core reluctance 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 is defined as:
lc
Rc = ............(5)
µc Ac
Substituting eq. (5) into (4) yields, the following equation, known as Ohm’s law
of magnetic circuits:
N1 I1 − N 2 I 2 = R c Φ c ............(6)
The second assumption of ideal transformers is, permeability μc is infinite,
which corresponds to zero core reluctance. With R𝑐𝑐 = 0 eq. (6) simplifies to:
N2 I2 0 ⇒ =
N1 I1 −= N1 I1 N 2 I 2 ............(7)
The current relationship of an ideal transformer therefore is:
N1 I 2
= ............(8)
N 2 I1

6
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Faraday’s law states that the voltage 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 induced across an N-turn winding by a
time-varying flux 𝜙𝜙 𝑡𝑡 linking the winding is:
dφ ( t )
e (t ) = N ............(9)
dt
Assuming a sinusoidal-steady-state flux with constant frequency 𝜔𝜔, and
representing 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 and 𝜙𝜙 𝑡𝑡 by their phasors 𝐸𝐸 and Φ, eq. (9) becomes
=E N ( jω ) Φ ............(10)
For an ideal transformer, the entire flux is assumed to be confined to the core,
linking both windings. From Faraday’s law, the induced voltages across the windings
of the shown figure below are
=E1 N1 ( jω ) Φ c ............(11)
=E2 N 2 ( jω ) Φ c ............(12)
Dividing eq. (11) by eq. (12) yields the voltage
relationship of an ideal transformer therefore is:
N1 V1
= ............(13)
N 2 V2

7
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Defining 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 as
N1
at = ,
N2
the basis relations for an ideal transformer, i.e. equations (8) and (13) can be
written as: N
E1 = 1
E2 =at E2 ............(14)
N2
N2 I
I1 = I2 = 2 ............(15)
N1 at
Two additional relations concerning complex power and impedance can be
derived from equations (14) and (15), these are:

S1 = S2 ............(16)
Z 2' = at2 Z 2 ............(17)

8
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Phase-shifting transformer
CONCEPTIAL single-phase, phase-shifting transformer. Not an idealization of an
actual transformer since is it is physically impossible to obtain a complex turn
ratio, however later in this chapter this mathematical model is required to
represent the phase-shift occurring in a 3-phase transformer.

9
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Example 3.1
A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 480/120 V, 60 Hz. A
source connected to 480 V winding supplies an impedance load connected to
the 120 V winding. The load absorbs 15 kVA at 0.8 p.f. lagging when the load
voltage is 118 V. Assume that the transformer is ideal and calculate the
following:
a) The voltage across the 480 V winding.
b) The load impedance.
c) The load impedance referred to the 480 V winding.
d) The real and reactive power supplied to the 480 V winding.

10
3.1 Ideal Transformers:
Example 3.1
Solution:

11
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

• Windings have resistance

• Core permeability is finite
• Magnetic flux is not entirely confined to the core
• There are real and reactive losses in the core.

12
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

13
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

Winding resistances, i.e. 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 and 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐

• represents the resistance of the conductors used to
turn the respective windings
• accounts for real power loss, 𝐼𝐼2𝑅𝑅, in the respective
windings.

14
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

Leakage reactance of windings, i.e. 𝑿𝑿𝟏𝟏 and 𝐗𝐗𝟐𝟐

• 𝑋𝑋1 (𝑋𝑋2) accounts for leakage flux of winding 1(2), i.e. the
component of the flux that link winding 1(2) but not winding
2(1), this causes a voltage drop, 𝐼𝐼2(𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1), which is proportional
to 𝐼𝐼1 (𝐼𝐼2) and lead by 𝐼𝐼1 (𝐼𝐼2) by 90°
• accounts for reactive power loss 𝐼𝐼2𝑋𝑋 associated with the
leakage flux of the respective windings.

15
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Leakage Flux

16
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

N1 I1 − N 2 I 2 = R c Φ c ............(6)
Magnetising susceptance =E N ( jω ) Φ ............(11)
1 1 c

• Given finite core permeability, 𝛍𝛍c, the core reluctance is not

zero. Dividing eq. (6) by 𝑁𝑁1 and substituting eq. 11 yields:
N2 R R  E   R 
I1 − I 2 = c Φ c = c  1  =− j  c 2  E1 ............(18)
N1 N1 N1  jω N1   ω N1 
• accounts for reactive losses in the core, i.e. the reactive
power required to magnetise the core.

17
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

Core loss conductance

• Apart for the magnetising susceptance, in reality, these is an
additional shunt branch, which is represented by a resistor
with conductance 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 , which carries the core loss current, 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 .
𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 is in phase with 𝐸𝐸1. When 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 is included in eq. 18 becomes:
N2
I1 − I2 =
Ic + =
Im ( Gc − jBm ) E1
N1
• accounts for real power losses, i.e. eddy current losses as
well as hysteresis loss.

18
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

Exciting current, i.e. 𝑰𝑰𝒆𝒆

• Exciting current, 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒, is vector sum of magnetising current, 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚,
and core loss current, 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 :
I=
e Im + Ic

19
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Approximate circuits

20
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Transformer short-circuit and open-circuit test
The parameters of the model are determined based upon:
• nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power
• open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary with secondary open;
measure the primary current and losses (the test may also be done by
applying the voltage to the secondary, calculating the values, then referring
the values back to the primary side).
• From this test determine the shunt admittance Ym=Gc-jBm referred to winding
1. Neglect the series impedance.
• short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply voltage to primary to get
rated current to flow; measure voltage and losses.
• From this test determine the equivalent series impedance Zeq1=Req1+jXeq1
referred to winding 1. Neglect the shunt admittance.

See Example 3.2

21
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Example 3.2
A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 480/120 V, 60 Hz.
During a short-circuit test, where rated current at rated frequency is applied to
the 480 V winding (denoted winding 1), with the 120 V winding (winding 2)
shorted, the following readings are obtained: V1 = 35 V, P1 = 300 W. During
an open-circuit test, where rated voltage is applied to winding 2, with winding 1
open, the following readings are obtained: I2 = 12 A, P2 = 200 W.
a) From the short-circuit test, determine the equivalent series impedance
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 referred to winding 1. Neglect the shunt admittance.
b) From the open-circuit test, determine the shunt admittance 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 = 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 −
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑚𝑚 referred to winding 1. Neglect the series impedance.

22
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Example 3.2

23
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Example 3.2

24
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:

Not represented by the equivalent circuit of a practical

transformer:
• Saturation
• Permeability μc non-linear and multivalued
• Inrush current
• Non-sinusoidal exciting current
• Surge phenomena
• When subject to transient overvoltage
caused by lighting or switching
the capacitance of windings have
important effects on transient
response.

25
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Additional Example 1

A single-phase, 50-kVA, 2400/240-V, 60-Hz distribution

transformer has the following parameters:
• Resistance of the 2400-V winding: R1 = 0.75 Ω
• Resistance of the 240-V winding: R2 = 0.0075 Ω
• Leakage reactance of the 2400-V winding: X1 = 1.0 Ω
• Leakage reactance of the 240-V winding: X2 = 0.01 Ω
• Exciting admittance on the 240-V side = 0.003 - j0.02 S
Draw the equivalent circuit referred to the high-voltage
side of the transformer. Show the numerical values of
impedances on the equivalent circuits.

26
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Additional Example 1

Solution:

27
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Additional Example 2
A single-phase transformer has 2000 turns on the primary winding
and 500 turns on the secondary. Winding resistances are R1 = 2 Ω
and R2 = 0.125 Ω; leakage reactances are X1 = 8 Ω and X2 = 0.5 Ω.
The resistance load on the secondary is 12 Ω.
a) If the applied voltage at the terminals of the primary is 1000 V,
determine V2 at the load terminals of the transformer,
neglecting magnetizing current.
b) If the voltage regulation is defined as the differences between
the voltage magnitude at the load terminals of the transformer
at full load and at no load in percent of full-load voltage with
input voltage held constant, compute the percent voltage
regulation.

28
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Additional Example 2

Solution:

29
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Additional Example 3

A 20kVA 480:120V 50Hz single-phase transformer with:

Z1 = 0.0865+j0.411 Ω,
Z2 = 0.0054+j0.0257 Ω, and
Ym = 0.868-j6.19mS
A load is connected to the Low Voltage (LV) terminals
consuming rated power with a lagging power factor of
0.9 at rated voltage. Determine the voltage supplied at
the High Voltage (HV) terminals.

30
3.2 Equivalent circuit for practical transformers:
Additional Example 3

Solution:

31
3.3 Per-unit system:

Pros
• Transformer equivalent circuit can be simplified, i.e. ideal
transformer element can be eliminated. This has significant
advantage even in the analysis of small power systems, since it
avoids the possibility of making calculation errors.
• The equipment per-unit impedance data can be rapidly check
for gross errors , since values of similar type usually lie within
a narrow numerical range.
actual quantity
per-unit quantity = [dimensionless]
base value of quantity

Always a real value

32
3.3 Per-unit system:

Two independent base values are “arbitrarily” selected at one

point in a power system. Usually the base voltage V𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 and
base complex power S𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝜙𝜙 , for electrical laws, e.g. Ohm’s law,
to be valid in the per-unit system the following relations must be
used for other base values:
Pbase1φ = Q base1φ =Sbase1φ
Sbase1φ
I base =
VbaseLN
2
VbaseLN VbaseLN
Zbase = R base = X base = =
I base Sbase1φ
1
Ybase = G base = Bbase =
Zbase

33
 3.3 Per-unit system:

• Sbase1ϕ is the same for the • A per-unit impedance

entire power system remains unchanged
• Voltage bases on either side when referred from
⇒
of a transformer is selected one side if a
as such that it match the transformer to the
transformer ratio other

Work through Example 3.3

34
 3.3 Per-unit system:

• In the case where the nameplate rating(s) of a component, e.g.

transformer, is given in per-unit and the component’s rated
value differ from the selected base values of the per-unit
system the nameplate per-unit values need to be converted.
To convert a per-unit impedance from “old” to “new” base
values use:
Zactual Z p.u.old Z baseold
Z
= p.u.new =
Z basenew Z basenew
2
Z baseold  Vbaseold   Sbasenew 
Z p.u.new Z=
= p.u.old Z p.u.old    
Z basenew  Vbasenew   Sbaseold 

35
3.3 Per-unit system:
Example 3.4
Three zones of a single-phase circuit are identified in Figure 3.10(a).
The zones are connected by transformers T1 and T2, whose ratings
are also shown. Using base values of 30 kVA and 240 V in zone 1,
draw the per-unit circuit and determine the per-unit impedances and
the per-unit source voltage. Then calculate the load current both in
per-unit and in amperes. Transformer winding resistances and shunt
admittance branches are neglected.

36
3.3 Per-unit system:
Example 3.4

37
3.3 Per-unit system:
Example 3.4

38
3.3 Per-unit system:
Example 3.4

39
 3.3 Per-unit system:
Balanced three-phase (3ϕ)
Balance three-phase circuits can be solved in per-unit on a per-phase basis after
converting Δ-load impedances to equivalent Y impedances. Base values can be
selected either on a per-phase basis or on a three-phase basis. Previous per-unit
equations remain valid for three-phase circuits on a per-phase basis. Usually
S𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏3𝜙𝜙 and V𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 are selected, where the subscripts 3ϕ and LL denote ‘‘three-
phase’’ and ‘‘line-to-line,’’ respectively. Then the following relations must be
used for other base values:

Sbase3φ Sbase1φ Sbase3φ

Sbase1φ = I base = =
3 VbaseLN 3VbaseLL
V 2
VbaseLN VbaseLN 2
VbaseLL
VbaseLN = baseLL Z base = = =
3 I base Sbase1φ Sbase3φ
Sbase3φ = Pbase3φ = Q base3φ 1
R base = X base = Z base =
Ybase

40
 3.3 Per-unit system:
Balanced three-phase (3ϕ) – Example 3.5
As in Example 2.5, a balanced-Y-connected voltage source with Eab = 480∠0° V
is applied to a balanced-Δ load with ZΔ = 30∠40 ° Ω. The line impedance
between the source and load is ZL = 1∠85 ° Ω for each phase. Calculate the
per-unit and actual current in phase a of the line using S𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏3𝜙𝜙 = 10 kVA and
V𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 480 V.

41
3.3 Per-unit system:
Balanced three-phase (3ϕ) – Example 3.5

42
3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift

Three identical single-phase transformers can be connected to

form a 3-phase transformer. The four ways to connect the
windings are:
Textbook convention:
• Y-Y Y-Δ Δ-Y Δ- Δ uppercase letters, e.g. A,
B and C used to identify
Y-Y and Δ- Δ can be label so there is no phase on the high-voltage
side and lowercase
phase shift between corresponding
letters, e.g. a, b and c, to
quantities on the high- and low-voltage used to identify phase on
windings. However, for Y-Δ and Δ-Y the low-voltage side
transformers there is always a phase
shift… The American standard for marking
three-phase transformers substitutes H1,
H2, and H3 on the high-voltage terminals
and X1, X2, and X3 on the low-voltage
terminals in place of the polarity dots. 43
3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift
For Y-Δ and Δ-Y the labelling and the schematic representation are in
accordance with the American standard, i.e.
In either a Y–Δ or Δ–Y transformer, positive-sequence quantities on the high-
voltage side shall lead their corresponding quantities on the low-voltage side by 30°.
• As shown in Figure below VAN leads Van by 30°.

44
3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift

STEP 1: Assume that

balanced positive-
sequence voltages are
applied to the Y
winding. Draw the
positive-sequence
phasor diagram for
these voltages.

45
 3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift

STEP 2: Move phasor

A–N next to terminals
A–N. Identify the ends
of this line in the same
manner as in the
phasor diagram.
Similarly, move
phasors B–N and C–N
next to terminals B–N
and C–N.

46
 3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift

STEP 2: Move phasor

A–N next to terminals
A–N. Identify the ends
of this line in the same
manner as in the
phasor diagram.
Similarly, move
phasors B–N and C–N
next to terminals B–N
and C–N.

47
3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift
STEP 3: For each
single-phase
transformer, the
voltage across the low
voltage winding must
be in phase with the
voltage across the
high-voltage winding,
assuming an ideal
transformer.
Therefore, draw a line
next to each low-
voltage winding
parallel to the
corresponding line
already drawn next to
the high-voltage
winding.

48
3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift
STEP 3: For each
single-phase
transformer, the
voltage across the low
voltage winding must
be in phase with the
voltage across the
high-voltage winding,
assuming an ideal
transformer.
Therefore, draw a line
next to each low-
voltage winding
parallel to the
corresponding line
already drawn next to
the high-voltage
winding.

49
 3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift
STEP 4: Label the ends of the
lines drawn in Step 3 by
inspecting the polarity marks.
For example, phase A is
connected to dotted terminal
H1, and A appears on the right
side of line A–N. Therefore,
phase a, which is connected to
dotted terminal X1, must be
on the right side, and b on the
left side of line a–b. Similarly,
phase B is connected to dotted
terminal H2, and B is down
on line B–N. Therefore, phase
b, connected to dotted
terminal X2, must be down on
line b–c. Similarly, c is up on
line c–a.

50
 3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift
STEP 5: Bring the three
lines labelled in Step 4
together to complete the
phasor diagram for the
low-voltage Δ winding.
Note that VAN leads Van
by 30° in accordance
with the American
standard.

51
3.4: 3-phase transformer connection and phase shift

• One advantage of the Δ winding is that the undesirable third

harmonic magnetizing current, caused by the nonlinear core
B–H characteristic, remains trapped inside the Δ winding.
Third harmonic currents are (triple-frequency) zero-sequence
currents, which cannot enter or leave a Δ connection, but can
flow within the Δ. The Y–Y transformer is seldom used
because of difficulties with third harmonic exciting current.
• The Δ–Δ transformer has the advantage that one phase can
be removed for repair or maintenance while the remaining
phases continue to operate as a three-phase bank. This open-
Δ connection permits balanced three-phase operation with
the kVA rating reduced to 58% of the original bank.

52
 3.5: Per-unit equivalent circuits of balanced 3-phase 2-
winding transformers

Convention for selecting base values:

• A common S𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is selected for both the H and X terminals.
• The ratio of the voltage bases 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 /𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is selected to be equal to the ratio
of the rated line-to-line voltages 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟.
When balanced three-phase currents are applied to the transformer,
the neutral currents are zero and there are no voltage drops across
the neutral impedances. Therefore, the per-unit equivalent circuit of
the ideal Y–Y transformer is the same as the per-unit single-phase
transformer.

53
3.5: Per-unit equivalent circuits of balanced 3-phase 2-
winding transformers

Subscript H indicates high voltage terminal, e.g. VH and

subscript X indicates low voltage terminal, e.g. VX.

54
3.5: Per-unit equivalent circuits of balanced 3-phase 2-
winding transformers - Example 3.7

Three single-phase two-winding transformers, each rated 400

MVA, 13.8/199.2 kV, with leakage reactance X𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.10 per
unit, are connected to form a three-phase bank. Winding
resistances and exciting current are neglected. The high-voltage
windings are connected in Y. A three-phase load operating
under balanced positive-sequence conditions on the high-voltage
side absorbs 1000 MVA at 0.90 p.f. lagging, with 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
199.2∠0° kV. Determine the voltage Van at the low-voltage bus
if the low-voltage windings are connected
(a) in Y,
(b) in Δ.

55
3.5: Per-unit equivalent circuits of balanced 3-phase 2-
winding transformers - Example 3.7

56
3.5: Per-unit equivalent circuits of balanced 3-phase 2-
winding transformers - Example 3.7

57
3.6: Three-winding transformers

Ideal 3-winding transformer If common Sbase is selected for all 3 windings

relations: and voltage bases selected in proportion to
N
the rated voltages of the windings:
= 1 I1 N2 I2 + N3 I3
E1 E2 E3 I=
1p.u. I 2 p.u. + I 3p.u.
= =
N1 N 2 N 3 E=
1p.u. E=
2 p.u. E3p.u.

58
3.6: Three-winding transformers

• A 3-winding transformer can be used as a standard 2-winding transformer

by leaving open the third winding.
• Obtaining parameter values:
• Shunt admittance branch, i.e. core loss resistance and magnetising inductance
can be determined using open-circuit test.
• Leakage impedance for each winding can be obtained through a series of three
short circuit tests.

59
3.7: Autotransformers

Advantages Disadvantages
• Small leakage impedance than • Small leakage impedance than
standard transformers, resulting in: standard transformers, resulting in:
• Smaller series-voltage drop • Higher short-circuit currents
• Lower losses, i.e. higher efficiency • No galvanic isolation (primary and
• Lower exciting current secondary is electrically
• Lower cost if turn ratio is not too connected)
large

60
Example:
For the system shown below, draw the per unit
circuit, by choosing 100 kVA to be the base kVA and
2400 V as the base voltage for the generators.
Example:
Extract from formula sheet