University Of Anbar

College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Design of Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Syllabus
 Introduction
• Tension Members
• Connections
• Compression Members
• Flexural members (Beams)
• Members under Biaxial Bending
• Beam-column

References

1- Steel Design by Segui, Fourth Edition, 2007.

2- Structural Steel Design by Mc Cormac and Csernak, Fifth Edition, 2012.
3- AISC-LRFD Manual. Handbook and Specifications

STEEL STRUCTURE, COURSE BY : Asst. Prof. Dr. Sheelan M. Hama Page No. 1
University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

CHAPTER ONE

INTROUDACTION

1.1 General
Structural steel is one of the basic materials used by structural engineers. Steel, as a structural
material has exceptional strength, stiffness, and ductility properties. As a result of these properties,
steel is readily produced in a extensive variety of structural shapes to satisfy a wide range of
application needs. The wide spread use of structural steel makes it necessary for structural engineers
to be well versed in its properties and uses. Following some of the required concepts that need to be
understood:

 Static's
 The ability to compute reactions on basic structures under given loading.
 The ability to determine stability and determinacy
 The ability to determine internal forces in statically determinate structures.
 Develop shear and moment diagrams
 The ability to solve truss problems (both 2D and 3D) by using
 Method of joints
 Method of sections
 The ability to solve "machine" problems
 The ability to compute of section properties including
 Cross sectional area
 Moments of Inertia for section of homogenous materials
 Moments of Inertia for composite sections

 Mechanics
 An understanding of stress and strain concepts
 The ability to compute stress including
 Axial stress
 Bending stress
 Shear stress (due to both bending and torsion)
 Principle stress
 Stress on arbitrary planes
 The ability to compute the buckling capacity of columns
 The ability to compute deflection in beams
 The ability to compute reactions and internal forces for statically indeterminate structures.

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

 Properties of Materials
 The ability to read stress-strain diagrams to obtain critical material properties including:
 Yield stress
 Ultimate stress
 Modulus of Elasticity
 Ductility
 An understanding of the statistical variation of material properties.

 Structural Analysis
 An understanding of the nature of loads on structures
 The ability to compute and use influence diagrams.
 The ability to solve truss problems (forces and deflections)
 The ability to solve frame problems (forces and deflections)
 The ability to use at structural analysis software
 Structural Engineering
 Design of different structures (Buildings, bridges, dams, etc.):
 Satisfy needs or functions
 Support its own loads
 Support external loads

 Steel Design
 Selection of structural form .
 Determination of external loads.
 Calculation of stresses and deformations.
 Determination of size of individual members.

1.2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Steel as a Construction Material

 Advantages:
1. High load resisting (High resistance)
2. High ductility and toughness
3. Easy control for steel structure
4. Elastic properties
5. Uniformity of properties
6. Additions to existing structure
 Disadvantages:
1. No ability to resist the fire (Fireproofing cost)
2. No ability to resist the corrosion ( Maintenance cost)
3. High cost
4. Susceptibility to buckling, fatigue and brittle fracture

1.3 Materials

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

 Structural Steels
For the purposes of the Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, four quantities are
particularly important for a given steel type:
 The minimum yield stress (ƒy).
 The specified minimum tensile strength (Fu).
 The modulus of elasticity (Es).
 The shear modulus (G).

Stress–Strain Diagram for structural steel

There are several types of steel as following :

 Carbon Steels:
1. Low carbon [C < (0.15%)].
2. Mild carbon [0.15% < C< 0.29%] such as A-36, A-53.
3. Medium carbon [0.3% C < 0.59%] A-500, A-529.
4. High carbon [0.6% < C < 1.7%] A-570.

 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels:

Having ƒy 40 ksi to 70 ksi, may include chromium, copper, manganese, nickel in
addition to carbon. e.g. A572, A618, A913, and A992.

 Alloy Steels:

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

These alloy steels which are quenched and tampered to obtain ƒy > 80 ksi. They do
not have a well-defined yield point, and are specified a yield point by the “offset
method”, example is A852.

Typical stress-strain curve for different types structural steel

 Bolts
Bolting is a very common method of fastening steel members. Bolting is particularly cost
effective in the field. The precursor to bolting was riveting. Riveting was a very dangerous
and time consuming process. It involved heating the rivets to make them malleable then
inserting them in hole and flattening the heads on both sides of the connection. The process
required an intense heat source and a crew of three or more workers. In the mid 1900s, high
strength bolts were introduced and quickly replaced rivets as the preferred method for
connecting members together in the field because of their ease of installation and more
consistent strengths. High strength is necessary since most bolts are highly tensioned in order
to create large clamping forces between the connected elements. They also need lots of
bearing and shear strength so as to reduce the number of fasteners needed. The types of bolts
are:
 Carbon Steel Bolts (A-307):
These are common non-structural fasteners with minimum tensile strength (Fu) of 60 ksi.
 High Strength Bolts (A-325):
These are structural fasteners (bolts) with low carbon, their ultimate tensile strength
could reach 120 ksi.

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

 Quenched and Tempered Bolts (A-449):

These are similar to A-307 in strength but can be produced to large diameters exceeding
1.5 inch.

 Heat Treated Structural Steel Bolts (A-490):

These are in carbon content (up to 0.5%) and has other alloys. They are quenched and
re-heated (tempered) to 900oF. The minimum yield strength (ƒy) for these bolts ranges
from 115 ksi upto 130 ksi. The ultimate tensile strengths for A490 bolts are 150 ksi.

ASTM A325

ASTM A307 ASTM A490

Solid rivets

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

 Welding Materials:
Welding is the process of uniting two metal parts
by melting the materials at their interface so that
they will bond together. A filler material is
typically used to join the two parts together. The
parts being joined are referred to as base metal and
the filler is referred to as weld metal. Since
structural welding is typically done by an electrical
arc process, the weld metal is typically supplied
via weld electrodes, sometimes known as welding
rods.
The Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Process Electrodes
1.4 Type of Structural Steel Sections
 Hot-Rolled Sections: The Standard rolled shapes are shown in the figure.

W S C L WT or ST

(a) Wide-flange (b) American (c) American (d) Angle (e) (f) Pipe (g)
Shape Standard Standard Structural Section Structural
Beam Channel Tee Tubing

a – Wide-flange : W 18  97
b – Standard (I) : S 12  35
c – Channel : C 9  20
d – Angles : L 64½
e – Structural Tee : WT, MT or
(h) (i) ST e.g. ST 8  76
Bars Plates f & g Hollow Structural Sections
HSS: 9 or 8  8

Standard rolled shapes

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

 Cold Formed Sections: as shown in the figure.

(a) (b) (c) I-shaped double

Channel Zees channels
s

(d) (e) Hat

Angle sections
s
Cold Formed Sections

 Built-Up Sections: as shown in the figure.

Built-up (W) shapes.

Built-up (C) Channels.

Built-up (L) Angles.

Built-up sections

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

1.5 Cross-Sections of Some of the more Commonly Used Hot-Rolled Shapes

 W- shape or Wide –flange Shape: For example :(W 18×50)

W-type shape.
Flange
18: section depth in inches .

50: section weight in pounds per foot .

18" + Web 18"

Flange

W-shape American
W18×50 S18
 S- shape or American standard S: For example :(S 18×70) Flange
S-type of shape Flange
18: section depth in inches . 6" 3"
Sloping inside Face
70: section weight in pounds per foot .
18" + 3/4" Web 18"
18" + Web 18"
6" 6" 5/8" 9"
Flange Flange

W-shape W-shape S Am
Equal-Leg American Standard.
Unequal-Leg
W18×50 W18×50
S18 × 70
angle, L angle
 L- shape or Angle shape: For example L6
: × 6 × 3/4 L6 × 3 × 5/8
 (L6 ×L6 ×¾’’) Amer
 (L6 ×L3 ×5/8’’)
6" 3"
6" 3"
Sloping inside
3/4" face
3/4"
6" 6" 5/8" 9"
6" 6" 5/8"
18"

Equal-Leg Unequal-Leg
angle, L angle
Equal-Leg Unequal-Leg
L6 × 6 × 3/4 L6 × 3 × 5/8
angle, L American Standard.
angle Standard. Tee: WT , ST.
Channel, C WT18 × 115
L6 × 6 × 3/4 C18 × L670 × 3 × 5/8

18"

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURE, COURSE BY : Asst. Prof. Dr. Sheelan M. Hama Page No. 9
18"
Standard. Tee: WT , ST.
 18" + Web 18"

Flange
University Of Anbar
College of Engineering, W-shape American Standard. S
Civil Engineering Department.W18×50 S18 × 70
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

C- shape: For example (C18 ×70)

6" 3"

Sloping inside
3/4" face
6" 6" 5/8" 9"

Equal-Leg Unequal-Leg
angle, L angle
L6 × 6 × 3/4 L6 × 3 × 5/8
American Standard.
Channel, C
C18 × 70

1.6 Loads

1. Dead Loads: Also known as gravity

18"
loads, includes the weight of the structure and all fixed
and permanent attachments.
2. Live Loads: Also belong to gravity loads, but their intensity and location may vary
(non-permanent loads).
Standard. Tee: WT , ST.
3. Highways / Rail Live Loads – Impact Loads
WT18 × 115
4. Snow Loads
5. Wind Loads
6. Earthquake Load
7. Thermal Loads
8. Other Loads: e.g.
 Rain Loads
 Hydrostatic Loads
 Blast Loads.

* Loads can be also classified to:

1. Static Loads: applied slowly that the structure remains at rest during loading.
2. Dynamic Loads: applied rapidly to cause the structure to accelerate as a consequence of inertia
forces.

1.7 Philosophies of Design

Any design procedure require the confidence of engineer on the analysis of load effects and
strength of the materials. The two distinct procedures employed by designers are Allowable
Stress Design (ASD) & Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).

 Allowable Stress Design (ASD):

Safety in the design is obtained by specifying, that the effect of the loads should produce
stresses that is a fraction of the yield stress ƒy, say one half. This is equivalent to:

FOS = Resistance, R/ Effect of load, Q = ƒy/0.5ƒy = 2

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURE, COURSE BY : Asst. Prof. Dr. Sheelan M. Hama Page No. 10
University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

Since the specifications set limit on the stresses, it became allowable stress design (ASD). It is
mostly reasonable where stresses are uniformly distributed over X-section (such on determinate
trusses, arches, cables etc.).

Mathematical Description of ASD:

 Rn

 Q i

Rn = Resistance or Strength of the component being designed

Φ = Resistance Factor or Strength Reduction Factor
γ = Overload or Load Factors
Φ /γ = Factor of Safety FS
Qi = Effect of applied loads

 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): To overcome the deficiencies of

ASD, the LRFD method is based on Strength of Materials. It consider the variability
not only in resistance but also in the effects of load and it provides measure of safety
related to probability of failure. Safety in the design is obtained by specifying that the
reduced Nominal Strength of a designed structure is less than the effect of factored loads
acting on the structure
 Rn  n  Qi

Rn = Resistance or Strength of the component being designed

Qi = Effect of Applied Loads
n = Takes into account ductility, redundancy and operational imp .
Φ = Resistance Factor or Strength Reduction Factor
γ = Overload or Load Factors
Φ /γ = Factor of Safety FS
LRFD accounts for both variability in resistance and load and it achieves fairly uniform levels of
safety for different limit states.

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structures, Course 2020-2021 Chapter One : Introduction

1.8 Building Codes

Buildings must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building code,
which is a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety, fire
safety, plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled. A building code has
the force of law and is administered by a governmental entity such as a city, a county.
Building codes do not give design procedures, but they do specify the design requirements and
constraints that must be satisfied. Of particular importance to the structural engineer is the
prescription of minimum live loads for buildings. Although the engineer is encouraged to
investigate the actual loading conditions and attempt to determine realistic values, the structure
must be able to support these specified minimum loads.

1.9 Design Specifications

The specifications of most interest to the structural steel designer are those..-; published by the
following organizations.
1. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC): This specification provides for the
design of structural steel buildings and their connections.
2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO): This
specification covers the design of highway bridges and related structures. It provides for all
structural materials normally used in bridges, including steel, reinforced concrete and timber.
3. American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA): The
AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering covers the design of railway bridges and related
Structures.
4. American Railway Engineering Association (AREA).
5. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI): This specification deals with cold-formed steel.

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University Of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

CHAPTER TWO

TENSION MEMBERS

1.1 Overview
Tension member: is a structural elements which subjected to axial tensile forces. Steel shapes,
which are used as tension members, are shown in the figure below.

(a) Round and rectangular (b) Cables composed (c) Single and double
bars, including eye bars of many small wires. angles.
and upset bars.

Perforated

plates

(d) Rolled W and S (f) Build-up box

sections. sections.

Steel shapes use as tension members

Generally the used in:

1- Trusses in Frames & Bridges

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

2- bracing for building & bridge

3- cables such as: suspended roof systems, suspension & bridges

The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by:

ƒ= P/A

Where,
P is the magnitude of load, and
A is the cross-sectional area normal to the load.

The stress in tension member is uniform throughout the cross-section except

 Near the point of application of load, and
 At the cross-section with holes for bolts.

 The cross-sectional area will be reduced by amount equal to the area removed by holes.

1.2 Controlling Limit States

There are three limit states that relate to the member itself. These limit states that will be
considered are:

 Tensile yielding
 Tensile rupture
 Slenderness

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

1.2.1 Tension yielding:

Tensile yielding is considered away from the connections in the mid part of the member &
excessive deformation can occur due to the yielding of the gross section. The figure shows
the general region of concern for a flat plate member.

Fig Tensile Yielding Region

Tensile yielding is illustrated in Figure (b). This failure mode looks at yielding on the gross
cross sectional area, Ag, of the member under consideration. Consequently, the critical area is
located away from the connection as shown in Figure a.

To prevent excessive deformation, the stress at gross sectional area must be smaller than
yielding strength:

ƒ< Fy i.e. P/A < Fy

The nominal strength in yielding is: Pn1 = Fy * Ag

Tensile Strength Limit States

The statement of the limit states and the associated reduction factor and factor of safety are
given here:
Pu1 < φt Pn1
φt = 0.90

The values of Pu1 and Pn1 are the LRFD factored load and nominal tensile yielding strength
of the member, respectively, applied to the member.

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

1.2.2 Tensile Rupture of a Member:

Tensile rupture is a strength based limit state similar to the tensile yielding limit state that we
just considered. When the cross section is reduced by holes or if not all the cross sectional
elements of a particular section (such as the flanges on a W section) are transferring force to a
connection, then less of the section is effective in supporting the applied forces. Stress
concentrations will also cause localized yielding. Local yielding to relieve stress
concentrations is not a major problem for ductile materials so the yielding limit state is not
considered where the connections are made. The concern at these locations is actual rupture
so the applied forces are compared against the rupture strength in the region of reduced
effective section. The figure illustrations where the concern is for sample flat bar member
with bolted end connections. To prevent fracture, the stress at the net sectional area must be
smaller than ultimate strength:

ƒ< Fu i.e. P/A < Fu

The nominal strength in yielding is: Pn2 = Fu * Ae

Tensile Yielding Region

In this case we have two potential failure paths that see the full force of the member. These
are shown in Figures (c) and (d). Tensile rupture is complicated by the need to get the forces
out of the flanges, through the web, and into the bolts. This means that we need to account for
the stress concentrated in and around the bolts.

Tensile Strength Limit States

The statement of the limit states and the associated reduction factor and factor of safety are
given here:

Pu2 < φt Pn2

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

φt = 0.75

The values of Pu2 and Pn2 are the LRFD factored load and nominal tensile rupture strength
of the member, respectively, applied to the member.

1.2.3 Block Shear Rupture:

Block shear is, in some ways, similar to tensile rupture in that the main part of the member
tears away from the connection i.e. the tension member can fail due to 'tear-out' of material
at the connected end. The difference is that there is now a combination of tension and shear
on the failure path. Like tensile rupture, there frequently is more than one failure path. The
figure shows three possible block shear failure paths for a WT section. Block shear strength
is determined as the sum of the shear strength on a failure path and the tensile strength
on a perpendicular segment:

Block shear strength = gross yielding strength of the shear path

+ gross yielding strength of the tension path

Or

Block shear strength= gross yielding strength of the shear path

+ net section fracture strength of the tension path

When:

 Fu Ant ≥ 0.6 Fu Anv:

φt Rn3= φt (0.6 Fy Agv + Fu Ant) ≤ φt (0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant) Pu3 < φt Rn3

 Fu Ant < 0.6 Fu Anv:

φt Rn3= φt (0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt) ≤ φt (0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant)

Pu3 < φt Rn3

Where: φt = 0.75
Agv = gross area subjected to shear
Agt = gross area subjected to tension
Anv = net area subjected to shear
Ant = net area subjected to tension

and values of Pu3 and Rn3 are the LRFD factored load and nominal resistance or strength associated
with block shear of the member, respectively.

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

Block Shear Failure Paths

1.2.4 Slenderness Limits:
Slenderness is a serviceability limit state, not a strength limit state, so failure to adhere to the
suggestion is unlikely to cause an unsafe condition.
The limit state is written as:

L/rmin. < 300

Where "rmin" is the least radius of gyration. "r" is a section property that equals the square
root of the moment of inertia divided by the cross section area. Every member has an "r" for
each of the principle axes.

1.3 Area Determination

1.3.1 Net Area (An):
The net area computation requires computation of a reduced section due to holes made in
the member as well a failure path for the rupture surface. The figure shows a typical
standard hole and the dimensions that are related to it.

Bolt Holes

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

For An calculations, is to be taken as 1/8" larger than the bolt (i.e. 1/8" = 1/16" for the
actual hole diameter plus an additional 1/16" for damage related to punching or
drilling.) So, if you specify 3/4" bolts in standard holes, the effective width of the holes
is 7/8" (i.e. 3/4" for the bolt diameter + 1/16" for the hole diameter +1/16" damage
allowance.).

The next concept that needs discussing is the concept of failure paths. Failure paths are
the approximate locations where a fracture may occur. For bolted tension member,
maximum net area can be achieved if the bolts are

Placed in a single line. The connecting bolts can be staggered for several reasons:

1- To get more capacity by increasing the effective net area

2- To achieve a smaller connection length
3- To fit the geometry of the tension connection itself

The figure shows a failure path that has a component that is not perpendicular to the line
of action for the force. The stagger is characterized by a "pitch" of s and a "gage" of g as
shown.

An= Ag – (∑d+∑s2/4g)*t

Failure Path with Staggered Bolts

1.3.2 Effective Net Area, Ae:

In cases where SOME BUT NOT ALL of the cross sectional elements are used to transfer
force to/from the member at the connection, then not all the net area is really effective for
tensile rupture. This is the result of a phenomena called shear lag. Shear lag affects both
bolted and welded connections. Therefore, the effective net area concept applied to both
type of connections.

 For bolted connection, the effective net area is Ae = UAn

 For welded connection, the effective net area is Ae = UAg

Where, the reduction factors U is given by: U = 1 – x/L

Where, x is the distance from the centriod of the connected area to the plane of the
connection, and L is the length of the connection.

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

1.3.3 Reduction Coefficient "U":

The AISC manual also gives values of U that can be used instead of calculating x/L as
follow:
1.3.3.1 Bolted Members

– For W, M, I, and S shapes with bf/d ≥ 2/3 with at least three fasteners per line
in the direction of applied load …….U=0.9
– For T – shape with bf/d ≥ 4/3 with at least three fasteners per line in the
direction of applied load …….U= 0.9
– For I- & T- shapes not meeting the above conditions & all other shapes
including build up section ...U=0.85
– For all other shapes section with only two fasteners per line ...U=0.75
– When the load is transmitted through all of the cross section, U=1

1.3.3.2 Welded Members

– When a plate is connected by only longitudinal weld to all

o U = 0.75 when 1.0 ≤ ( Lw/Wp) < 1.5
o U = 0.87 when 1.5 ≤ (Lw/Wp) < 2.0
o U = 1.00 when (Lw/Wp) ≥ 2.0

Where Lw = length of longitudinal weld, in

plate
Wp = plate width, in
Wp

Lw

– When tensile load is transmitted by transverse welds only

An=Ae & U=1.0

Lw

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

– When tensile load is transmitted only by longitudinal weld to a member other

than plate, or longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds:

An=Ag & U=min[(1 – xcon/Lcon), 0.9]

Where Ag = gross area of the members, in2

Lcon= connection length, taken as the length of longer longitudinal weld, in

= max. [Lw1, Lw2]

Lw1

Lw2

Example 2-1: A 3/4" x 10" plate of Gr. 36 steel have span of 5 ft long and has standard holes for
3/4" bolts at each end for attachment to other structural members. The figure shows a face view of
the plate. The service level loads that the member will be subject to are 140 kips of dead load and 30
kips of live load. Determine the axial tension capacity of the member.

1
Solution:

The problem solution is pursued in the following steps:

Determine the demand on the member.

Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(140 k) + 1.6(30 k) = 216 kips

Check size based on the slenderness limit state.

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University Of Anbar
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Civil Engineering Department.
Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

Our member is 5 feet long and the least value of r is computed as:

The correct computation of L/r = (5 ft)(12 in/ft) / (0.217 in)= 277 < 300 ... The limit state is
satisfied

Determine the capacity of the member based on the

 tensile yielding limit state

Pn1 = Fy * Ag= (36 ksi)(7.500 in2) = 270 kips

ϕt Pn1 = 0.9*270= 243 k > Pu …….Ok.

 tensile rupture limit state

First let's compute the net area An for each of the two failure paths identified in Figure 2-5-1.

Path #2 Path #3

An2 = Ag - hole area + gage area An3 = Ag - hole area + gage area
= Ag - (num holes) = Ag - (num holes)(db+1/16"+1/16")(tpl)
*(db+1/16"+1/16")(tpl) + (tpl)(s2/4g)1 + (tpl)(s2/4g)2
= 7.50 in2 - (2 holes) = 7.50 in2 - (3 holes)(0.75 in +1/8")(0.75 in)
*(0.75 in +1/8")(0.75 in) + (0.75 in)(3 in)2/(4*(3 in))
+ (0.75 in)(3 in)2/(4*(3 in))

An2 = 6.19 in2 An3 = 6.66 in2

Tensile Rupture Failure Paths

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

The controlling net area is An2 as it has the smaller value. This means that, if tensile rupture were to
actually occur, this is the path that it would take. Therefore, for this problem:

An = 6.19 in2

In this problem we have only one cross sectional element (i.e. one plate element in the cross section)
and it is attached to the bolts leading us to U = 1.0. This means that there is no shear lag for this
problem.

Ae = UAn = (1)(6.19 in2) = 6.19 in2

Pn2 = Fu * Ae =(58 ksi)(6.19 in2) = 359 kips

ϕt Pn2 = 0.75*359= 269 k > Pu …….Ok.

2.4 Design of Tension Members

In design problems, the required tensile strength of member, Pu, is known. The design task then
consist of selecting a section and end connection such that the design tensile strength of member,
ϕPn, is greater than or equal to the required strength Pu. thus for design:

ϕPn = min [ϕPn1, ϕPn2] ≥ Pu or ϕPn1 ≥ Pu & ϕPn2 ≥ Pu

Pu, Pn1 and Pn2 are the LRFD factored load (or required tensile strength of member), nominal
tensile yielding strength of the member, and nominal tensile rupture strength of the member,
respectively. To satisfy the limit state of yielding in the gross section, the gross area must satisfy
the relation:

Ag1 ≥ Pu /(0.9*Fy)

While to satisfy the limit state of fracture in the net section, the net area must satisfy the relation:

An ≥ Pu /(0.75*Fy*U)

Then Ag2 ≥ Pu /(0.75*Fy*U) + estimated loss in area due to bolt holes

Ag ≥ max. [Ag1 , Ag2 ]

So, only section that satisfy the these relation are retained for further consideration in design.

L/rmin < 300

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

Example 2-2: Select the lightest W16*? Shown in the figure, as a member of truss to transmit a
factored tensile load of 415 kips, the member is 30 ft long. A588 Grade 50 shapes are available. Use
⅞-in bolt in two line in each flange.

Solution:
A588 Grade 50 steel; Fy= 50 ksi and Fu=70 ksi . (Table 2-3, page 2-39)
Required member strength Pu = 415 kips

415 kips 415 kips

Example 2-2

Pn1 = Fy * Ag ≥ Pu

Ag1 ≥ Pu /(0.9*Fy) = 415/(0.9*50) = 9.22 in2

rmin ≥ L/300 = (3*12)/300= 1.2 in

from the LRFD Manual, W16×36 (Page 1-20) satisfy the two requirements

Ag= 10.6 in2 > 9.22 in2 & ry = 1.52 > 1.2 in O.K.

bƒ = 6.99 in, d = 15.9 in., bƒ /d = 0.439 < ⅔ ……. U = 0.85

de= db +1/8 = 7/8 +1/8 = 8/8 = 1 in

An = Ag – 4detƒ = 10.6 – 4(1)(0.43) = 8.88 in2

ϕt Pn2 =0.75 Fu *Ae =(0.75)(70 ksi)(0.85*8.88) = 396 kips < Pu =415 …….N.G.

Select the next heavier section, a W16×40:

Ag= 11.8 in2 > 9.22 in2 & ry = 1.57 > 1.2 in O.K.

bƒ = 7.00 in, d = 16 in., bƒ /d = 0.4375 < ⅔ ……. U = 0.85

de= db +1/8 = 7/8 +1/8 = 8/8 = 1 in

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University Of Anbar
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Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Two : Tension Members

An = Ag – 4detƒ = 11.8 – 4(1)(0.505) = 9.78 in2

ϕt Pn2 =0.75 Fu *Ae =(0.75)(70 ksi)(0.85*9.78) = 436 kips > Pu =415 …….O.K.

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 University Of Anbar
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Civil Engineering Department.
Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

CHAPTER THREE

CONNECTORS

3-1 Overview
The primary structural fasteners used in steel construction have typically
been rivets, bolts and pins. These fasteners can be field installed, cheaper and
with less problems than welding.
Bolts are generally installed so that they are either perpendicular to the force
(i.e. the force causes shear in the fastener) or parallel to the force (i.e. the force
causes tension in the fastener) that they are transferring between members. In
some cases they have both shear and tension.
Rivets have essentially disappeared from modern steel construction, One thing
to note is that rivets provide a very inconsistent clamping force so determining
friction capacity for shear transfer is problematic. The capacity of rivet
connections is best done considering only the bearing capacity.
Pins are generally smooth large diameter fasteners that are not threaded. These
fasteners are not very common. Pins are always placed perpendicular to the
load direction and are in shear. Since pins are not threaded, they do not clamp
the connected members together and, consequently, do not enable friction
based force transfer between the connected members.
Welding is the process of joining two steel pieces (the base metal) together by
heating them to the point that molten filler material mixes with the base metal
to form one continuous piece.
This chapter will focus principally on the capacity of bolts and welding as they
are the preferred structural steel fastener.

3-2 Bolted Connections

Where the load direction is perpendicular to the bolt axis as shown in
Figure 3-1-1. In this situation the principle force in the bolt is shear. Less
frequently, the bolts are placed such that their axis is parallel to the direction of
force as shown in Figure 3-1-2. Here the principle force in the bolts is tension.
Then the failure of the connection results either from exceeding the shear
capacity of the bolt or one of the bearing limit states discussed with tension
members.

Figure 3-1-1 Bolts in Shear

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Figure 3-1-2 Bolts in Tension

3-2-1 Design Strength of Bolts in Shear

If the connections are to place in a tension test, shown in Figure 3-1-1, the
force vs deformation curve would look something like what is shown in Figure
3-2.
As the load is progressively applied to the connection, the major force transfer
between the connected plates would be by friction. The friction capacity is the
result of the normal force (N) between the plates created by the bolt tension and
the roughness of the contact surfaces (quantified by the friction coefficient, μ).
Once the applied force exceeds the friction capacity (i.e. the nominal slip
capacity), the connected members slip relative to each other until they bear on
the bolts. After slip occurs the force is then transferred by bearing between the
edge of the hole and the bolt to the bolt. The bolt carries the force by shear to
the adjacent connected plate where it is transferred to the plate by bearing
between the bolt and the edge of the hole.

As can be seen in Figure 3-2, every

connection will have two shear
capacities:
 The capacity to carry load without
slip and
 The capacity to carry load without
shear failure of the bolts
The first is called the NOMINAL SLIP
CRITICAL capacity.
The second is called the NOMINAL
BEARING capacity.
In a snug tight connection slip occurs at
much smaller loads so the nominal slip
Figure 3-2 Bolt Load/Deformation Curve
capacity is negligible. The only capacity
available for a snug tight connection is the nominal bearing capacity.

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

The location of maximum shear in the bolt is commonly referred to as a

SHEAR PLANE. The bolt depicted in Figure 3-3-1 is referred to as a "single
shear bolt" since it has only one critical shear plane. It is possible to have more
than one critical shear plane. Figure 3-3-2 shows a bolt that has two critical
shear planes. These bolts are said to be in "double shear" and can transfer twice
as much force as a bolt in single shear. It is possible to have even more planes
of shear.

Figure 3-3-1Single Shear Bolt Figure 3-3-2 Double Shear Bolt

In this case Rnv is the nominal shear strength of a shear plane is computed
using the equation:

Rnv = FnvAbNs

Where: Fnv is obtained from LRFD Table J3.2

Ab is the nominal cross sectional area of the bolt (db2/4)

 Ns is the No. of shear planes

φRnv = φFnvAbNs
Rdv= φRnv Nb
Where: φ =0.75
 Rdv is design shear strength of connector in joint
 φRnv is design shear strength per bolt

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

 Nb is the No. of bolts

While Rnb is the nominal bearing strength of a shear plane is computed using
the equation:

Rnb = 1.2 Fut Lc ≤ 2.4 Fut db

Where: Lc = clear distance Lce =Le – 0.5dh (at edge) Lce Lci

Lci = s – dh (internal) Le s

 Fu is ultimate tensile stress of member material, ksi

 t is the thickness of member, in
 db is the nominal diameter of bolt, in
 dh is the diameter of hole, in …. dh = db + 1/16
 Le = end distance (Table J3.4, pp107 in LRFDM)

 Min spacing of bolt s ≥ 2 ⅔d a distance of 3d is preferred.

Rdb= φRnb * Nb = (φRnbe * Nbe) + (φRnbi * Nbi)

Rd =min[Rdv, Rdb ]
Where: φ =0.75
 Rnb is nominal bearing strength per bolt
 φRdb is design bearing strength per bolt
 Nbe is the No. of external bolts
 Nbi is the No. of internal bolts
 Rd is design strength of connector in joint

3-2-2 Design Strength of A Bolt in Tension

The mechanics of a bolt in tension are less complicated than for a bolt in
shear. In this case there is no slip to consider. Also there are no shear planes.
The capacity of a bolt is the same regardless of the number of plates being
connected together. The tensile force is parallel to the bolt axis and is
considered to be concentric with the bolt's cross sectional area, resulting in
uniform stress across the section as depicted in Figure 3-4.
As tensile load is applied to a connection it will reduce the contact pressure
between connected members. The bolts see no tensile force beyond the
pretension force until the contact stress between the connected members is
overcome.

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

In this case Rnt the nominal

tensile strength of a bolt is
computed using the equation:
Rnt = Fnt Ab

Figure 3-4 Bolt in Tension

Where: Fnt = nominal tensile strength per unit area, obtained from ASIC-
LRFD manual, Table J3.2 (p. 107), as:

 Fnt = 90 ksi for A325 bolts

113 ksi for A490 bolts

 Ab is the nominal cross sectional area of the bolt (db2/4)

φRnt = φFnt .Ab

Rdt = φRnt * No. of bolt

Where: φ =0.75 and Rdt is design tensile strength of a connector

3-2-3 Design Strength of A Bolt in Combined Shear and Tension

The bolts in wind bracing connections are often subjected to both shear and
tension under applied loads. The interaction of applied shear and tension
creates a situation where the principle stress is neither perpendicular nor
parallel to the axis of the fastener. Figure 3-5 shows a connection where the
bolts see both shear and tension.

Figure 3-5 Connection with Combined Shear and Tension

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

The elliptic interaction formula approach can be used:

2 2
 Tu   Vu 
      1.0
 Rnt   Rnv 

Where: Tu is the factored tensile load in bolt

 φRnt is design tensile strength of a high-strength bolt
 Vu is the factored shear load in bolt
 φRnv is design shear strength per bolt
 Tu is the factored tensile load in bolt
For combined shear and tension, equations for tension stress limit are given
in the ASIC-LRFD manual, Table J3.5 (p. 6-84), as:

Fnt
F'nt = 1.3Fnt  f v  Fnt
Fnv

Example Problem 3-1: Determine the max. axial tensile load P (30% dead
load & 70% live load) that can be transmitted by the bolts in the butt splice
shown in Figure 3–6. . The main plates are ½-in. thick, and the cover plates are
⅜-in. thick. Assume 1-in. dia. A 490 bolts in standards holes with threads
eXcluded from shear planes . The plates are of A572 Gr 55 steel.

Cover plate Main plate

P P

P
P

1.75 ‫״‬ 3.5 ‫״‬

Figure 3-6 Example problem 3-1

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Solution: - Design shear strength

From table J 3.2 the value of Fnv for A490 bolt with eXcluded threads is 75.0
ksi
φRnv = φFv AbNs = 0.75 * 75 *(1)2/4 * 2 = 88.4 kips
Rdv= φRnv Nb = 88.4 * 6 = 530.4 kips

- Design bearing strength

@ edge bolt: Lce = Le – 0.5 dh = 1.75 – 0.5(1 + 1/16) = 1.22 in.
φRnbe = 0.75(1.2 Fut Lc ) = 0.75*1.2*70*1.22*1/2 = 38.4 kips
@ interior bolt: Lci = s –dh = 3.5 – (1 + 1/16) = 2.44 in.
φRnbi = 0.75(1.2 Fut Lc ) = 0.75*1.2*70*2.44*1/2 = 76.9 kips >0.75(2.4 Fut db )
= 0.75*2.4*70* ½ * 1 = 63 kips
Take φRnbi =63 kips
Rdb = (Nbe * φRnbe) + (Nbi * φRnbi) = (3*38.4) + (3*63) = 304.2 kips
Rd = min(Rdv, Rdb ) ................. Rd = 304.2 kips ≥ Pu
Pu= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 1.2(0.3 Ps) + 1.6(0.7 Ps) ≤ 478 kips
Ps, max =205.5 kips

Example Problem 3-2: A lap joint connecting two ½-in. plates transmits
axial service tensile loads PD = 60 kips and PL=60 kips using 1-in. dia. A325
high-strength bolts in standard holes with threads iNcluded in the shear plane.
Assume A572 Gr 50 steel. Determine the No. of bolt required for a bearing
type joint.

PL ½'' (Gr 50)

P
P

P P

Le p
Figure 3-7 Example problem 3-2

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Solution: -
Pu= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 1.2(60) + 1.6(60) = 168 kips
φRnv = φFnvAbNs = 0.75*48*(1)2/4*1 = 28.3 kips
φRnbi = φRnbe = 0.75(2.4 Fut d ) = 0.75*2.4*65*1*½ = 58.5 kips
Rd = min. (Rdv, Rdb ) = min. (Nb φRnv, NbφRnb) ................. 28.3 Nb kips ≥ Pu
No. of bolts (Nb) = 168/28.3 = 5.9
Provide 6 bolts. That is 3 bolts in each vertical row.

Example Problem 3-3: Determine the required number of ¾ in. diameter

A490 bolts for the connection below. It subjected to axial service tensile loads
PD = 14 kips and PL=126 kips.

Figure 3-8 Example problem 3-3

Solution: -
Pu= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 1.2(14) + 1.6(126) = 218.4 kips

φRnt = φFnt Ab = 0.75 * 113 * (¾)2/4 = 37.5 kips

No. of bolts = Pu/ φRnt = 5.8 say 6 bolts

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Example Problem 3-4: A WT10.5×31 A36 Gr.36 is used as a bracket to

transmit axial service tensile loads PD = 15 kips and PL=45 kips. Determine the
adequacy of the ⅞ in. diameter A325bolts with threads in shear plan for the
connection below.

Figure 3-9 Example problem 3-4

3
4

Solution: -
Pu= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 1.2(15) + 1.6(45) = 90 kips
– The bolts in shear:
Vu, total = 3/5 * 90 = 54 kips

o Shear strength:
φRnv = φFnvAbNs = 0.75* 48*(⅞)2/4 = 21.7 kips
Rdv= φRnv Nb = 21.7 * 3 = 64.95kips

o Bearing strength: the flange of TW-section controls

tf = 0.615 "
φRnb = 0.75(2.4 Fu dbt ) = 0.75*2.4*58* ⅞ * 0.615= 56.18 kips
Rdb = Nb * φRnb = 3 * 56.18 = 168.54 kips
Rd = min(Rdv, Rdb ) ................. Rd = 64.95 kips > Vu = 54 kips O.K.

– The bolts in tension:

Tu, total = 4/5 * 90 = 72 kips,
Fnt
F'nt = 1.3Fnt  f v  Fnt
Fnv
ƒv = Vu/(Ab* No. of bolts) = 54/(0.6016*3) = 22.45 ksi
90
F'nt = 1.3(90)  22.45 =67.11ksi < 90 ksi O.K.
0.75(54)
φRnt = φF'nt Ab = 0.75 * 67.11* (⅞)2/4 = 30.3 kips
Rdt = φRnt * No. of bolts = 3*30.3 = 90.9 kips >Tu = 72 kips O.K.

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

3-3 Welded Connections

Welding is the process of joining two steel pieces (the base metal)
together by heating them to the point that molten filler material mixes with the
base metal to form one continuous piece.
There are many welding processes, however the two most common processes
used in structural steel fabrication:
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): A manual process that is
typically used when welding in the field. It is also used frequently when
welding in a fabrication shop.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): An automated welding process that
frequently used when welding in a fabrication shop.

There are five basic types of welded joints, as depicted in Figure 3-10: Butt
Joints, Lap Joints, Tee Joints, Corner Joints, and Edge joints

The basic weld types are groove welds, fillet welds, slot & plug welds.

Figure 3-10 Welded Joint Types

Groove Welds: Groove welds are generally used to fill the gap between the two
pieces being connected. Groove welds are considered to be either "complete
joint penetration" (CJP) or "partial joint penetration" (PJP).
A CJP weld completely fills the gap between the two pieces as shown in Figure
3-11 parts A, B, and C. A PJP weld only fills a portion of the gap as seen in
Figure 3-11 parts D, E, F, and G.

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Figure 3-11 Groove Weld Examples

Fillet Welds: Fillet welds do not penetrate the gap between the parts being
connected. A fillet weld generally has a triangular cross section with one leg of
the triangle being attached to each piece being connected. Fillet welds are very
common and are used for a variety of connections. A typical fillet weld is
shown in Figure 3-12

Figure 3- 12 Typical Fillet Welded T

Joint

Slot & Plug Welds: Slot & Plug welds are similar to fillet welds in that they do
not penetrate the gap between the parts being connected. These welds fill a slot
or hole in one of the pieces being connected with the connection being between
the edge of the slot or hole on the one piece and the surface of the other piece.

3-4 Size and Effective Area of Fillet Welds

 Minimum allowed size of fillet welds: the minimum size of fillet welds
shall not be less than size shown in Table J2.4 (LRFDM, pp. 96). This
means that the weld needs to be big enough to heat the base material

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sufficient to create a good bond between the base metal and the weld
metal.

 Maximum allowed size of fillet welds: The specification limits the

weld size (LRFDM, J2.2b, pp. 96):

ω, max ≤ t if t < ¼"

………
ω, max ≤ t -1/16" ……. if t > ¼"
Where t is the thickness of thickest connected member.

Figure 3-13-1 Maximum Fillet Weld Size

 Throat size of fillet weld: The effective thickness of throat, te, for a fillet
weld is taken as the least distance from the root of the weld (i.e. where
the two connected pieces meet) to the outer surface of the weld as shown
in Figure 3-13-2.
te = a sin 45° = 0.707 ω
Where: te = effective throat or effective length of a fillet weld, in.
ω = leg size of a fillet weld, in.

 Effective Areas: The effective area of your typical fillet weld equals the
effective throat times the length of the weld as shown in Figure 3-13-3.
A w = t e * Lw
Where Lw = gross length of a fillet weld, in.; Lw ≥ Lw, min = 4 ω
te = effective length of a fillet weld, in.
Aw = effective area of a fillet weld, in.2

 The actual weld length should be: Lw/ ω ≤100

 If Lw/ ω > 100 multiply by β
 β=1.2-0.002(Lw/a) ≤ 1.0 (LRFDM, J2.2b, pp. 96)
 If Lw/ ω > 300 Take β = 0.6

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Figure 3-13-2 Fillet Weld Sectional Dimensions Figure 3-13-3 Effective Area of Fillet Welds
Fillet Welds

3-5 Design Strength of Fillet Weld

In this case two limit state are to be considered; weld metal strength and
base metal strength:

 Weld metal design strength

– Strength based on LRFDS Table J2.5

RdW=FwAw = 0.75(0.6FEXX)te Lw =0.45 FEXX te Lw

Where: Aw = effective area of weld, in2 =te Lw

Fw = nominal strength of weld metal, ksi = 0.6FEXX (Table J2.5,
pp. 100)

Or Fw =0.6FEXX [1.0+0.5(sin θ)1.5] …for linear group loaded

in plane through the center of gravity (J2.4, pp. 100)
θ= angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis,
degree

– Check base metal shear yielding strength

 RBM1 = (0.6Fy)tp Lw 
– Check base metal shear rupture strength
 RBM2 = (0. 6Fu) tp Lw 0.75

Rd= min. [RdW,  RBM1,  RBM2]

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Example Problem 3-5: Determine the design shear strength of a 4-in long
5/16 in. fillet weld. Assume SMAW process and E70 electrodes. Assume that
the applied load passes through the center of gravity of the weld. The weld is:
(a) a longitudinal weld, (b) a transverse load, (c) an oblique weld, with the load
inclined at 30o with axis of the weld. Use: (1) LRFDS Table J2.5; (2) LRFDS
Appendix J2.4.

Solution: - Weld size, a = 5/16 in. , Effective length, Lw = 4.0 in.

SMAW process: te = a sin 45° = 0.707 ω = 0.707 (5/16) = 0.221 in.
E70 electrodes. So, FEXX = 70.0 ksi
As no details are given, assume that the base material does not control the
design of weld.
1. Strength based on LRFDS Tables J2.5: In this approach, the design
strength of the weld is independent of the orientation of the applied load.
Rdw = 0.45FEXX te Lw = 0.45*70*0.221*4 = 27.85 kips

2. Strength based on LRFDS Appendix J2.4

a. Longitudinal weld: θ = 0.0, sin θ = 0.0

Rdw (θ =0.0) = 0.45FEXX te Lw [1.0 + 0.5 (sin θ) 1.5]
= 0.45*70* 0.221*4 [1.0 + 0.0] = 27.85 kips

b. Transverse weld: θ = 90.0, sin θ = 1

Rdw (θ =90.0) = 0.45FEXX te Lw [1.0 + 0.5 (sin θ) 1.5]
= 0.45*70 * 0.221*4 [1.0 +0.5 (1)1.5] = 41.8 kips

c. Transverse weld: θ = 30.0, sin θ = 0.5

Rdw (θ =30.0) = 0.45FEXX te Lw [1.0 + 0.5 (sin θ) 1.5]

= 0.45*70* 0.221*4 [1.0 +0.5 (0.5)1.5] = 32.8 kips

Observe that the transverse weld is 50% stronger than the longitudinal one
and the oblique weld 17.7%. the LRFDS Table J5.2 ignores this additional
strength.

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Example Problem 3-6: Determine the design strength of the tension

member and connection system shown below. The tension member is a 4 in.
× ⅜ in. thick rectangular bar. It is welded to a ½ in. thick gusset plate of
A572 Gr 50 steel, using E70XX electrode. Consider the shear strength of
the weld metal and the surrounding base metal.
ω = 0.25"
Solution: -
plate
– Check size limitation of weld
tbar= ⅜ " & tplate= ½ "
ω, max = t - 1/16" ……. t > ¼" 5 in.

= 1/2 - 1/16 = 7/16"

ω, min = 3/16 (Table J2.4)
ω, min = 0.1875" < ω = 0.25" < ω, max = 0.4375" ……. OK
Lw = 5" > Lw, min = 4 ω= 4*0.25= 1" ………OK
 Lw/ ω = 5/.25= 20< 100 ……… β=1.0

– Design strength of the weld

RdW = FwAw = 0.45FEXX te Lw=0.45FEXX (0.707 ω) Lw

= 0.45*70 * (0.707*0.25) * 10 = 55.68 kips

– Check base metal shear yielding strength

 RBM1 = (0.6Fy)tp Lw = (1) (0.6*36 ksi) (10*3/8 in2) = 80 kips

– Check base metal shear rupture strength

 RBM2 = (0.6Fu)tp Lw = (0.75) (0.6*58 ksi) (10*3/8 in2) = 97.9 kips

– Design strength of the system

Rd=55.68 kips

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Example 3-7: A plate 1 ⁄2* 4 " of A36 steel is used as

a tension member to carry a service dead load of 6 kips
and a service live load of 18 kips. It is to be attached to
a 3⁄8-inch gusset plate, as shown in Figure. Design a
welded connection.

Solution:

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

Example 3-8: A plate 1⁄2*8 of A36 steel is used as a

tension member and is to be connected to a 3⁄8- inch-
thick gusset plate, as shown in Figure.. Design a weld to
develop the full tensile capacity of the member. Use
U=1.0.

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 University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Three : Connectors

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

CHAPTER FOUR

COMPRESSION MEMBERS

4.1 Overview
There are several types of compression members, the column being the best known. Among the
other types are the top chords of trusses and various bracing members. In addition, many other
members have compression in some of their parts. These include the compression flanges of
rolled beams and built-up beam sections, and members that are subjected simultaneously to
bending and compressive loads. Columns are usually thought of as being straight vertical
members whose lengths are considerably greater than their thicknesses. Compression member: is
a structural member which carries pure axial compression loads like compression members in:
Generally the used in:

1- Column Supports & Towers

Columns as supports & compressive member in towers

2- Trusses & Bridges

Compressive member in truss

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

3- Columns in building frames

Steel shapes, which are used as compression members, are shown in the figure below.

(a) Rolled W-and (b) Double (c) Structural (d) Structural (e) Pipe
S-sections. angles. tee. tubing section

(f) Built-up section

Steel shapes used as compression members

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

The stress in the column cross-section is given by:

ƒ= P/A
Where,
ƒ is compressive stress which is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-
section,
P is the magnitude of load,
A is the cross-sectional area normal to the load.
If the applied load increased slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pcr that will
cause buckling of the column, Pcr is called the critical buckling load of the
column, i.e. P > Pcr lead to buckling.

4.2 Elastic Flexural Buckling of a Pin-Ended Column

The deflection at distance z is denoted by u
Moment equilibrium about A in the buckling P
state gives:
M – P.u = 0.0 …. M = P.u
M = EIΦ = – EI (d2u/d2z) = P.u
EI (d2u/d2z) + P.u = 0.0
d2u/d2z + (P/EI). u = 0.0
d2u/d2z + α2. u = 0.0 …… α2 = P/EI δ
u = A sin αz + B cos αz L EI
u = 0.0 @ z = 0.0 …………. B=0.0 u
u = 0.0 @ z = L …. A ≠ 0.0 A
then sin αL = 0.0 αL = nπ …α = nπ/L z
Where n = 1, 2, 3 ….
Then P = Pcrn = (nπ/L)2 EI
Thus, the Euler load of a pin – ended
column is: PE = Pcr1 = (π/L)2 EI P
Pin – ended column under axial load

4.3 Buckling Basics

There are two main modes of buckling failure that may be
experienced by
steel members: Overall (or general) buckling and local buckling.
The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler developed an equation
that predicts the critical buckling load Pcr, for a straight pinned
end column. The equation is:
Pcr = Л2EI/L2
Where, I = moment of inertia about axis of buckling.
This equation to be valid:

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

 The member must be elastic

 Its ends must be free to rotate but translate laterally

Dividing by the area of the element, we get an equation for the critical buckling stress:
σcr= Л2E/(L/r)2
Where the member cross sectional dependent term (L/r) is referred to as the "slenderness" of the
member.
σmax = minimum[Л2E/(L/r)2, Fy]

This relationship is graphed in the figure below

Theoretical Maximum Compressive Stress

4.4 General Member Buckling Concepts

The figure below illustrates
the principle axes of a typical
wide flange compression
member. Other members
shapes can be similarly
drawn. With the exception of
circular (pipe) sections, all
the available shapes have a
readily identifiable set of
principle axes. Buckling is a
two dimensional (planar)
event. In other words it
happens IN a PLANE that is
perpendicular to the AXIS
that it happens ABOUT. Compression Member Principle Axis Compression Member Principle Planes

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

3.4.1 Effective Length Coefficients and End Support Conditions

Theoretically, end supports are either pinned or fixed. In reality they can be designed to be pinned or
rigid and may actually fall somewhere in between truly pinned or fixed. The support conditions will
have an impact on the effective length, Le. Effective length, Le, of a compression member is the
distance between where inflection points (Inflection point is a location of zero moment) are on a
compression member. Effective length can be expressed as:
Le = K L …… Pe = Л2EI/(KL) 2
Where K is an effective length coefficient, L is the actual length of the compression member in the
plane of buckling & Pe is elastic flexural buckling load in column. Different end conditions give
different lengths for equivalent half-sine wave as shown in the figure below.

 The theoretical values of effective length coefficients assume that joints are completely fixed
against rotation or totally free to rotate. Reality is usually somewhere in between. This
affects the value of K.
 Table C-C2.2 is presented in LRFDM p. 240 to predicted the both theoritical and
recommended design value of K of isolated column and its depended on support
condition.

An theoretical effective length coefficient (K) values for different supports conditions for
isolated column
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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

 In the building, the cases with no joint translation are considered to be "braced frames" since
some kind of bracing between the two levels is necessary to prevent lateral movement under
shearing loads. The other cases are referred to as being "unbraced frames".

Braced vs. Unbraced Frame

 The figure below shows that different lengths of the same column can have different effective
length coefficients in the same plane of buckling. Consider everything in the plane of
buckling. Upper portion of this frame is UNBRACED. Lower portion of this frame is
BRACED.

 Note that all the columns shown have an out-of-plane direction that must also be considered
as well. Each direction will have totally independent lateral support and end conditions. It is
highly recommended that you to draw both elevations of the column so that you can clearly
see the conditions that apply to each column. Also note that the columns may have different
laterally unsupported lengths in each direction as well.

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

 Two Charts are presented in LRFDM p. 241 to predicted the value of K of column in frames.
One for braced frames (sidesway inhibited) and one for unbraced frames (sidesway
uninhibited). To use these charts you must determine the rotational stiffness, G, of each joint
in the plane of buckling being considered.

G
 I c Lc 
 I g Lg 
Where:
Σ indicates a summation of all member rigidity connected to that joint and lying on the
plane in which buckling of column is considered.
Ic & Ig moment of inertia of column & girder section, respectively.
Lc & Lg unsupported length of column & girder section, respectively.

Alignment charts for effective length of columns in continuous frames. The subscripts A and
B refer to the joints at the two ends of the column section being considered.

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

The figure shows a typical framed joint, and Effective lengths in different directions

Column Ic = Ix Column Ic = Iy
Beam Ig = Ix Beam Ig = Iy

Example 3-1: Determine the buckling strength of W12*50 column. Its length 20', the minor (weak)
axis of buckling pinned at both ends, while major (strong) axis of buckling pinned at one end and
fixed at the other end. E = 29 ksi.

Solution:
Note: for W-section x-axis is the strong Axis,
while y-axis is the weak one.
P 1-39 Ix = 394 in4 , Iy = 56.3 in4
The buckling Euler strength
K=1 K = 0.7
20'
Pe = Л2EI/(KL2)
The value of K of isolated column for different end
condition can be predicted from table C-2.2 in
LRFDM p. 240.

Pe (x-x) = Л2(29000)*394/(0.8*20*12) 2 Minor axis Major axis

= 3035.8 kips y-axis x-axis

Pe (y-y) = Л2(29000)*56.3/(1*20*12) 2
= 279.8 kips

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

Example 3-2

3.4.2 Long Columns

The Euler formula predicts very well the strength of long columns where the axial buckling stress
remains below the proportional limit. Such columns will buckle elastically.

3.4.3 Short Columns

For very short columns, the failure stress will equal the yield stress and no buckling will occur.

3.4.4 Intermediate Columns

For intermediate columns, some of the fibers will reach the yield stress and some will not. The
members will fail by both yielding and buckling, and their behavior is said to be inelastic. Most
columns fall into this range. (For the Euler formula to be applicable to such columns, it would have
to be modified according to the reduced modulus concept or the tangent modulus concept to account
for the presence of residual stresses.)

3.5 Column Formulas

The AISC Specification provides one equation (the Euler equation) for long columns with elastic
buckling and an empirical parabolic equation for short and intermediate columns. With these
equations, a flexural buckling stress, Fcr, is determined for a compression member. Once this stress is
computed for a particular member, it is multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the member to
obtain its nominal strength Pn.
Pn is the nominal compressive strength of the member is computed by the following equation :

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

nPn = Fcr Ag
Pd = ∅cPn = ∅cFcr Ag = LRFD compression strength (∅c = 0.9)
Where:
 Fcr is the critical flexural buckling stress.
 Ag is the gross cross sectional area of the member.
The criteria for selecting which formula to use is based on either the slenderness ratio for the member
or the relationship between the Euler buckling stress and the yield stress of the material. The
selection can be stated as:

E
 If KL/r < 4.71* then Fcr = [0.658 Fy/Fe] Fy
Fy
E
 If KL/r > 4.71* then Fcr = 0.877 Fe
Fy

In these expressions, Fe is the elastic critical buckling stress—that is, the Euler stress—calculated
with the effective length of the column KL.
 2E
Fe  2
 KL 
 
 r 

Note: The AISC Manual provides computed values of critical stresses ∅cFcr in their Table 4-22
PP (4-318). The values are given for practical KL/r values (0 to 200) and for steels with Fy = 36, 42,
46, and 50 ksi.

These equations are represented graphically in the figure below

AISC column curve.

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

Example 3-3:
Determine the design strength of W14*74 column. Its length 20', it's pinned at both ends. E = 29 ksi.
Solution:
Ag = 21.8 in2, rx = 6.04 in4, ry = 2.48 in4 , fy = 36 ksi

KyL 1 * 20 *12
=  96.77.......(control )
ry 2.48 K=1
20'
K x L 1 * 20 *12
=  39.73
rx 6.04
KL
max .  96.77  200......ok
r
Fy 50
4.71  4.71  113
E 29000
KL
 96.77  113.....use AISC Equation E3 - 2. p33
r

Fe = Л2E/(KL/r)2= 30.56 ksi

Fcr = [0.658 Fy/Fe] Fy= 25.21 ksi

Pd = ϕc Fcr Ag = 0.9 (25.21)(21.8)= 495 kips

Example 3-4:
Determine the effective length factor
for each of the columns of the frame
shown in the figure, if the frame is not
braced against sidesway.

Solution.
Stiffness factors: E is assumed to be
29,000 ksi for all members and is
therefore neglected in the equation to
calculate G.

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G factors for each joint: Column K factors from the chart

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

3.4 Local Member Buckling Concepts

The cross sections of steel shapes tend to consist of an assembly of thin plates. When the cross
section of a steel shape is subjected to large compressive stresses, the thin plates that make up the
cross section may buckle before the full strength of the member is attained if the thin plates are too
slender. When a cross sectional element fails in buckling, then the member capacity is reached.
Consequently, local buckling becomes a limit state for the strength of steel shapes subjected to
compressive stress. The figure below shows an example of flange local buckling. This member
failed before the full strength of the member was realized because the slender flange plate buckled
first.
 In the Euler equation the parameter (L/r)
is known as the slenderness of the
member. For a plate, the slenderness
parameter is a function of the
width/thickness (b/t) ratio, λ, of a slender
plate cross sectional element.

 There are two different types of plate

elements in a cross section: Stiffened
and Unstiffened.

Flange Local Buckling Example

 If a plate's edges are restrained against buckling, then the force required to buckle the plate
increases. If one edge is restrained (i.e. "unstiffened" plate element) the force to cause out-of-
plane buckling is less than that required to buckle a plate with two edges restrained against out-
of-plane buckling (i.e. "stiffened" plate element). An intersecting plate at a plate edge adds a
significant moment of inertia out of plane to the edge which prevents deflection at the attached
edge. The figure below illustrates the modes of buckling for a stiffened and unstiffened plate
elements.

Plate Buckling Modes

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

 The figure below shows the unstiffened elements on some typical steel sections and the
measurement of the element width, b, and thickness, t.

Unstiffened Elements

For example to prevent local buckling the plate slenderness, λ, should be less than limiting width-to-
thickness ratio, λr, as following:

E
Fy
– Flange of I-, W- or T- shape: λƒ = bƒ/2tƒ ≤ λrƒ = 0.56

E
Fy
– Flange of C- shape: λƒ = bƒ/ tƒ ≤ λrƒ = 0.56

E
Fy
– Web of W- or C-shape: λw = h/tw ≤ λrw = 0.75

E
Fy
– Web of T- shape: λw = d/tw ≤ λrw = 0.75

E
Fy
– For single angle: λa = blarger leg /t ≤ λrw = 0.45

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

 The figure below shows the stiffened elements on some typical steel sections and the
measurement of the element width, h, and thickness, t.

Stiffened Elements

For example to prevent local buckling for stiffness element:

E
Fy
– Web of W- or C-shape: λw = h/tw ≤ λrw = 1.49

E
Fy
– Side of tube: λtube = h/t ≤ λr, tube = 1.40

 See table B4.1 p.16

 If λ≤λr, the shape is non-slender. Otherwise, the shape is slender.
 If the width-to-thickness ratio λ is greater than λr, (λ>λr) use the provisions of
AISC E7 and compute a reduction factor Q. • Compute KL/r and Fe as usual.

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University Of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

The reduction factor Q is the product of two factorsQs for unstiffened elements and Qa for
stiffened elements.

 If the shape has no slender unstiffened elements, Qs 1.0.

 If the shape has no slender stiffened elements, Qa 1.0.

To calculate fQs for unstiffened elements and Qa for stiffened elements see AISC E7-4 to E7-
19. P40 to p.43

Example 3-6: A W8×35 Gr. 36 column is to be 15 ft long. In the strong plane, the column is part of
an unbraced frame, one end is to be considered fixed and the other pinned. In the weak plane, the
column is part of a braced frame, both ends are to be considered pinned and there is a lateral support
provided 5 ft from one end.

Solution: - For W8×35

A =10.3 in.2 , rx = 3.51 in., ry = 2.03 in.,

L = 15 ft; Lx = 15 ft; Ly1 = 5 ft; Ly2 = 10 ft

Kx Lx = 0.8*15 = 12 ft
Ky Ly1 = 1*5 =5 ft;
Ky Ly2 = 1*10 =10 ft (control)
K x L 12 *12
=  50.9
rx 3.51
KyL 10 *12
=  59.11 .....Controls (largest KL/r)
ry 2.03
E 29,000ksi
 4.71  4.71  99.49
Fy 65ksi
 2 29,000 ksi
Fe =  82 ksi
59.112
3682
Fcr = 0.658  36ksi  29.96ksi
Pn  29.96 ksi10.3 in 2   308.57 kips

Pd = ϕc Pn = 0.9*556.89 = 277.7 kips

Or one can find ϕc Fcr from table 4-22 p. 4-319

 Local buckling checking

λƒ = bƒ/2tƒ = 8.10 < λrƒ = 0.56 E F = 11.8 (unstiffener) O.K.
y

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λw = h/tw = 20.5 < λrw = 1.49 E F = 31.5 (stiffener) O.K.

y

Neither flange local buckling nor web local buckling will precede member buckling. So, the
design axial compressive strength of the column is 501.2.

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

Example 3-7: An HSS 16 x 16 x ½ with Fy is used for an 18-ft-long column with simple end
supports.
(a) Determine ∅cPn with the appropriate AISC equations.
(b) Repeat part (a), using Table 4-4 in the AISC Manual.

Solution:

LRFD ∅c = 0.90
∅c Fcr = (0.90)(42.51) = 38.26 ksi
∅c Pn = ∅c FcrA = (38.26)(28.3)
= 1082 k

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

(b) From the Manual, Table 4-4

∅c Pn = 1080 k

Example 3-8:
Determine the LRFD design strength ∅c Pn for the axially
loaded column shown in the figure. If KL = 19 ft and
50-ksi steel is used.
Solution
A =12.6 in2 , d=18.00 in,
Ix = 554 in4 , Iy =14.3 in4 , P.P 1-36 
x = 0.877 in from back of C)

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Example 3-9:
Using Fy= 50 ksi select the lightest W14 available for the service column loads PD = 130 k and PL =
210 k. KL = 10 ft.
Solution

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Example 3-10:
Select the lightest available W12 section, using the LRFD for the following conditions: F y = 50 ksi,
PD = 250 k, PL = 400 k, KxLx = 26 ft and KyLy = 13 ft.
(a) By trial and error
(b) Using AISC tables

Solution
(a) Using trial and error to select a section, using the LRFD expressions, and then
checking the section with the LRFD method.

A subsequent check of the next-larger W12 section, a W12 x 96, shows that it will work for the
LRFD procedure.

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

Inelastic Effective Length Factors

The discussion in Section 4-4-1 concerning the evaluation of effective length factors in
rectangular frames was restricted to the buckling of perfectly elastic frames. However, in
reality, instability of steel frames is more likely to take place after the stresses at some parts
of frame have reached the yield stress.
For elastic behavior the values of coefficients GA and GB given in the two charts of LRFDM
(p. 241 and p.242) can be used. If the elastic E still applies for the girder members, but
inelastic for the columns, this can be accounted for by adjusting the G values as follows:

Gi 
 E I i c Lc 

Ei
Ge  Ge
 E I e g Lg  Ee
Where: Ge = elastic G factor assuming that both columns and girders behave elastically
Gi = inelastic G factor assuming that girders behave elastically while the columns behave
inelastically
τ = stiffness reduction factor

Then τ = 1.0 For Pu/Py ≤ 0.39

τ = 4(αPu/Py) [1-(αPu/Py)] For Pu/Py > 0.39

Where: Py = Fy Ag and α=1 for LRFD

Vales for stiffness reduction factor τ, for different values of Pu/Ag are presented in LRFDM
for steel with Fy= 35, 36, 42, 46 and 50 ksi (p. 4-317). For values of Pu/Ag smaller than
those with entries in this table, the columns behaves elastically, and the reduction factor
τ=1.0. Note that G = 10.0 for pin end, and G = 1.0 for fixed end the value of G at that end
should not multiply by the stiffness reduction factor τ.

Note: LRFDM Tables p.(4-10) to p.(4-21) can be used for calculating design strength of
column for W sections, and these values are tabulated with respect to the effective length
about the minor axis KyLy. For buckling about major axis calculate (KL)eq.:
K xLx
(KL) eq 
rx
ry

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

Example Problem 4-6: Calculate the effective length for W10×60 A992 Gr.50 steel
column AB in the unbraced frame shown below, which subjected to an axial factored
compressive load of 450 kips.
The columns are oriented such that major
axis bending occurs in the plane of frame.
The columns are braced continuously
12'
along the length for out –of-plane buckling.
The same column section is used for A
the story above. Check the column
15'
adequacy. All girders are W14×74 sections.
B

18' 20'

Figure 4-13: Example problem 4-6

Solution: -
 Since the columns are braced continuously along the length for out –of-plane buckling
(minor axis), then Ly = 0.0 (No buckling occur about y-axis)
 Need to calculate Kx using alignment charts for unbraced frame:
Ix = 795 in4 for W14×74 & Ix = 341 in4 for W10×60

341 12  341 15
GA   0. 61
795 18  795 20 & GB = 10

 Py=Fy Ag= 50*17.6= 880 kips Then Pu/Py=0.511> 0.39 the column
partially plastifies
 Calculate Kx, inealstic : Pu/Ag = 450/17.6 = 25.57 ksi & Fy = 50 ksi
Then τ=0.875

GA= 0.61*0.875 = 0.53 & GB = 10 … Kx, inelastic = 1.8 (alignment chart)

 Design strength of the W10×60 column: KxLx= 1.8*15 = 27

rx/ry = 1.71 Then (KL)eq = 27/1.71= 15.79'
Pdc = 533.67 kips [LRFDM Table p.(4-19) - using interpolation]
Pdc= 533.67 kips > Pu= 450 kips ……. OK

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

Example Problem 4-7: Select the lightest W12 A992 Gr. 50 for the column AB in the
unbraced frame shown below, which subjected to an axial factored compressive load of 500
kips.
The columns are oriented such that major
axis bending occurs in the plane of frame. 10'
The columns are braced at each story level A
for out –of-plane buckling. 12'
A same section is used for columns of B
the stories above and below. 15'
All girders are W14×68 sections.
18' 20'

Figure 4-14: Example problem 4-7

Solution: -
 Since the columns are braced at each story level for out –of-plane buckling, then Ky =
1.0 …… KyLy = 1.0*12=12'
 Assume minor axis buckling governs, and Fy=50 ksi (A992 steel)
Pdc = 547 kips for W12× 53 [LRFDM Table p.(4-18)]
 Py=Fy Ag= 50*15.6= 780 kips Then Pu/Py=0.641> 0.5 the column
partially plastifies
 Calculate Kx, inealstic :
 Pu/Ag = 500/15.6 = 32.05 ksi & Fy = 50 ksi
Then τ=0.662

 425 425 
0 .662*   
 10 12 
GA   0 .68
722 722

18 20
 425 425 
0 .662*   
 15 12 
GB   0 .55
722 722

18 20
From the chart : K x, inelastic 

 Check selected W12× 53 section for x-axis buckling:

KxLx= 1.18*12 = 14.16; rx/ry = 2.11…Then (KL)eq = 14.16/2.11= 6.71'
Pdc = 648.35 kips [LRFDM Table - using interpolation]
Pdc = 648.35 kips > Pu= 450 kips ……. OK

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2018-2019 Chapter Four : Compression members

 Check for local buckling:

λƒ = bƒ/2tƒ = 8.69 < λrƒ = 0.56 E F = 13.5 O.K.

y

λw = h/tw = 28.1 < λrw = 1.49 E F = 35.9 O.K.

y

So, select a W12×53 of A992 Grade 50 steel.

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

CHAPTER FIVE

BENDING MEMBERS

5.1 Overview
Beams are a structural members which support
transverse loads and primary subjected to bending as
shown in Figure 5-1-1. The principle limit states for
selecting beams are related to flexure, shear, and
deflection. These an appropriate beam size. Steel shapes,
which are used as beams, are shown in Figure (5-1-2) below.
Figure 5-1-1 Cantilever Beam

(a) Rolled W-and (b) Build-up (c) open web joist.

other I-shaped Sections.
sections.

(d) Angle (e) Channel (f) Built-up members (g) Composite steel- Concrete

Figure 5-1-2 Steel shapes used as beams

5.2 Types of Beams

Based on the function and/or location in the building, beams may be
classified as one of the following several types:
 Girders: Usually the most important beams. (see Figure 5-2-1).
 Stringers: Longitudinal bridge beams spanning between floor beams. (see
Figure 5-2-1).
 Floor Beams: In buildings, a major beam usually supporting joists; a
transverse beam in bridge floors. (see Figure 5-2-1).

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 Joists: A beam supporting floor construction but not major beams. (see
Figure 5-2-2).
 Purlins: Roof beam spanning between trusses. (see Figure 5-2-3).
 Girts: Horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to
wind on the side of an industrial building. (see Figure 5-2-4).
 Lintels: Member supporting a wall over a window or door opening. (see
Figure 5-2-5).

Figure 4-2-1 types of Beams

Figure 5-2-2 Joists

Figure 5-2-3 Purlin

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Figure 5-2-4 Girts

Figure 5-2-5 Lintels
5.3 Bending Stresses
For an introduction to bending stresses, the rectangular beam and stress diagrams of
Fig. 5-3-1 are considered. (For this initial discussion, the beam’s compression flange
is assumed to be fully braced against lateral buckling). If the beam is subjected to
some bending moment, the stress at any point may be computed with the usual flexure
formula,
Mc
fb 
I
It is to be remembered, however, that this expression is applicable only when the
maximum computed stress in the beam is below the elastic limit. The formula is based
on the usual elastic assumptions:
 Stress is proportional to strain,
 A plane section before bending remains a plane section after bending, etc.
The value of I/c is a constant for a particular section and is known as the section
modulus (S).The flexure formula may then be written as follows:
Mc M
fb  
I S

Figure 5-3-1 Variations in bending stresses due to increasing moment about x axis.

When the moment is applied to the beam, the stress will vary linearly from the neutral
axis to the extreme fibers. This situation is shown in part (b) of Fig. 5-3-1.If the
moment is increased, there will continue to be a linear variation of stress until the
yield stress is reached in the outermost fibers, as shown in part (c) of the figure. The

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yield moment of a cross section is defined as the moment that will just produce the
yield stress in the outermost fiber of the section. If the moment in a ductile steel beam
is increased beyond the yield moment, the outermost fibers that had previously been
stressed to their yield stress will continue to have the same stress, but will yield, and
the duty of providing the necessary additional resisting moment will fall on the fibers
nearer to the neutral axis. This process will continue, with more and more parts of the
beam cross section stressed to the yield stress (as shown by the stress diagrams of
parts (d) and (e) of the figure), until finally a full plastic distribution is approached, as
shown in part (f). Note that the variation of strain from the neutral axis to the outer
fibers remains linear for all of these cases. When the stress distribution has reached
this stage, a plastic hinge is said to have formed, because no additional moment can
be resisted at the section. Any additional moment applied at the section will cause
the beam to rotate, with little increase in stress. The plastic moment MP is the
moment that will produce full plasticity in a member cross section and create a plastic
hinge. The ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment My is called the shape
factor.The shape factor equals 1.50 for rectangular sections and varies from about
1.10 to 1.20 for standard rolled-beam sections.
5.4 Plastic Hinges
In Figure. 5-4-1.The load shown is applied to the
beam and increased in magnitude until the yield
moment is reached and the outermost fiber is
stressed to the yield stress. The magnitude of the
load is further increased, with the result that the
outer fibers begin to yield. The yielding spreads
out to the other fibers, away from the section of
maximum moment, as indicated in the figure. The
distance in which this yielding occurs away from Figure. 5-4-1 a plastic hinge.
the section in question is dependent on the
loading conditions and the member cross
section.

5.5 The Plastic Modulus

The yield moment My equals the yield stress
times the elastic modulus. The elastic Figure 5-4-1
modulus equals I/c or bd2/6 for a rectangular
section, and the yield moment equals Fybd2/6.
This same value can be obtained by
considering the resisting internal couple
shown in Fig. 5-5-1. The resisting moment
equals T or C times the lever arm between
them, as follows:
Figure 5-4-2
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 Fy bd   2  Fy bd
2

My   d  
 4  3  6
The resisting moment at full plasticity can be determined in a similar manner. The
result is the so-called plastic moment, MP. It is also the nominal moment of the
section, Mn. This plastic, or nominal, moment equals T or C times the lever arm
between them. For the rectangular beam of Fig. 5-5-2, we have
d d  F bd   d 
M P  M n T C  y  
2 2  2  2 
Fy bd 2

4
The plastic moment is said to equal the yield stress times the plastic section modulus.
From the foregoing expression for a rectangular section, the plastic section modulus Z
can be seen to equal bd2/4 The shape factor, which equals MP/My,

or is bd 2 / 4  / bd 2 / 6   1.5 for a rectangular section

M P Fy Z Z

M y Fy S S
A study of the plastic section modulus determined here shows that
 It equals the statical moment of the tension and compression areas about the
plastic neutral axis.
 Unless the section is symmetrical, the neutral axis for the plastic condition will
not be in the same location as for the elastic condition.
 The total internal compression must equal the total internal tension.
 As all fibers are considered to have the same stress Fy in the plastic condition,
 The areas above and below the plastic neutral axis must be equal.
 This situation does not hold for unsymmetrical sections in the elastic condition

Example
Determine My,Mn, and Z for the steel
tee beam shown in Fig. 5-1. Also,
calculate the shape factor and the
nominal load (wn) that can be placed on
the beam for a 12-ft simple span. Fy =
50 ksi.
Figure 5-1

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Table 3-23 P.P. (3-211)

Note: The values of the plastic section moduli for the standard steel beam sections are
tabulated in Table 3-2 (P.P 3-11) of the AISC Manual, entitled “W Shapes Selection
by Zx.

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5.6 Theory of Plastic Analysis

The basic plastic theory has been shown to be a major change in the distribution of stresses
after the stresses at certain points in a structure reach the yield stress. The theory is that those
parts of the structure that have been stressed to the yield stress cannot resist additional
stresses. They instead will yield the amount required to permit the extra load or stresses to be
transferred to other parts of the structure where the stresses are below the yield stress, and
thus in the elastic range and able to resist increased stress. Plasticity can be said to serve the
purpose of equalizing stresses in cases of overload.
For this discussion, the stress–strain diagram is assumed to have the idealized shape shown in
Fig. 4-6-1. The yield stress and the proportional limit are assumed to occur at the same point
for this steel, and the stress–strain diagram is assumed to be a perfectly straight line in the
plastic range. Beyond the plastic range there is a range of strain hardening. This latter range
could theoretically permit steel members to withstand additional stress, but from a practical
standpoint the strains which arise are so large that they cannot be considered. Furthermore,
inelastic buckling will limit the ability of a section to develop a moment greater than Mp, even if
strain hardening is significant.

Figure 4-6-1

5.7 The Collapse Mechanism

 A statically determinate beam will fail if one
plastic hinge develops.To illustrate this fact, the
simple beam of constant cross section loaded with
a concentrated load at midspan, shown in Fig. 4-7-
1 (a), is considered. Should the load be increased
until a plastic hinge is developed at the point of
maximum moment (underneath the load in this
case), an unstable structure will have been
created, as shown in part (b) of the figure. Any
Figure 4-7-1
further increase in load will cause collapse. Pn
represents the nominal, or theoretical, maximum load that the beam can support.

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 For a statically indeterminate structure to fail, it is

necessary for more than one plastic hinge to form. The
number of plastic hinges required for failure of
statically indeterminate structures will be shown to
vary from structure to structure, but may never be less
than two. The fixed-end beam of Fig. 4-7-2, part (a),
cannot fail unless the three plastic hinges shown in
part (b) of the figure are developed.

Figure 4-7-2

 Although a plastic hinge may have formed in a statically indeterminate structure, the
load can still be increased without causing failure if the geometry of the structure
permits.
 The plastic hinge will act like a real hinge insofar as increased loading is concerned.
 As the load is increased, there is a redistribution of moment, because the plastic hinge
can resist no more moment.
 As more plastic hinges are formed in the structure, there will eventually be a sufficient
number of them to cause collapse.
 Actually, some additional load can be carried after this time, before collapse occurs, as
the stresses go into the strain hardening range, but the deflections that would occur are
too large to be permissible.

The propped beam of Fig. 4-7-3, part (a), is an

example of a structure that will fail after two plastic
hinges develop. Three hinges are required for
collapse, but there is a real hinge on the right end. In
this beam, the largest elastic moment caused by the
design concentrated load is at the fixed end. As the
magnitude of the load is increased, a plastic hinge
will form at that point.

Figure 4-7-3

 The load may be further increased until the moment at some other point (here it will be
at the concentrated load) reaches the plastic moment.
 Additional load will cause the beam to collapse. The arrangement of plastic hinges and
perhaps real hinges that permit collapse in a structure is called the mechanism. Parts
(b) of Figs. 4-7-1, 4-7-2, and 4-7-3 show mechanisms for various beams.

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5.8 The Virtual-Work Method

One very satisfactory method used for the plastic analysis of structures is the virtualwork
method.
 The structure in question is assumed to be loaded to its nominal capacity Mn, and is
then assumed to deflect through a small additional displacement after the ultimate
load is reached.
 The work performed by the external loads during this displacement is equated to
the internal work absorbed by the hinges. For this discussion, the small-angle
theory is used.
 By this theory, the sine of a small angle equals the tangent of that angle and also
equals the same angle expressed in radians. In the pages to follow, the author uses
these values interchangeably because the small displacements considered here
produce extremely small rotations or angles.
The uniformly loaded fixed-ended beam Fig. 4-8-1.
This beam and its collapse mechanism are shown. Owing to symmetry, the rotations at the end
plastic hinges are equal, and they are represented by in the figure; thus, the rotation at the
middle plastic hinge will be 2θ.
The work performed by the total external load (wnL) is equal to wnL times the average
deflection of the mechanism. The average deflection equals one-half the deflection at the
center plastic hinge (1/2 x θ x L/2).
The external work is equated to the internal work absorbed by the hinges, or to the sum of Mn
at each plastic hinge times the angle through which it works. The resulting expression can be
solved for Mn and wn as follows:

Figure 4-8-1
Plastic analysis can be handled in a similar manner
for the propped beam of Fig. 4-8-2. There, the
collapse mechanism is shown, and the end rotations
(which are equal to each other) are assumed to equal
θ.
The work performed by the external load Pn as it
moves through the distance (θ x L/2) is equated to
the internal work performed by the plastic moments

Figure 4-8-2
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at the hinges; note that there is no moment at the real hinge on the right end of the beam.

The fixed-end beam of Fig. 4-8-3, together with its collapse mechanism and assumed angle
rotations, is considered next. From this figure, the values of Mn and Pn can be determined by
virtual work as follows:

Figure 4-8-3
The plastic analysis of the propped beam of Fig. 4-8-4 is done by the virtual-work method. The
beam with its two concentrated loads is shown, together with four possible collapse
mechanisms and the necessary calculations. It is true that the mechanisms of parts (b), (d), and
(e) of the figure do not control, but such a fact is not obvious to the average student until he or
she makes the virtual-work calculations for each case. Actually, the mechanism of part (e) is
based on the assumption that the plastic moment is reached at both of the concentrated loads
simultaneously (a situation that might
very well occur).

Note: The value for which the collapse load Pn is the smallest in terms of Mn is the correct value
(or the value where Mn is the greatest in terms of Pn ). For this beam, the second plastic hinge
forms at the Pn concentrated load, and Pn equals 0.154 Mn.

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5.9

Figure 4-8-4
5.10 Location of Plastic Hinge for Uniform Loadings
There was no difficulty in locating the plastic hinge for the uniformly loaded fixed-end beam,
but for other beams with uniform loads, such as propped or continuous beams, the problem
may be rather difficult.
The elastic moment diagram for this beam is shown as the solid line in part (b) of the figure. As
the uniform load is increased in magnitude, a plastic hinge will first form at the fixed end. At
this time, the beam will, in effect, be a “simple” beam (so far as increased loads are concerned)
with a plastic hinge on one end and a real hinge on the other. Subsequent increases in the load
will cause the moment to change, as represented by the dashed line in part (b) of the figure.
This process will continue until the moment at some other point (a distance x from the right
support in the figure) reaches Mn and creates another plastic hinge.
The virtual-work expression for the collapse mechanism of the beam shown in part (c) of Fig.
4-9-1 is written as follows:
 L x  1
M n        w n L   L x   
 x  2
Solving this equation for Mn, taking dMn/dx = 0, the value of x can be calculated to equal
0.414L.This value is also applicable to uniformly loaded end spans of continuous beams with
simple end supports.

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Figure 4-9-1

The beam and its collapse mechanism are redrawn in Fig. 4-9-2, and the following expression
for the plastic moment and uniform load are written by the virtual-work procedure:

Figure 4-9-2

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Example 4-2
A W18 x 55 has been selected for
the beam shown in Fig. 4-2.Using 50
ksi steel and assuming full lateral
support, determine the value of wn.

Solution Figure 4-2

From the Table 3-2 of the AISC
Manual. Zx = 112 in3

Example 4-3
A W12 x 72 is used for the beam and columns of the frame shown in Fig. 4-3. If Fy = 50 ksi,
determine the value of Pn.

Solution
The virtual-work expressions are written for parts (b), (c), and (d) of Fig. 4-3 and shown with
the respective parts of the figure. The combined beam and sidesway case is found to be the
critical case, and from it, the value of Pn is determined as follows:

Zx = 108 in3

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Figure 4-3

1  1  50x 108 

Pn  M n     Fy Z    
1
  56.25k
8 8  8  12 

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5.4 Classification of Cross-Section

For the case of local buckling the slenderness is based on width/thickness
ratios of the slender plate elements that make up the cross section of most
steel members. The member cross sections are then classified by which of
the three ranges their most slender element falls in as shown in Figure 5-4.
If the most slender cross sectional element is not very slender (i.e. b/t is
small) , then the cross section is said to be COMPACT. If the most slender
element of the cross section falls in the transition range, then the cross
section is said to be NON-COMPACT. Otherwise, when the most slender
cross sectional element is very slender (i.e. b/t is large) then the cross
section is said to be SLENDER. (pp. 3-5)

Figure 5-4 Theoretical Maximum Compressive Stress

It can be summarized as follows. Let : λ = width – thickness ratio

λp = upper limit for compact category
λr = upper limit for non-compact category
Then:
– If λ ≤ λp the shape is compact (an I-shape is compact if λƒ ≤ λpƒ
and λw ≤ λpw )
– If λp < λ ≤ λr the shape is noncompact
– If λ > λr the shape is slender (an I-shape is slender if λƒ ≤ λrƒ
and λw ≤ λrw )
For rolled I-shape (Sec. B4, Table B 4-1, pp. 16 to18):
– λƒ = bƒ/2tƒ ; λpƒ = 0.38 E F and λrƒ = 1.0 E F
y y

– λw = h/tw ; λpw = 3.76 E F and λrw = 5.70 E F

y y

These limits are also used for C-shape, except that λ for flange is: λƒ = bƒ/tƒ

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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

5.5 Design Strength of Beam

5.5.1 Yielding Limit State

The specification computes the nominal moment capacity, Mn, as the
maximum moment that a member can support. This maximum moment is
considered to be when the cross section is fully yielded. Figure 5-5-1 Illustrates
how the stress distribution changes as moment is increased on a section.

Figure 5-5-1 Flexural stress distribution

In this case Mn is the nominal flexural yielding strength of the member. For
compact I-shaped members and channels bent about their major axis:

Mnx = Mpx= FyZx for strong axis bending

Mu < Md = bMnx

Where: b = 0.9

 Mp is the plastic flexural strength of the member.
 Fy is the material yield stress.
 Z is the plastic section modulus for the axis of bending being
considered.

5.5.2 Lateral Torsional Buckling Limit State

5.5.2.1General: When a member is subjected to bending, one side of the

member is in compression and wants to behave like a column. This means that
it is subject to flexural buckling. Since the compression side is connected to the
tension side (which is not prone to buckling), it cannot buckle in the plane of
loading. This leaves the lateral direction as the direction of buckling. The
tension side resists the buckling, resulting in the rotated cross section (i.e. the
torsion). A simple experiment can be used to demonstrate this behavior, take a

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University of Anbar
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Civil Engineering Department.
Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

thin, flat bar (a typical "yard stick" works well) and apply end moments about
the end with your hands. If you force bending about the strong axis, the
member will buckle sideways and the section will rotate so that it is no longer
vertical. This is lateral torsional buckling (LTB). The experiment is illustrated
in Figure 5-5-2.

Figure 5-5-2 Lateral

torsional buckling

If you bend the member about it's weak axis, this behavior is not observed. This
is because the out-of-plane moment of inertia of the section is larger than in-
plane moment of inertia. The out-of-plane inertia then creates a stiffness out-of-
plane that is larger the in-plane, thus preventing the out-of-plane buckling. The
result is that LTB is a strong axis phenomena. It need only be considered for
strong axis bending. Like all buckling, the force that will cause LTB to happen
(in this case, moment) is dependent on the length, or slenderness, of the
"column". Figure 5-5-3 shows the general form of the curve used for LTB. For
LTB the length of the column is length of laterally unsupported compression
flange. If the length is short enough, then the member can develop it's full
plastic strength. For longer lengths, there is inelastic buckling, and for long
laterally unbraced lengths there is elastic buckling, following a typical
buckling/plastic strength curve.

Figure 5-5-3 Strength (Mn) vs. Slenderness (Lb) for LTB

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University of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

5.5.2.2 Laterally Unbraced Lengths(Classification of spans for flexure):

It is important to be able to identify laterally unbraced lengths in flexural
members. The most important parameter in preventing the lateral buckling of
the beam is the spacing, Lb, of the lateral bracing. There are a few criteria that
must be considered.
1. The lateral support must be applied to the compression flange. Bracing
at mid-height or at the tension flange is not sufficient.
2. The bracing must provide actual lateral support.
For the purlins to be effective as lateral supports (adequately braced beam),
they must act to induce a point of inflection in the beam at the point of
connection, as shown in Figure 5-5-4. In some cases, particularly cantilevered
and continuous beams, the compression flange is on the bottom of the member
so does not have any lateral support (.unbraced beam)
The general form of the LTB limit state
follows the typical buckling curves.
The slenderness parameter used is Lb,
the laterally unbraced length.
The limits of the buckling regions are
specified by the terms Lp (the limit of
the plastic region) and Lr (the limit of
the inelastic buckling region) as shown in
Figure 5-5-3. Hence:
 If Lb < Lp then the plastic strength,
Mp, controls and LTB does not occur Figure 5-5-4 Lateral Bracing

 If Lp < Lb < Lr then inelastic LTB occurs

 If Lb > Lr then elastic LTB occurs

Where: Lp = the limit of laterally unbraced length for plastic lateral buckling
(Sec. F2, pp. 48) & (pp. 3-4 to 3-5)
E
= Lp  1.76ry
Fy
Lr = the limit of laterally unbraced length for elastic lateral buckling (Sec.
F2, pp. 48)
E Jc 0.7 Fy S x ho 2
Lr  1.95rts 1  1  6.67( )
0.7 Fy S x ho EJc

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University of Anbar
College of Engineering,
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

5.5.2.3 Design moment:

 Compact section:
1. Plastic Range (zone 1): As noted above, for a beam to be considered
adequately braced, its compression flange should be either continuously
braced, or the distance Lb between adjacent lateral braces should satisfy
the relation (Sec. F2.1-pp. 47): Lb < Lp (LTB does not
happen) Consequently in the plastic range:
Md = bMp=bFyZx (I-shape bent about the major axis)

2. In-elastic Buckling Range (zone 2):A linear interpolating function is

used to compute Mn in the in-elastic buckling range. The value resulting
from the interpolation is then scaled by Cb. This value is compared with
Mp to find the final Mn. Then the flexural design moment can be written
as(Sec. F2.2-pp. 47):

Md= b Cb (Mp - (Mp - 0.7SxFy)*(Lb - Lp)/(Lr - Lp))

Or b M n  Cb [b M px  BF (Lb  Lp )  b M px

Cb = a coefficient which depends on variation in moments along the span

(Sec. F1. )

Where:

Cb = 1.0 for uniform distributed bending moment. Table 3-1(pp. 3-10) in

LRDFM gives the value for Cb for simply supported beams.

3. Elastic Buckling Range (zone 3): The nominal moment capacity, MnE, in
the elastic range is found by computing the elastic moment that creates
the critical buckling stress, Fcr, in the compression flange(Sec. F3.2a-pp.
47).

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University of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

M n  Fcr S x  M p

Where:

 Non –compact section: if the section is non-compact because of flange

or web (λp < λ ≤ λr)(Sec. F3.2, pp. 49):

    pf 
M n   M P   M p  0.7Fy S x    
  
 rf pf  

For built-up sections with slender flanges (that is, where λ > λr ) (Sec. F3.2b, pp. 49):

0.9EKc S x
Mn 
2
h
Kc   0.35  0.76
tw

Example Problem 5-1: A compact W16×45 of A992 Gr. 50 steel is used as

simply supported beam of 33-ft span, as shown in Figure. Determine the max.
factored, uniform load that the beam can support if lateral supports are provide:
(a) at 5.5 ft interval; (b) at 11 ft interval; (c) at 33 ft interval.

Solution: - From LRFDM, for W16×45:

A= 13.3 in2; Zx= 82.3 in3; Sx= 72.7 in3; Iy=32.8 in4; ry = 1.57 in and Fy= 50 ksi.
Jc=1.11.

a) Lp = 5.55 Tables 3-2. p.(3-17)

Lb= 5.5' < Lp =5.55'
Then Md = bMpx= b FyZx= 309ft-kips
qu1 L2 309 * 8
Mmax = Md = ….. qu1   2.27 klf
8 332

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University of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

Note: The max. factored, uniform load for Fy= 36 (For MC-Section) & Fy=50
ksi (For W-Section), are tabulate in LRFDM to Tables 3-6. p.(3-33)
to p.(3-95) for fully braced beam or when Lb< Lp .
for our example enter Factored Uniform Loads
Qu = 74.8 kips p. (3-61)
For W16×45, Fy= 50 ksi and L=33'
qu1 = 74.8/33 =2.27 klf
L = 33'

b) Lp = 5.55 < Lb= 11' then calculate Lr

Lateral bracing type

Lr = 15.2 > Lb= 11' Tables 3-2. p.(3-17)

(a)

Md= b Cb (Mpx - (Mpx - 0.7SxFy)*(Lb - Lp)/(Lr - Lp))

(b)

Or b M n  Cb [b M px  BF (Lb  Lp )  b M px
(c)
Cb = 1.01 …. (Table 3-1, p. 3-10) , BF= 10.8
……Tables 3-2. p.(3-17) Figure: Example problem 5-1

Md= 252.6 ft-kip

qu1 L2 252.6 * 8
Mmax = Md = ….. qu1   1.86 klf
8 33 2

c) Lb= 33' > Lr

M n  Fcr S x  M p

Cb = 1.14 …. (Table 3-1, p. 3-10)

Sx= 72.7 in3, ho= 16.5 in, rts= 1.88 in, J= 1.11
Md = 830.6 >b Mpx
qu1 L2 309 * 8
Mmax = Md = 309 = ….. qu1   2.27 klf
8 33 2

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURE, COURSE BY : Asst. Prof. Dr. Sheelan Page No. 7
University of Anbar
College of Engineering,
Civil Engineering Department.
Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

Example Problem 5-2: A W12×65 of A992 Gr. 50 steel has unbraced length
of 11'. Determine the design bending moment.

Solution: - From LRFDM (Table 3-2, pp. 3-17) for W12×65; Zx= 96.8 in3;
ry=3.02" and Fy= 50 ksi.
λƒ = bƒ/2tƒ =9.92 ; λpƒ = 0.38 E F =9.15 and λrƒ = 1.0 E F = 24.08
y r

λw = h/tw = 24.9 ; λpw = 3.76 E F =90.6 and λrw = 5.70 E F =137

y y

As λpƒ< λƒ < λrƒ ……the flange is noncompact, but web is compact

Mpx= FyZx= 50*87.9 = 4840 in-kips = 403.33 ft-kips
Md = b Mn = b [Mpx - (Mpx - Mrx)*(b - p)/(r - p)] = 395.7 ft-kip.

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University of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

5.6 Selecting Sections

The objective of the selection process is, generally, to select the least cost (this
is also frequently the lightest) member that satisfies the design criteria. For
beams, there are multiple limit states to consider. The selection criteria can be
stated as: select the lightest section such that:
 Req'd Mn < Actual Mn,
 Req'd Vn < Actual Vn, and
 Actual  < Allowed .

5.7 Shear Strength Limit State

Beam shear strength must be provided to resist the anticipated applied
beam shears. In steel members, the elements of the cross section that resist
shear may be very slender. As a result the shear elements may be subject to the
normal ranges of the buckling curve, including plastic, inelastic buckling, and
elastic buckling behaviors. The distribution of elastic beam shear stress on a
given cross section is determined by the following equation:
 = VQ/(Ib)
Where:  is the shear stress at some point on the cross section.
 V is the shear force acting on the cross section.
 Q is the first moment of area “above” the point where of interest is.
 I is the moment of inertia of the cross section.
 b is the breadth (i.e. width), parallel to the axis of bending, of the cross
section at the point of interest.

The graph of this equation over the height of a rectangular section and an "I"
shaped section is shown in Figure 5-7-1.
Its appear that for I-shapes bent about
their major axis, it is assumed that only
the web resists the shear and that the
intensity of shear stress is uniform
throught the depth. The design shear
strength.
For I-rolled for limit state of
shear yielding of the web is
(Sec. G2, pp. 64 to 65): Figure 5-7-1 Shear stress distribution

Vd = vVn = v FyvAw = v Cv (0.6Fy)Aw

Where: v = 0.90
 Fyv is the shear yield strength of the steel=0.6Fy
 Aw is the shear are of a web. For I shaped members including channels,
Aw equals the overall depth times the web thickness, d tw.
Vd = vVn = 0.54FyAwCv

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University of Anbar
College of Engineering,
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

 Cv is a modifier that accounts for buckling behavior of the web.

h k E
 1.10 v Cv  1.0
tw Fy
kv E
1.10
kv E h k E Fy
1.10   1.37 v Cv 
Fy tw Fy h
tw
h k E 1.51Ekv
 1.37 v Cv  2
tw Fy h
  Fy
 tw 
For webs without transverse stiffeners and with
h
 260 kv = 5
tw

5.8 Deflection Limit State

The calculations of deflection are done at service (i.e. actual) levels and for
load combinations that make sense for the project and/or member under
consideration. Typically, two different loadings are considered: Total load
(dead plus transient loads such as live load and snow) and transient load only.
Total load deflections are important because these will have an impact on
nonstructural elements that are near to or attached to the beam. The transient
load deflections are important for maintaining the comfort of occupants. In the
absence of more specific criteria, criteria for structures with brittle finishes (as
found in code documents for years) is frequently used.
Standard American practice for buildings has been to limit service live-load
deflections to approximately 1/360 of the span length.
This deflection is supposedly the largest value that ceiling joists can deflect
without causing cracks in underlying plaster. The 1/360 deflection is only one
of many maximum deflection values in use because of different loading
situations, different engineers, and different specifications. (Table 3-23, pp. 3-
211 to 3-226, for calculating moment, shear and deflection for different support
conditions)

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University of Anbar
College of Engineering,
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

Example Problem 5-3: Select s standard W-shape

of A992 Gr. 50 steel for used as simply supported
beam of 30-ft span, as shown in Figure 5-8. the beam
has continuous lateral supports and support a
L = 30'
uniform service live load of 4.5 kips/ft. Max
allowable live load deflection is 1.5".
Figure 5-8: Example problem 5-3
Solution: - Ignore the beam weight initially then
check
after a selection is made.
Wu = 1.6 L.L.= 1.6(4.5) = 7.2 kips/ft.
Mu = ⅛ WuL2 = 810 ft-kips
Assume the shape is compact with full lateral support
Md = bMpx= b FyZx ≥ Mu =810 ft-kips
Zx ≥ Mu/b Fy= 216 in3
Try W 24×84 (LRFDM p.3-16), Zx = 224 in3
Wu = 1.2 D.L. + 1.6 L.L.= 1.2(0.084) + 1.6(4.5) = 7.3 kips/ft.
Mu = ⅛ WuL2 = 821.4 ft-kips
Zx, req = Mu/b Fy= 219 in3 < 224 in3 OK
This shape is compact (noncompact shape are marked as such table)
Vu = ½ WuL = 110 kips
w = 21/0.47=44.68 <  E 
pv = 2.45
Fy
b Vn = b 0.6FyAw = 0.9*0.6*50*(24.1*0.47) = 306 kips >Vu OK
5WLL L4
L.L =  1.19in  1.5 (p. 3-211) OK
384 EI x

Example Problem 5-4: Select s standard W18×?-shape of A992 Gr. 50 steel

for used as simply supported beam of 30-ft span, as shown in Figure 5-9. The
beam supports a two equal concentrated service live and dead load of 24 and
10 kips/ft, respectively, at one-third and two-third. The beam is supported
laterally at the points of load application. Max allowable live load deflection is
1.3".
P P
Solution: - Ignore the beam weight initially and
assume that Lb< Lp. Then one can use LRFDM
L = 30'
Max. factored uniform loads Tables but first enter
to the LRFD Table of Concentrated Load
Equivalents on p.(3-208): Figure: Example problem 5-4

 Equivalent uniform load = 2.667 Pu (Table 3-22a, p. 3-208)

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University of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

 Required factored uniform load:

Pu = 1.2(10) +1.6(24) = 50.4

Wu = 2.667 Pu = 135 kips

 Enter factored uniform loads Table for Fy=50 ksi and Wu > 135 kips

 1st trial – W 18×71: Wu = 146 kips > 135 kips (p.3-58)

Lb= 10' , Lp= 6' and Lr = 19.6' (p.3-16)
Since Lp< Lb < Lr

b M n  Cb [b M px  BF (Lb  Lp )  b M px

Cb = 1…. (Table 3-1, p. 3-10) , bMpx= 548 kip-ft , BF= 15.7 …… p.(3-16)

Md =485.2 kip-ft
0.071 * 35 2
Mu, max= (50.4*10) + = 511.3 kip-ft > Md Not. Ok.
8

 2nd trial – W 18×76: Wu = 163 kips > 135 kips (p.4-87)

Lb= 10' , Lp= 9.22' and Lr = 27.1'

b M n  Cb [b M px  BF (Lb  Lp )  b M px

Cb = 1…. (Table 3-1, p. 3-10) , bMpx= 611 kip-ft , BF= 12.8 …… p.(3-16)

Md =601 kip-ft
0.076 * 35 2
Mu, max= (50.4*10) + = 512 kip-ft < Md ….. OK
8
Use W 18×76

 Check for shear requirement: Vu = Pu = 1.2(10) +1.6(24) = 50.4 kips

w = 15.5/0.425=36.47 <  E 
pv = 2.45
Fy
bVn = b 0.6FyAw = 0.9*0.6*50*(15.5*0.425) = 177.86 kips >Vu OK.

 Check for live load deflection: MLL = 24*10 = 240 kip-ft

he max. deflection is (See p. 3-7):
M LL L2 240(30) 2
 max. L.L (@ mid span) =  1.03in  1.3 OK.
C1 I x 158(1330)

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University of Anbar
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Design of Steel Structure, Course 2020-2021 Chapter Five : Bending members

Example Problem 5-5: Select standard W-

shape of A992 Gr. 50 steel for used as framed P P
girder of 35-ft span, as shown in Figure 5-10,
using LRFD Beam Design Moment Charts. it is
Lb = 15' Lb = 15'
supported a two equal concentrated service,
L = 35'
which produce a required moment of 440 kip-ft in
the center between the two loads. The beam is
supported laterally at the points of load Figure : Example problem 5-5
application.

Solution: - LRFD Beam Design Moment Charts

(p.4-113 to p.4-166) can be used for Lp < Lb < Lr
and Cb = 1.0

For this load condition, Cb = 1.0 (the moment

is uniform between the two loads. Since the 15'
is longest unbraced length, one can expected that
Lp < L b < Lr .

With total span of 35' and Mu=440 kip-ft., assume weight of beam 70 ibs/ft

 0.07 * 35 2 
Mu, total = 440 + 1.2 *   453 kip-ft.
 8 

Enter the chart with Lb =15' and Mu=453 kip-ft, any beam listed above and to
the right of intersecting point satisfies the design moment requirement. The
solid portion of curves indicated the most economical section by weight, while
the dashed portion of curves indicated ranges in which a lighter weight beam
will satisfy the loading conditions.
For our example: Use W21×68 (p. 3-121)

Md= 457 kip-ft > Mu= 453 kip-ft

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