Chapter One

Introduction, Material and

Design Concepts

Instructor Daniel.H
 Introduction
• Structures whose major constituent components
are steel are known as steel structure
• while those with large proportion of timber
components timber structures
• Steel and timber are used in various civil
engineering applications such as
• Buildings of various types,
• Bridges,
• Power transmission and communication towers,
• Windmills,
• Off-shore oil and gas facilities,
• Reservoirs and other storage structures, mines, among
others.

Instructor Daniel.H
 Introduction
• From structural point of
view steel structures can be
broadly categorized as
either frame or skeletal
types, or shell and plate
type structures
• Framed structures are the
primary topic for discussion • Multi story buildings
in this course work.
• Frames consist of an
assemblage of elongated or
one-dimensional members.
• Shell- and plate-type
structures are mostly made
up of steel sheets. • Exhibition halls

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 Areas of Application

• Aircraft Maintenance Hangars

• Plate Girder & Truss Arch Bridge

• Industrial Building • Cable-stayed &Suspension Bridge

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• Communication & Power Facilities
• Petro-chemical Industrial Facility

• Steel Members for Gasoline Station • Typical Over Head Cranes

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• Steel for Roof Trusses of Stadiums • Steel Members for Bracing Systems

• Scaffolding in Tunnel Construction • Steel for Composite Construction

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 Merits of Steel Structures
• The ability to resist high • It is an environmental
loads with a comparatively friendly by being recycled
small size and light weight • Shorter erection period
• Due to its high density, steel • Steel offers wide-span
is completely non-porous. frames. provides column-
• The possibility of free, uninterrupted interior .
industrializing construction • offer the absolute accuracy
work by the use of pre- of dimensions
fabricated members • Steel offers greater
• A very long service life, possibilities for imaginative
provided care is taken architectural design
• The possibility of • construction cost of
disassembling or replacing structural steel is more
some steel members economical
Instructor Daniel.H
 Design Philosophy and design Formats
• Design Procedure • Design Philosophy
i. Functional Planning/Design:- 1. Strength:- pertains to the
the designer must create a plan general integrity and safety of
which is adapted to the site; the structure under extreme
which provides a suitable load conditions.
arrangement of rooms, 2. Serviceability:- refers to the
corridors, stairways, elevator, proper functioning of the
etc. structure as related to its
ii. Structural Planning / Design:- appearance, maintainability, and
For example, the location of the durability under normal, or
columns in a building usually service load, conditions.
must be worked out with the 3. Economy:- concerns the overall
functional plan material and labor costs required
iii. structural analysis:- Once the for the design, fabrication,
loads are defined, a structural erection, and maintenance
processes of the structure.
analysis must be made to
determine the internal forces
iv. Proportioning the members of
the structural system

Instructor Daniel.H
 Design Formats
• The design of steel structures may be controlled by several criteria described as
“limits of structural usefulness ". They are as follows:
– Hypothetical attainment of yield point
– Attainment of maximum plastic strength
– Excessive deflections at service load and drift limitations
– Instability
– Fatigue and
– Fracture
• At present, steel design can be performed in accordance with
one of the following three formats worldwide.
I. Allowable Stress Design (ASD):- a member is selected such that under
expected loads, service or working loads, the stress will not exceed one of the
previously described limits of usefulness.
– allowable stress design is based on elastic analysis to obtain the structural
responses such as moments, shear and axial forces that a member must be
designed to carry.
– The general formula for an allowable stress design has the form:

Instructor Daniel.H
 Cont..
• Where: -
– Rn = nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in units of stress
– Qi = service or working stress computed from the applied working load type i.
– i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
– m = number of load types considered in the design
– Rn/Fs = allowable stress of structural component
II. Plastic Design: - makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved strength beyond
the first yield condition till plastic yield stage.
• In plastic design the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to obtain factored loads.

• Where: -
– Rn = nominal plastic strength of the member
– Qni = nominal load effects from the loads of type i.
– i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
– m = number of load types considered in the design
–  = load factor
• In steel building design the load factor  is given by the AISC Specification as 1.7, if Qn consists of dead
and live gravity loads only, and
• as 1.3, if Qn consists of dead and live gravity loads acting in conjunction with wind or earthquake loads.

Instructor Daniel.H
 Cont..
III. Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design:
- Limit state is a Probabilistic design procedure in which a
structure is considered unfit for use when such a limiting
condition exceed a particular state, called a limit state
• Three classes of limit states are recognized:
– Ultimate limit states (if exceeded can lead to collapse )
– Serviceability limit states (specified service criteria are no longer
met)
– Durability limit states (subsets of the ultimate and serviceability
limit states)
• In actual design, a resistance factor ‘ m’ is applied to the
nominal resistance of the structural component to account
for any uncertainties in determination of its strength
• A load factor ‘ l’ is applied to each load type to account for
the uncertainties in determining its actual load magnitude.

Instructor Daniel.H
 Cont.
• In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more
predictable and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less
predictable.
• Mathematically it can be expressed as:

Or Design strength >= Required strength

• Specifications and codes provide the values of  pertaining to
different loads and also outline the load combinations to be used
on the right-hand side of the above equation.
• For a safe design, all load combinations should be investigated, and
the design is based on the worst-case scenario.
• The national building codes, both EBCS 3 1995 for steel and EBCS 5
1995 for timber structures are also based on the concepts of the
limit state design.

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 Materials
• The most important – Stress-strain Behavior of
Structural steel
structural properties of
steel are
– Yield strength and
ultimate strength,
– Modulus of elasticity,
– Shear modulus,
– Poisson’s ratio,
– Coefficient of thermal
expansion, and
– Its density.
Instructor Daniel.H
 Material properties
• Elastic region:- stress is proportional strain to longitudinal strain under
to the strain, and Hooke's law applies. axial load.
The constant of proportionality is the • Shear modulus:- G, is the ratio of
modulus of elasticity or Young’s shear stress to shear strain. G, is
modulus, E. presumed to be constant (= 80 GPa )
• Inelastic Region: - steel section for all structural steels.
deforms plastically under a constant • Thermal expansion:- The coefficient
stress, fy. ductility (the ability of a of thermal expansion, , for structural
material to undergo plastic steel is 12 x 10-6 per oc.
deformation prior to fracture) • Fatigue:- Failure occurs through
decreases with increasing steel progressive growth of a crack that
strength. starts at a fault
• Strain-Hardening Region:- • Brittle:- Structural steel is ductile at
deformation is accompanied by an temperatures above 10oC, but it
increase in stress. Peak point of becomes more brittle as the
stress-strain curve is the ultimate temperature falls, and fracture can
stress, fu. fu is the largest stress the occur at low stresses below 0°c.
material can attain under uniaxial
condition.
• Poisson’s Ratio:- , is the absolute
value of the ratio of the transverse

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 Types of Steel
• As per the ASTM classification
– Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM A709):- Depending on
the amount of carbon content, different types of carbon steels can be
identified:
• Low-carbon steel: carbon content < 0. 5%
• Mild carbon steel: carbon content varies from 0. 15-0.29%
• Medium-carbon steel: carbon content 0.30-0.59%
• High-carbon steel: carbon content 0.60 - 1.70%
– High-strength Low-alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572):- These
steels possess enhanced strength as a result of presence of one or
more alloying agents, such as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, and
vanadium; in addition to the basic elements of iron, carbon, and
manganese.
– Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514):- The
quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of
those used in carbon and low-alloy steels. In addition, they are heat-
treated by quenching and tempering to enhance their strengths.

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 Structural Steel Shapes
• In general, there are three
procedures by which steel
shapes can be formed:
– hot-rolled,
– cold-formed, and
– combined.
• Most of the rolling is done on
hot steel, with the product
termed hot-rolled steel. • Standard rolled shapes
• Sometimes the thinner plates
are further rolled or bent,
after- cooling, into cold-rolled
or "cold-formed" steel
products.
• The commonly used standard
hot rolled steel shapes are as
shown in Fig. • Some cold formed shapes

Instructor Daniel.H
 Structural Fasteners
• The two main fastening means are bolting and welding (with a few and isolated
case also riveting and pins).
• Bolts:- Four basic types of bolts are commonly in use; they are designated by
ASTM as A307, A325, A490, and A449
– A307 Bolts: These are called unfinished or ordinary bolts and are made from
low-carbon steel. They are furnished in two grades, A and B,
– A325 Bolts: made of medium carbon steel. It is also used in both hot-rolled
and cold-formed construction. They are called high-strength bolts.
– A449 Bolts: The A449 bolt also of medium carbon steel, is furnished in three
ranges of diameter.
– A490 Bolts: The A490 bolts are made from quenched and tempered alloy steel
in one tensile-strength grade. and thus have higher strength, than A325 bolts.
• Welding:- Welding is the process of joining metal parts by means of heat and
pressure, which cause fusion of the parts (resistance welding), or by heating the
metal to the fusion temperature, with or without the addition of weld metal
(fusion welding).

Instructor Daniel.H
 Specifications and Building Codes
• Then design of steel structures is generally done within the framework of codes
giving specific requirements for materials, structural analysis, member
proportioning, etc.
• Specification serves as a guide for the engineer to arrive at a safe and
acceptable design.
• It is also a guarantee to the owner that the resulting structure will comply with
basic standards to ensure safety, utility and economy.
• The following are some important specifications for concrete structures.
– EBCS 1 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis of Design and Actions on Structures.
– EBCS 3 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for the Design of Steel Structures.
– EBCS 4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Design of Composite Steel and Concrete
Structures.
– EBCS 8 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis Earthquake design of Structures.
– EC 3 European Standards for the Structural Use of Steel
– AISC American Institute of Steel Construction, Steel Construction Manual
– AWS American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code
– AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Specification
for Highway Bridges
– BS 5950 British Standards for The Structural Use of Steel Works in Buildings
– AREA American Railway Engineering association, Specification for Steel Railway
Bridges
– ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
– DIN DIN V ENV 1993 German Standards for the Structural Use of Steel

Instructor Daniel.H
Thanks
Instructor Daniel.H