MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS
! Simple Tension Test
! The Stress-Strain Diagram
! Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle
Materials
! Hooke’s Law
! Strain Energy
! Poisson’s Ratio
! The Shear Stress-Strain Diagram
! Failure of Materials Due to Creep and Fatigue

1
Stress Strain Relationship

σ (MPa)
P
400
350
300
250
L0 200
d0
150
100
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
P 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale

2
The Stress-Strain Diagram

σ
true fracture stress
σf ´

proportional limit ultimate stress

σu fracture stress
σf elastic limit
yield stress
σY
σpl

ε
elastic yielding strain necking
region hardening

elastic plastic behavior

behavior
3
Offset Yield Stress

σ (MPa)
σY
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.005 0.010
0.002
(0.2% offset)
Offset yield strength for material with no yield points

4
 P δ
σ= ε=
A0 L0 P

σ (MPa)
σu = 390 MPa
400
350 L0
σfail = 295 MPa d0
300
(σy)u = 230 MPa 250
200
(σy)l = 220 MPa
150 σpl = 200 MPa
100 200 P
E= = 200x103 MPa= 200 GPa
50 0.001
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale
5
 σ (MPa)

400 σu = 360 MPa

350
σfail = 310 MPa
300
250
200 σy = 250 MPa
150
σpl = 180 MPa
100
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale

100
E= = 200x103 MPa = 200 GPa
0.0005

6
Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

σ (MPa)
Brittle material

400
Ductile material

300

200

100

ε (mm/mm)
0.02 0.04 0.06

σ−ε diagrams for a methacrylate plastic

7
• Elongation
L f − L0
Percent elongation = (100%)
L0
A0 − A f
Percent reduction of area = (100%)
A0

8
• Temperature Effects:

σ (MPa)
10 oC

400 Brittle to Ductile Ductile to Brittle

40 oC
300

200
70 oC
100

ε (mm/mm)
0.02 0.04 0.06

σ−ε diagrams for a methacrylate plastic

9
Hooke’s Law

σpl
σ pl
E= = Constant
ε pl
ε
εpl

10
• Elastic and Plastic Behavior of Materials

- Apply load to failure

σ
1
EL

Failure
PL

11
- Apply and release load
σ
EL

PL

2
ε
(a) Load is less than proportional limit
σ
EL
1

PL

2
ε
(b) Load is more than proportional limit,
but less than elastic limit 12
 σ
3
EL 1
PL

2
ε
(c) Load is more than elastic limit, and reaply
σ
EL 1
PL
3

Mechanical
hysteresis
2 4 ε
(d) Repeated load is more than elastic limit
loading 13
- Comparison
σ
1

ε
O
Apply load once
σ
EL 1
PL
3

mechanical
hysteresis
2 4
ε
Repeated loading
n times 14
 elastic plastic elastic plastic
region region region region
σ σ

A´ B A´

load A
E
unload mechanical
E hysteresis
ε ε
O O´ O´

permanent elastic
set recovery
15
Strain Energy

• Modulus of Resilience • Modulus of Toughness

σ σ

σpl ut

ur

ε ε
εpl
Modulus of resilience ur Modulus of toughness ut

1 1 σ 2 pl
ur = σ pl ε pl =
2 2 E
16
• Modulus of Resilience
σ (MPa)

400
350
300
250
200
150
σpl = 180 MPa
100
Modulus of resiliency
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale

Modulus of resiliency (ur)= Area under curve @ proportional limit

ur= (1/2)(0.001)(180 MPa) = 90 kPa = 90 kN/m2 = 90 kN•m/m3 = 90 kJ/m3

Energy per unit volume = (90 kN/m2)(1 m3) = 90 kN•m = 90 kJ

17
 σ (MPa)

400
350
300
3
250 EL 1

200
150
100 Modulus of hyper-resiliency
50
0
2 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale

18
• Modulus of Toughness
σ (MPa)

400
350 Failure
300
250
200
150 Modulus of toughness

100
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale

19
Example 1

A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress-strain diagram shown.
Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield strength based on a 0.2% offset.
Identify on the graph the proportional limit, elastic limit, ultimate stress and the
fracture stress.
σ (MPa)

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale 20
 σ (MPa) • Modulus of Elasticity

400 σu 100 MPa

E= = 200 GPa
350 0.0005 mm / mm
σfail
300 • Yield Strength
250
σy = 250 MPa
200 σy
σEL
150 • Proportional Limit
σpl
100
E σpl = 180 MPa
50
0 ε (mm/mm)
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Upper scale
0.0000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 Lower scale

• Elastic Limit σpl = 220 MPa

• Ultimate Stress σu = 365 MPa

• Fracture Stress σf = 310 MPa 21

 Example 2

An aluminum specimen shown has a diameter of d0 = 25 mm, a gauge length of

L0 = 250 mm and is subjected to an axial load of 294.5 kN. If a portion of the
stress-strain diagram for the material is shown, determine the approximate
elongation of the rod when the load is applied. If the load is removed, does the
rod return to its original length? Also, compute the modulus of resilience both
before and after the load application.

σ (MPa) d0
294.5 kN 294.5 kN
750

600
L0
450

300

150
ε (mm/mm)
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
22
• The Load is Applied

d0 = 25 mm - Normal Stress
294.5 kN 294.5 kN
P 294.5 × 103 N
σ= = = 600 MPa
A0 (π / 4)(0.025 m) 2

σ (MPa) L0 = 250 mm
- The Strain
750 ε = 0.023 mm/mm
B F
600
- The Elongation
A
450
δ = ε L = (0.023 mm/mm)(250 mm)
300 = 5.75 mm

150
D ε (mm/mm) (5.75 mm)/2 (5.75 mm)/2
O 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
0.023 294.5 kN 294.5 kN

L0 = 250 mm
23
 • The Load is Removed - Normal Stress
d0 = 25 mm P 294.5 ×103 N
σ= = = 600 MPa
294.5 kN 294.5 kN A0 (π / 4)(0.025 m) 2

- Permanent Strain
σ (MPa) L0 = 250 mm E=
450 MPa
= 75.0 GPa =
600 MPa
0.006 mm / mm CD
750
B F CD = 0.008 mm/mm
600
A The permanent strain, εOC = 0.023 - CD
σpl = 450
εOC = 0.023 - 0.008 = 0.015 mm/mm
300 - The Permanent Elongation
E
150 E δ = ε L = (0.015 mm/mm)(250 mm)
CD
C D ε (mm/mm) = 3.75 mm
O 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
(3.75 mm)/2 (3.75 mm)/2
εpl=0.006 0.023
εOC 294.5 kN 294.5 kN

L0 = 250 mm 24
 • Modulus of Resilience - Normal Stress
d0 = 25 mm P 294.5 ×103 N
σ= = = 600 MPa
294.5 kN 294.5 kN A0 (π / 4)(0.025 m) 2

- Modulus of Resilience
σ (MPa) L0 = 250 mm
1
750 (u r )initial = σ pl ε pl
2
B F
600 1
= (450 MPa)(0.006 mm / mm)
A 2
σpl = 450
= 1.35 MJ / m 3
(ur)initial
300 (ur)final
1
150 (u r ) final = σ pl ε pl
CD = 0.008 2
C D ε (mm/mm) 1
= (600 MPa)(0.008 mm / mm)
O 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 2
εpl=0.006 0.023 = 2.40 MJ / m 3

25
Example 3

An aluminum rod shown has a circular cross section and is subjected to an axial
load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress-strain diagram for the material is shown,
determine the approximate elongation of the rod when the load is applied. If the
load is removed, does the rod return to its original length? Take Eal = 70 GPa.
20 mm
15 mm
A B C
10 kN 10 kN

600 mm 400 mm
σ (MPa)

60
50
40
30
20
10
ε (mm/mm)
O 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 26
• The Load is Applied
20 mm
15 mm
A B C
10 kN 10 kN

600 mm 400 mm

σ (MPa) σ AB =
P
=
10 kN
= 31.83 MPa
A π (0.01 m) 2
60
56.6 P 10 kN
50 σ BC = = = 56.6 MPa
A π (0.0075 m) 2
40
31.83 30
20
10 εBC = 0.045 mm/mm
ε (mm/mm)
O 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
σ AB 31.83 ×10 6 Pa
ε AB = = = 0.0004547 mm / mm
Eal 70 ×10 Pa
9

The elongation of the rod is

δ = Σ εL = εABLAB + εBCLBC = (0.0004547)(600 mm) + (0.045)(400 mm) = 18.3 mm 27
• The Load is Removed
20 mm
15 mm
A B C
10 kN 10 kN

600 mm 400 mm

σ (MPa) σ AB =
P
=
10 kN
= 31.83 MPa
A π (0.01 m) 2
60
56.6 P 10 kN
50 σ BC = = = 56.6 MPa
A π (0.0075 m) 2
σpl = 40
σ BC 56.6 ×106 Pa
31.83 30 ε rec = = = 0.000808 mm / mm
parallel Eal 70 ×109 Pa
20
10 εBC = 0.045 mm/mm
G
ε (mm/mm)
O 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
εOG

The permanent strain, εOG = 0.0450 - 0.000808 = 0.0442 mm/mm

The elongation of the rod is

δ´ = Σ εL = 0 + εOGLBC = 0.0442(400 mm) = 17.7 mm
28
Poisson’s Ratio
δ/2

P L
δ/2

Final Shape
Original Shape
r P
Tension
δ´
δ δ'
ε long = and ε lat =
L r
δ/2 L
P ε lat
ν =−
δ/2 ε long
Original Shape

Final Shape
r P
δ´
Compression
29
 y
P t
x
P
z
L b

εx εy
ν =− =−
εz εz

Assumption:

• Homogeneous
• Isotropic
• Elastic

30
Example 4

A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown. If an axial force of P = 80 kN
is applied to the bar, determine the change in its length and the change in the
dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. The material behaves
elastically. Take E = 200 GPa and νst = 0.32.

y
P = 80 kN 50 mm
x
P = 80 kN
z
1.5 m 100 mm

31
 δ)
• The change in the bar’s length (δ
y
P = 80 kN 50 mm
x
P = 80 kN
z
1.5 m 100 mm

- z direction - x and y direction

P 80 kN
σz = = = 16 MPa Poisson' s Ratio :
A (0.1 m)(0.05 m)
ε lat ε ε
σz ν st = − =− x =− y
Est = ε long εz εz
εz
16(106 ) Pa εx = εy = - νst εz = -0.32[(80(10-6)] = -25.6 µ
200(10 ) Pa =
9

εz
δx = -εxLx = -[25.6(10-6)(0.1 m) = -2.56 µm
ε z = 80(10 ) mm / mm = 80µ
−6

δz = εzLz = [80(10-6)(1.5 m)] = 120 µm δy = -εyLy = -[25.6(10-6)(0.05 m) = -1.28 µm

32
The Shear Stress-Strain Diagram
y y

τxy
γxy/2

γxy/2
x x
π/2 - γxy

τu
τf τ = Gγ
τpl

E
G=
2(1 + ν )
G
γ
γpl γu γf
33
 Example 5

A specimen of titanium alloy is tested in torsion and the shear stress-strain

diagram is shown.
(a) Determine the shear modulus G, the proportional limit, and the ultimate shear
stress.
(b ) Determine the distance d that the top of a block of this material, shown, could
be displaced horizontally by a shear force V of 135 MN .

τ (MPa) 75 mm

400 100 mm V
d
300
γ
50 mm
200

100
γ (rad)
O 0.008 0.54 0.73 34
(a) The shear modulus, proportional limit, and the ultimate shear stress.
τ (MPa)
τu = 370
400
τpl = 270
300

200

100 G
γ (rad)
O γ = 0.008 0.73
pl

- Proportional limit ; τpl = 270 MPa

270 MPa
- Shear Modulus ; G= = 33.75 GPa
0.008 rad

- Ultimate shear stress; τu = 370 MPa

35
(b) The maximum distance d and the magnitude of V if the material behaves elastically
τ (MPa)
- Shear stress τ
400 V
τ avg =
A
300 1.35MN
τ avg =
(0.1 m × 0.075 m)
200 τavg = 180 MPa
= 180 MPa
100 - Shear strain γ
τ avg
γ (rad)
τ avg
γ=
Oγ G
180 = 0.00533 0.73 180 MPa
γ =
(33.75GPa )
75 mm
= 0.005333
100 mm 1.35 MN - The distance d
d
d
γ = γ180 = 0.00533 tan(0.00533 rad ) ≈ 0.00533 rad =
50 mm
50 mm
d = 0.267 mm

36
Example 6

An aluminum specimen shown has a diameter of d0 = 25 mm and a gauge length

of L0 = 250 mm. If a force of 165 kN applies to the specimen shown, determine
the diameter of the specimen. Take E = 70 GPa ,Gal = 26 GPa and σY = 440 MPa.

165 kN

L0
d0

165 kN
37
 • The diameter of the specimen (df) if a force 165 kN applies

165 kN df = d0 + δ´ = d0+ elatd0 ----------(1)

- Stress and Strain Relation ship

df P 165 kN
σ= = = 336.1 MPa
A (π / 4)(0.025 m) 2
d0 = 25 mm L0 = 250 mm
Since σ < σY = 440 MPa, the material behaves
elastically. The modulus of elasticity is

σ
Eal =
ε long

165 kN 336.1× 106 Pa

70.0 × 10 Pa =
9

ε long

εlong = 0.0048

38
 - G and E Relationship
165 kN
E
G=
2(1 + ν )

70 GPa
df 26 GPa =
2(1 + ν )
d0 = 25 mm L0 = 250 mm ν = 0.346

- Poisson’s Ratio
ε lat
ν =−
ε long

165 kN ε lat
0.346 = −
0.00480 mm / mm

εlat = -0.00166 mm/mm

δ' = (0.00166)(25 mm) = 0.0415 mm

From eq.(1) : d f = d 0 + ε lat d 0 = 25 mm + (−0.00166)( 25 mm) = 24.96 mm

39
Failure of Materials due to Stress Relaxation, Creep, and Fatigue

• Stress Relaxation

σ (MPa)

200
150

100
50
t (hrs.)
200 400 600 800 1000
σ−τ diagram for stainless steel
at 1200oF and creep strain at 1%

40
• Creep

ε 10-3 (µ)

2.0
1.5

1.0
0.5
t (hrs.)
200 400 600 800 1000
σ−τ diagram, typical aluminum

41
• Fatigue
Fatigue limit (endurance limit)

σ (MPa)

400

300
Structural steel
(σel)st = 210 200
aluminum

(σfs)al = 130 100

N (106)
0.1 1 10 100 1000
S-N diagram for steel and aluminum alloys
(N axis has a logarithmic scale)
(σel), Endurance limit
(σfs), Fatigue strength @ 500(106) cycles
42