GERONIMO, JOAHANNA MAE O.

20-18-9798

BSED ENGLISH 22

Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

LINGUISTIC MODE

February 18, 2022

Introduction

In the educational and training world, knowledge is most commonly presented

linguistically (the study of language), so perhaps this mode receives the most

attention from a learning standpoint (Chomsky, 1988). The linguistic mode includes

verbal communication, reading, watching (e.g. learn the rule of chess through

observation), etc.

The methods and strategies employed by English teachers in English language

instruction are one of the elements that affect students' success in learning English

as a foreign language. Naturally, the tactics and approaches used by teachers in the

classroom differ from one teacher to the next. Further to that, when instructing and

learning in the classroom, the methods and techniques used are based on the

language skills and language components, the goal of teaching and learning, the

students' English proficiency levels, and the teachers' knowledge and experience in
implementing the methods and techniques used. Grammar, as one of the language

components, plays a critical role in assisting students in learning and using

productive (speaking and writing) and receptive abilities (listening, and reading). As a

result, the emphasis of this is on the mode, approaches and strategies utilized in

teaching grammar. The paper will explain the definitions of tactics, techniques, and

instruction, as well as how teachers use them in the classroom. This paper is

intended to be valuable not only in improving the quality of English teachers, but also

in enhance the effectiveness of students or graduate schools.

Modes for Teaching Grammar

Different teaching modes, such as a separate mode, an integrated mode, skills mode

or knowledge mode, can be adopted depending on certain variables in the language

teaching contexts, such as leaner variables and instructional variables. But this paper

will only suggest and discuss one kind of mode of teaching grammar, the most

suggestive mode for advanced learners, Linguistic Mode.

Linguistic Mode

Word choice, written or spoken text delivery, word organization into sentences and

paragraphs, and the growth and coherence of words and ideas are all part of the

method. Linguistic is not usually the most significant mode in a text; it relies on the

other modes in play, the type of text, and other considerations. Linguistic is arguably

the most popular style because it can be read and heard on paper or on audio.

Details and lists are best expressed in the linguistic style.

Larsen-Freeman (2002, 2014a) said that students need to learn how structures are

used so that they can comprehend the repercussions of their choices, because the

grammatical system provides users with choices in how they seek to realize

meanings and position themselves ideologically and socially. As a result, grammar

instruction should focus on not just learning the rules, but also on inducing the

reasons for various sentence constructions in various settings.

English is rich in passive voice which is not possible in many of the other languages

with similar passive formation, therefore it is very important for the learners to

understand its different meanings in order for appropriate use. Since English passive

voice can be used without referring to the agent of an action, the following three

functions of passive voice are listed in most grammar books:

 to place emphasis on the agent, using by-phrase

 when the agent is unknown or unimportant

 the speaker does not wish to mention the agent

Usually some exercises of distinguishing active voice and passive voice are designed

for the learners according to the three functions. In fact, more exercises which needs

explanations in terms of linguistics can be designed and carried out in the classroom

teaching. For example, asking the students to analyze the differences among A1, A2

and A3 in the following dialogue and explain the reasons or the purposes of Speaker

A in answering in different ways.

A: I won’t go to the party.

B: Why?

A1: You haven’t invited me.

A2: Nobody has invited me.

A3: I haven’t been invited.

A1 is the most direct way of answering which expresses complaint to the listener B,

and A2 is moderate but still expresses a kind of dissatisfaction, while A3 is a mild

way which shows politeness. Being taught in this way, the learners will not only

internalize the rules and functions but also inquiry the use of English passive voice.

They will realize that choices of different forms of grammar can express various

feelings and bring different communicative effects. In addition, since English passive

voice is culturally related, the process of reasoning may also contribute to the

learners’ cross-cultural consciousness raising and their understanding of different

worldviews and different ways that speakers of other languages construct experience

in the world. (Larsen-Freeman, 2003)

Another example is teaching coordinate construction in English. It is very easy for the

students to use and as a conjunction, but not easy for them to know how to use it for

a pragmatic effect. Learners are usually taught that and should be used before the

last component when it is used to coordinate more than three components. But in

fact this rule can be violated for a specific reason.

a. Mary bought a skirt, a shirt, a coat and a handbag.

b. Mary bought a skirt and a shirt and a coat and a handbag.

Sentence “a” only tells us a fact, but Sentence b entails more than that. When and is

used between all the noun phrases instead of being used only between the last two,

it not only functions as connecting two coordinate structures but also embodies some

emotional effect and rhetorical effect. This kind of grammar instruction enables the

students to integrate form, meaning and use of grammar. In addition, it will motivate

the learners to use grammar in a more flexible way since they know grammar is

dynamic and changeable as stated below:

There is a fundamental different between the laws of physics and the laws of

language. The law of gravity is not modified by use: no matter how many times we

throw a ball into the air, it will fall to the ground with the same acceleration. Rules of

grammar, on the other hand, are modified by use. (Haimen, 1985)

Linguistic mode emphasizes more reasoning and inquiring the pragmatics of

grammar than understanding the form and meaning. It starts with a certain use of

grammar and ends with more uses in different contexts. Its circular process is the

perfect combination of form, meaning and use and can be formulated as “general

use→ specific use→ reasoning→ different meanings→ forms→ other uses”.

Linguistic Mode in Instructional Design

Nine Strategies for Improving Learning

Ceri Dean, Elizabeth Hubbell, and Howard Pitler (2012) identified a framework for

instructional design that includes nine instructional strategies:

 Creating the Environment for Learning
Setting Objectives & Cooperative
Reinforcing Effort &
Providing Feedback Providing Recognition Learning

Helping Students Develop Helping Students Develop

Understanding Understanding

Cues, Questions, and Identifying Similarities and

Advance Organizers Differences

Nonlinguistic Generating and Testing

Representation Hypotheses

Summarizing and Note-

Taking

Homework and Practices

The Nine Strategies shown in the above chart are:

1. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback - Provide learning objectives

that improves performance, which in turn, has a positive impact upon the

organization. In addition, provide timely feedback and assessments that

correlates with the learning objectives and corrects non-performance.

2. Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition - Reinforce the learners’

efforts to show appreciation for their newly learned skills in order to build self-

esteem. This will help to give them the belief that effort pays off.

3. Collaborative Learning - This is quite similar to cooperative learning in that

the learners work together in small teams to increase their chance of deeper
 learning. However, collaborative learning is a more radical departure from

cooperative learning in that there is not necessarily a known answer, which

better reflects the needs of the organization. For example, the question “how

effective is e-learning?” provokes a wide range of possible answers,

depending upon the learners' perspectives. Because the collaboration

sometimes results from less purposeful and focused activities, some of the

learning will be unintentional or serendipitous. Besides cooperative and

collaborative learning, you can use other group activities, such as fishbowls,

case studies, action learning, etc. that provide similar benefits.

4. Questions, Cues, and Advance Organizers - Questions give the learners a

chance to retrieve their newly learned knowledge, which provides

reinforcement of their newly acquired skills and knowledge.

Cues can be thought of as a brief preview of a skill, action, or information that

will later be presented in the learning process. For example, it can be as

simple as saying, “I wonder what will happen if I push this button?” This simple

statement can raise the learners' curiosity levels so that the importance of

pushing that button remains in their memory. Marzano (1998, p.89) reported

that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points when cueing is used.

An advance organizer is information supplied prior to learning a new concept

or idea that assists students to arrange and analyze new information as it

comes in (Mayer, 2007). When we have to acquire totally new concepts that

have no reference to our past knowledge, learning becomes more challenging.

Process flow charts, outlines or bullets to indicate how material is arranged,

 and mind maps to explain how concepts are connected are all examples.

Scaffolding includes an advanced organizer.

5. Non-Linguistic Representations - The use of visuals, such as graphs,

demonstrations, charts, pictures, and models help to reinforce the

understanding of concepts.

Models (as in people, drawings, or three-dimensional) help to reinforce both

the declarative and procedural network by giving them a visual cue. Marzano

(1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 1.48 (which indicates that achievement

can be raised by 43 percentile points) when graphic representations are used

to support linguistic learning modes.

The combined use of drawings, flowcharts, mappings, instructions, etc. can be

combined to produce knowledge maps, rather than linear readings.

6. Summarizing and Note Taking - Note taking has a positive impact since it

involves the learners in the subject matter that is transpiring in class, it cause

us to reflect on the subject and then record our thoughts, it helps us in

interpreting the subject matter, and it provides an additional linguistic

reinforcer. You can help them with note taking by providing rough outlines and

fill-in-the-blanks. But do not just rely on one method. Vary the methods to fit

the subject — e.g. give them a rough draft, then a fill-in-the-blank, then a

mapping outline.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the learner's

involvement or engagement (which includes note-taking) in the learning

process, the greater the knowledge acquisition. Marzano (1998) reported that
 note taking techniques have an overall effect size of .99, indicating a

percentile gain of 34 points. These techniques require students to generate

personal linguistic representations of the information being presented.

7. Providing Practice and Experience - Activities (manipulatives — hands-on

learning) engage learners. While we can learn the basics of such activities as

football, chess, PowerPoint, or leading by observing or hearing about it, we do

not really understand it until we actually do it.

Pascarella & Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the learner's

involvement or engagement is in the learning process, the greater the

knowledge acquisition.

Marzano (1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 0.89 (which indicates that

achievement can be raised by 31 percentile points) when manipulatives

(engaging the learners) are used. In addition, he reported (p.93) an effect size

of 1.14 (which indicates that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile

points) when experimental learning is used and an effect size of .54 (a

percentile gain of 21 points) by using problem solving processes.

Providing experience helps to ensure the learners can use their newly

acquired skills and knowledge to improve their performance on the job. Of all

of the strategies discussed here, this is the only one that actually shows that

the learning processes actually pays off with real performance, while the other

ones help you to create better learning processes.

8. Identifying Similarities and Differences - This helps the learners to gain

insight, draw inferences, make generalizations, and develop schemas. There

are four process for accomplishing this:

 Comparing and Contrasting - Comparing items, such as concepts,

ideas, things, etc. in order to identify important characteristics that are

similar. Contrasting concepts, ideas, things, etc. in order to identify

important characteristics that are different.

 Classifying items, such as concepts, ideas, things, etc. into groups and

labeling them.

 Creating Metaphors in order to understand and define how two items

are similar or related in an abstract way.

 Creating Analogies to think about the relationship between two items

and extend that relationship to another set of items. This is the most

complex format as the learners must think about “relationships between

relationships.”

An activity similar to Comparing and Contrasting is matching example/non-

example pairs.

When presenting information to the learners it is helpful to use different

approaches. See, Approaches to Presenting Information and Examples.

Note: Schemata (Schema): A mental model of a person, object or situation.

Schema include cognitive maps (mental representations of familiar parts of

one's world), images, concept schema (categories of objects, events, or ideas

with common properties), event scripts (schema about familiar sequences of

 events or activities) and mental models (clusters of relationships between

objects or processes).

9. Generating and Testing Hypothesis - Encouraging prediction and

explanation around these predictions forces learners to think about the content

in terms of outcomes.

Conclusion

Grammar can be taught both as knowledge and skills. Teaching grammar as

knowledge, linguistic teaching mode emphasizes the dual features of grammar

learning, understanding grammar rules and doing research of implicit grammar

functions. This mode will empower the English learners with the potential and

enthusiasm for inquiry learning and active learning. Exploring the modes for teaching

grammar from linguistic and social perspectives will be a pilot study for researching

from other perspectives as well as for teaching grammar to the learners of other

languages.
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