Introduction

Unit 1
Introduction

1.1 Terms used in Earthwork in road construction

Earthwork is something that transportation projects seldom avoid. In order to establish a properly
functional road, the terrain must often be adjusted. In many situations, geometric design will often involve
minimizing the cost of earthwork movement. Earthwork is expressed in units of volumes (cubic meters in
metric). Increases in such volumes require additional trucks (or more runs of the same truck), which cost
money. Thus, it is important for designers to engineer roads that require very little earthwork.
Cut and Fill
Various sections of a roadway design will require bringing in earth. Other sections will require earth to be
removed. Earth that is brought in is considered Fill while earth that is removed is considered Cut.
Generally, designers generate drawings called Cut and Fill Diagrams, which illustrate the cut or fill
present at any given site. This drawing is quite standard, being no more than a graph with site location on
the X-axis and fill being the positive range of the Y-axis while cut is the negative range of the Y-axis.
Longitudinal Sectioning
Longitudinal sectioning, also known as profile leveling or profiling, is the process of establishing the
elevation of sites on the ground at about regular intervals along a continuous line. Profile levelling is one
of the surveyor‟s most typical applications of running levels and vertical distance measuring. The data are
represented as a profile, which is a representation of a vertical cross section. The primary objective of
longitudinal sectioning is to determine the slope, grade, and vertical alignment of the surveyed feature.

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The process of creating a longitudinal section typically involves the following steps:
 Establishing a base line: A straight line is marked along the path of the feature being surveyed. This
line serves as the reference for all subsequent measurements.
 Taking elevation measurements: At regular intervals along the base line, surveyors measure the
elevation of the ground surface using an instrument like a leveling instrument or a total station. These
measurements are recorded to create a profile of the land.

 Plotting the profile: The collected elevation data is plotted on graph paper or entered into specialized
software to create a longitudinal section. The resulting graph shows the variations in ground level
along the surveyed line.

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Cross Sectioning
Cross sectioning involves the creation of horizontal cross-sectional views of the land perpendicular to the
alignment being surveyed. This technique provides valuable information about the terrain‟s shape,
dimensions, and features at specific locations. Cross sections are particularly useful for designing and
analyzing infrastructure elements like roads, canals, or embankments.

The process of creating a cross section typically involves the following steps:

 Establishing cross-section lines: Surveyors mark perpendicular lines to the alignment being
surveyed at regular intervals. These lines are known as cross-section lines or station lines.

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 Taking measurements: Along each cross-section line, surveyors measure the ground level at
predetermined intervals using leveling instruments or total stations. Additional measurements may be
taken for features such as buildings, utilities, or natural elements.

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 Plotting the cross section: The measured data is then plotted on graph paper or entered into
specialized software to create a cross section. The resulting diagram provides a detailed view of the
land‟s features and elevations along the surveyed line.

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Applications
Longitudinal and cross sectioning have numerous applications in surveying and civil engineering projects:
 Road construction: Longitudinal and cross sectioning techniques are extensively used in road
surveys for designing alignments, establishing grades, and determining cut and fill quantities for
earthwork calculations.
 Drainage systems: The creation of longitudinal and cross-sectional profiles helps in designing
efficient drainage systems by identifying the natural flow patterns and locating appropriate points for
channeling water.
 Utility infrastructure: Surveying utilities, such as pipelines or electrical cables, using longitudinal
and cross sectioning helps in planning their alignment, estimating trench volumes, and identifying
potential conflicts with existing infrastructure.
 Land development: When planning residential or commercial developments, longitudinal and cross-
sectional surveys provide valuable information for site grading, building placement, and determining
drainage patterns.

Benefits
 Accurate data: These techniques allow surveyors to gather precise elevation and terrain data,
providing a solid foundation for engineering design and decision-making.
 Efficient design: Longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys facilitate the design of infrastructure
elements, enabling engineers to optimize grades, alignments, and earthwork quantities.
 Enhanced visualization: The graphical representation of longitudinal and cross-sectional data helps
stakeholders visualize the project‟s topography and understand its impact on the construction process.

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 Conflict identification: By identifying potential conflicts, such as steep slopes or underground

utilities, early in the surveying process, longitudinal and cross sectioning help avoid costly design
revisions during the construction phase.

Longitudinal and cross sectioning techniques play a vital role in surveying, providing valuable data for
civil engineering projects. The detailed profiles and cross sections derived from these surveys aid in
optimizing alignments, grades, and earthwork quantities while minimizing conflicts and ensuring efficient
project execution.

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Types of Roadway Slopes

If a roadside is not flat, a motorist who leaves the roadway will encounter a fill slope, a cut slope, a
transverse slope, or a drainage ditch. Fill slopes, also known as fore slopes, result from construction of a
roadway above the original ground level. Cut slopes, also known as back slopes, result from cutting away
original ground for the roadway.

Transverse slopes are slopes created by median crossovers, berms, driveways, or intersecting roadways.
These slopes are more critical than cut or fill slopes since a vehicle can strike it head-on. Transverse
slopes of 1V:10H are ideal, but slopes of 1V:6H is the steepest preferred slope.

Mean Height

When the ground is in a longitudinal slope, the

height of bank or the depth of cutting will be
different at the two ends of the section, and
mean height or depth may be taken for „d‟.

Mean height =

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1.2 Terms used in sanitary and water supply works

Septic Tank
A septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which domestic
wastewater (sewage) flows for basic sewage treatment.Settling and anaerobic digestion processes reduce
solids and organics, but the treatment efficiency is only moderate (referred to as “primary
treatment”). Septic tank systems are a type of simple onsite sewage facility. They can be used in areas that
are not connected to a sewerage system, such as rural areas. The treated liquid effluent is commonly
disposed in a septic drain field, which provides further treatment. Nonetheless, groundwater pollution may
occur and is a problem.
The term “septic” refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank that decomposes
or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. Septic tanks can be coupled with other onsite
wastewater treatment units such as biofilters or aerobic systems involving artificially forced aeration.
The rate of accumulation of sludge—also called septage or fecal sludge—is faster than the rate of
decomposition. Therefore, the accumulated fecal sludge must be periodically removed, which is
commonly done with a vacuum truck.

Description

Schematic of a septic tank Septic tank

and septic drain field

A septic tank consists of one or more concrete or plastic tanks of between 4,500 and 7,500 litres (1,000
and 2,000 gallons); one end is connected to an inlet wastewater pipe and the other to a septic drain field.
Generally these pipe connections are made with a T pipe, allowing liquid to enter and exit without
disturbing any crust on the surface. Today, the design of the tank usually incorporates two chambers, each
equipped with an access opening and cover, and separated by a dividing wall with openings located about
midway between the floor and roof of the tank.

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Wastewater enters the first chamber of the tank, allowing solids to settle and scum to float. The settled
solids are anaerobically digested, reducing the volume of solids. The liquid component flows through the
dividing wall into the second chamber, where further settlement takes place. The excess liquid, now in a
generally clear condition, then drains from the outlet into the septic drain field, also referred to as a leach
field, drain field or seepage field, depending upon locality. A percolation test is required prior to
installation to ensure the porosity of the soil is adequate to serve as a drain field.
The remaining impurities are trapped and eliminated in the soil, with the excess water eliminated
through percolation into the soil, through evaporation, and by uptake through the root system of plants and
eventual transpiration or entering groundwater or surface water. A piping network, often laid in a stone-
filled trench (see weeping tile), distributes the wastewater throughout the field with multiple drainage
holes in the network. The size of the drain field is proportional to the volume of wastewater and inversely
proportional to the porosity of the drainage field. The entire septic system can operate by gravity alone or,
where topographic considerations require, with inclusion of a lift pump.
Certain septic tank designs include siphons or other devices to increase the volume and velocity of
outflow to the drainage field. These help to fill the drainage pipe more evenly and extend the drainage
field life by preventing premature clogging or bioclogging.
An Imhoff tank is a two-stage septic system where the sludge is digested in a separate tank. This avoids
mixing digested sludge with incoming sewage. Also, some septic tank designs have a second stage where
the effluent from the anaerobic first stage is aerated before it drains into the seepage field.
A properly designed and normally operating septic system is odour-free. Besides periodic inspection and
emptying, a septic tank should last for decades with minimal maintenance, with concrete, fiberglass, or
plastic tanks lasting about 50 years.

SOAK PIT
A soak pit is a covered, porous-walled chamber that allows water to slowly soak into the ground and is
also known as a soakaway or leach pit, and the pre-settled sewage from the septic tank is released to the
underground chamber from where it infiltrates into the neighbouring soils.

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A soak-pit is a closed porous chamber that is directly connected to a primary treatment unit of a
commercial or residential building and slowly soak into the underlying ground it serves the function of
letting the wastewater coming from the septic tank.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:
There are the following considerations for the design of a soak-pit such as;
1. It should be between 1.5 m and 4 m deep but as a general rule, never less than 2 m above the
groundwater table.
2. From a drinking water source, it should be located at a safe distance ideally more than 30 m and it
should also be kept away from high-traffic areas.
3. To provide support and prevent collapse, it can be left empty and lined with a porous material.
4. From collapsing, the rocks and gravel will prevent the walls but for wastewater, we will still provide
adequate space.
5. A layer of sand and fine gravel should be spread over the bottom to help disperse the flow in both
cases.
6. A removable lid should be used to seal the pit until it needs to be maintained to allow for future
access.

NEED FOR SOAK PIT:

The water is not pure which is coming out from a primary treatment chamber and the primary treatment
unit can be a septic tank, twin-pits, anaerobic baffled reactor, a biogas settler, etc. The effluent water
which is coming out of these units is called greywater and before letting it into the ground soil this
greywater must be subjected to a partial treatment.
Most of the wastewater management system needs a soak pit for this partial treatment and the partial
treatment of effluent water through a soak-pit is a safer way of discharging the water into the
surroundings.

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FUNCTIONS OF SOAK PIT:

To filtration, the greywater passing through the soak pit is subjected which results in the settlement of
smaller particles of effluents at the bottom of the soak pit and by the microorganisms, these smaller
particles are digested. Then through the porous wall of the soak pit, the filtered water is then discharged
out.

There are some important functions of the soak pit as given below;
1. From the primary treatment unit, soak pit serves the purpose of receiving the effluent water.
2. It undertakes the partial treatment of the effluent water coming out of the primary treatment unit.
3. To the ground, the soak-pit discharges clear and non-harmful water.
4. The treated water comes out of the porous walls of the soak pit because of its design.
5. To recharge the groundwater bodies, the soak-pit helps.
HEALTH ASPECTS:
As long as the immersion well is not used for raw sewage and storage/treatment technology is working
well and health concerns will be minimum.
The humans and animals should not have contact with the affluent because the technology is located
underground but it is important that the immersion well is located at a safe distance from a source of
drinking water at least 30 m.
It must be accepted by even the most sensitive communities because the immersion well is odourless and
is not visible.

ADVANTAGES OF SOAK PIT:

There are the following advantages of soak-pit such as;
1. With locally available materials it can be built and repaired.
2. For all users, the technique is simple to apply.

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3. It requires a small land area.

4. The groundwater bodies are also recharged by it.
5. It has low operating costs and low capital costs.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOAK PIT:

There are also some disadvantages of soak-pit as given below;
1. To prevent clogging, primary treatment is required.
2. It may negatively affect groundwater and soil properties.
3. In a cold climate, it is difficult to realize.
4. High daily volumes of discharged effluents, it should be avoided.
5. The areas where soil conditions allow infiltration and the groundwater table is at least 1.5 m below
the soak pit then it is suitable.

Manhole
A manhole (utility hole, maintenance hole or sewer hole) is an opening to a confined space such as
a shaft, utility vault, or large vessel. Manholes are often used as an access point for an underground public
utility, allowing inspection, maintenance, and system upgrades. The majority of underground services
have manholes, including water, sewers, telephone, electricity, storm drains, district heating, and gas.
Manholes are generally found in urban areas, in streets and occasionally under sidewalks. In rural and
undeveloped areas, services such as telephone and electricity are usually carried on utility poles or
even pylons rather than underground.
In Australia, manhole also commonly refers to an access hatch used to get access from a room or hallway
into the ceiling cavity of a building. These manholes are typically around 450 mm× 450 mm (18 in
× 18 in) square.

Construction

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Manhole covers in Helsinki, Finland

Manhole closings are protected by a grating or manhole cover, a flat plug designed to prevent accidental
or unauthorized access to the manhole. These covers are traditionally made of metal, but may be
constructed from precast concrete, glass reinforced plastic or other composite materials (especially where
cover theft is of concern). Because of legislation restricting acceptable manual handling weights, Europe
has seen a move toward lighter-weight composite manhole cover materials, which also have the benefits
of greater slip resistance and electrical insulating properties.
Manholes are usually outfitted with metal, polypropylene, or fiberglass steps installed in the inner side of
the wall to allow easy descent into the utility space.
Manholes are usually round, primarily because roundness is the best shape to resist the compression of the
earth; covers are round because they are easier to manufacture than square or rectangular shapes, they are
easier to move by rolling, and they can‟t fall into the opening. But in the United Kingdom they are nearly
always square, or rectangular, in shape, at least at street level. Manholes can also be found in a triangular
shape (e.g. in Cambridge, UK, and surrounding villages).

Composite manhole
Composite (fiberglass) manholes are commonly used in applications where infiltration, exfiltration, or
corrosion by hydrogen sulfide (from sewer gas) are a concern, or where structures need to be factory
integrated into a manhole before placement. In these manholes, the entire underground enclosure is
constructed of some composite material, in addition to the cover.
Structures that can be integrated into composite manholes include:

 Flow inverts
 Flumes
 Drop structures from higher elevation flows to lower elevation discharge pipes
 Weirs
 Storm water screening structures
 Sewage grinders
 Energy absorbing structures to dissipate undesirable flow stream turbulence or velocity

Sewer manhole location

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The location of a sewer manhole must be carefully considered to ensure that the drainage system is
effective and easy to maintain. According to design standards, the distance between two manholes is
typically between 7 and 20 meters, depending on the specific characteristics of the project. In cities, the
distance is 20 meters per manhole, while in industrial or commercial settings it is 10-15 meters per
manhole. The distance between manholes in homes or restaurants is typically 7-10 meters.

A round manhole in New Orleans, and its cover

Manhole cover in Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Manhole cover in Sawston, Cambridgeshire

Installation of a sewer manhole. Upon completion, typically only the top ring and cover (not pictured) would be
visible.

1.3 Distribution of water supply system

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The distribution system consists of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters, pumps, distribution reservoirs,
hydrants, stand posts etc.
The pipe lines carry the water to each and every street, road.
Valves control the flow of water through the pipes.
Meters are provided to measure the quantity of water consumed by individual as well as by the town.
Hydrants are provided to connect the water to the fire fighting equipments during fire.
Service connections are done to connect the individual building with the water line passing through the
streets.
Pumps are provided to pump the water to the elevated service reservoirs or directly in the water mains to
obtain the required pressure in the pipe lines.

The following are the requirements of a good distribution system :

i) It should convey the treated water upto the consumers with the same degree of purity.
ii) The water should reach to every consumer with the required pressure head.
iii) Sufficient quantity of treated water should reach for the domestic and industrial use.
iv) The distribution system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate.
v) It should be able to transport sufficient quantity of water during emergency such as fire-fighting.
vi) It should be reliable so that even during break down or repairs of one line water should reach that
locality from other line.
vii) During repair work, it should not cause obstruction to the traffic.
viii) It should be safe against any future pollution. The pipe lines as far as possible should not be laid
below the sewer lines.
ix) The quantity of the pipes laid should be good and it should not burst.
x) It should be water tight and the water losses due to leakage should be minimum as far as possible.

Distribution System
For efficient distribution it is required that water should reach to every consumer with required rate
of flow. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system is classified as follows :
i) Gravity system
ii) Pumping system
iii) Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system

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Gravity system
This system can be best utilized for the distribution system in maintaining pressure in water pipes ,
when some ground is sufficiently high above the city area. This method is also suitable when source of
supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at sufficient height than city. The water flows in the
mains due to gravitational force. As no pumping is required, it is the most reliable system for the
distribution of water.
In this system usually pumping is not required at any stage . In case the source of water supply is
lake situated at the hill, low lift pumping may be required to lift the water up to the water treatment units.
The water will flow under gravitational force in the treatment units, and will be finally collected to the
town again under gravitational force.
The designs of the distribution system pipes are done in such a way that water head available at the
consumer‟s door is just minimum required, and the remaining head is fully consumed in frictional and
other losses. This will reduce the leakage and wastes to the minimum. But in this case the water will have
to be pumped during fires.

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Pumping system
In this system water is directly pumped in the mains. Since the pumps have to work at different
rates in a day, the maintenance cost increases. It is preferred to have number of pumps and only the
required numbers may work at various times to meet the varying demand, in place of providing pump of
variable speed. High lift pumps are required and their operations are continuously watched. If the power
fails, the whole supply of the town will be stopped.
Therefore, it is better to have diesel pumps also in addition to the electric pumps as stand bye.
During fire, the water can be pumped in the required quantity by the stand bye units also. But this system
is not preferred than other systems.

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Dual System

This is also known as combined gravity and pumping system. The pump is connected to the mains
as well as to an elevated reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the water is stored in the
elevated reservoir, but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in the distribution system
comes from both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. As in this system water comes from
two sources one from reservoir and second from pumping station, it is called dual system. This system is
more reliable and economical because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as
maximum demand. The water stored in elevated reservoir meets the requirements of demand during break
down of pumps and for fire fighting.

This system is usually adopted everywhere. Following are the main advantages of this system :

a) The balance reserve in the storage reservoir will be utilized during fire. In case the fire demand is
more, and if required the water supply of few localities may be closed.
b) It is economical, efficient and reliable.
c) This system has the advantages that during power failure, the balance water stored in the reservoir
will be supplied to the town.
d) The pumps have to work at constant speed, without any variation in their speed. This increases the
efficiency of the pumps and reduces the wear and tear of the pumps. The supervision, operation
and maintenance of these pumps is much less as compared with the pumps working at variable
speed.

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