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COMBINED SCIENCE PHYSICS SECTION FORM 3

TOPICS COVERED

 DATA PRESENTATION

 MEASUREMENTS

 FORCE

 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

 ENERGY

 ELECTRICITY
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DATA PRESENTATION
 Data is information collected in form of numbers
 Data collected by scientists and researchers can be presented in different ways so that it is
easier to understand, interpret and analyze the information.
 Pie Charts
 Is a circular graph divided proportionally into segments to illustrate one set of data as a
percentage of the total.
Constructing a pie chart (example)
 36 learners were asked the type of transport they use to get to school every day.
 The number of learners that use each transport type were recorded in the table below
Transport type Number of learners
Bicycle 3
Bus 9
Car 2
Kombi 8
Foot 14

 Calculate the size of the angle for each sector and percentage of the data relative to the total
number of learners.
Transport type Number of Size of angle (o)
learners
Bicycle 3 3/36 𝑥 360=30o
Bus 9 9/36 𝑥 360= 90 o
Car 2 2/36 𝑥 360= 20o
Kombi 8 8/36 𝑥 360= 80 o
Foot 14 14/36x 360=140o
Total 36

 Draw a circle using a mathematical compass and use a radius of about 3cm. Draw a radius
line from the centre to the edge to intersect the circle
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 Using a protractor, measure the central angle of each sector in a clockwise direction.
 Start with the largest angle and end with the sector with the smallest central angle.
 Draw a line between each sector. The end of sector is the beginning of each new sector
Line graphs
 When plotting a line graph;
 Draw and label axes – axes should be labelled with the quantity and the unit in a similar
manner to column headings in a table.
 The independent variable (the one you control) is put on the horizontal axis (x-axis). The
dependent variable (the one that changes due to changes in the independent variable) goes on
the vertical axis (y-axis).
 Choose sensible scales – scales should be chosen so that the points occupy at least half the
sheet of graph paper used. You do not necessarily have to include the origin on the graph.
 Plot points accurately – points should be plotted by drawing a small cross (+) with a sharp
pencil. Do not use dots or blobs
 Draw the best-fit straight line or best smooth curve – when you draw a straight line use a
30cm ruler and a sharp pencil. There should be an equal number of points above and below
the line. Take care that those points above and those below the line are evenly distributed
along the line.
 Curves should be drawn with a single sweep, with no feathering or sudden jerks
 Always give the graph a heading
 The line that you draw after plotting the points, should always show up the general pattern
that the results take.
 A graph can show a steady increase or decrease in the measurements.
 A graph can show the high points and low points in your measurements (peaks and trough)
 A graph can be used to find values that you have not actually measured

MEASUREMENT
Physical Quantities
- Physical quantity is a property of an object or substance that can be measured using an
appropriate measuring instrument.
Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Electrical current Ampere A
Voltage volt V
Temperature Kelvin K
Time Second S
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Vernier calipers

 Is used to accurately measure the thickness or internal diameter of small objects.

How to read a vernier
 To measure the internal or external diameter
 Take the millimetres from the man scale marking before the zero on the vernier scale.
 Take the next reading from the first vernier mark to coincide with a main scale mark
 Add the two readings

Example What is the reading the instrument shown on the diagram above
Main scale reading = 11mm
Vernier reading = 0.4 mm
Final reading = 11.4mm
Screw gauge micrometer
 Can measure smaller lengths than the vernier calipers such as thickness of a coin, key etc
How to read the micrometer
 The measurement from the main scale and the measurement from the Vernier scale are added
together
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2.5mm+ 0.38mm=2.88mm
 So the reading on the micrometer screw gauge is 2.88mm.
Measurement of electric current
 An electric current is a flow of charge in the electric circuit
 The symbol of current is I
 Ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit
 Ammeter is connected in a series
Measurement of voltage
 Voltage or electric potential difference is the amount of force /workdone in moving charge
from one point to another in an electric circuit
 Symbol for potential difference (p.d) is V
 The SI unit for voltage is the volt
 A voltmeter is used to measure voltage between two points in an electric circuit
 Voltmeter is always connected in parrallel
Density
Density of liquids
 Density is the mass per unit volume
 The units of density is g/cm3 or kg/m3
Density =𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣)
 To determine density of a liquid, first determine both its mass and volume
 Volume is found by pouring the liquid into a measuring cylinder
 Mass is found by;
 Weighing the beaker and record its mass in grams
 Pour the liquid into the beaker and measure the mass in grams
 Subtract the two measurements of mass, to find the mass of water
 Then use the mass and volume obtained to find its density

FORCE
Weight and Mass
 Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object
 Weight is a measure of the force of attraction between an object and the earth
 Weight is measured in Newtons (N) using a spring balance or forcemeter

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡=𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
W = mg
 On the moon gravitational acceleration is 1.5m/ s2 ,while on earth is 10 m/ s2
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Differences between mass and weight

Mass Weight
Measured in kilograms using a Measured in newtowns using a forcemetre
balance
Is independent of the bodys position Depends on the gravitational field in which the body lies
Is a scalar quantity Is a vector quantity

Momentum
 Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity
 It is a measure of an object’s resistance to stop.
 The units are kgms-1
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
For example,
 A body of mass 2 kg travelling 3ms-1 has a momentum of 6kgms-1.
Inertia
 The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance or resistance of the object to start moving if it
is stationery or reluctance of the object to stop moving if it is moving in the first instance.
 An object that has inertia will try to resist a change in its state of motion or rest
 Objects with a greater mass have more inertia
 It is the property of a mass which resists change from its state rest or uniform motion.

Newton’s laws of motion

Newton’s first law
 A body will remain at rest, or to move with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an
external force
Application
 Drivers need to wear seat belts when driving, without the seat belt, if the driver suddenly
applies his car brakes, he will continue to move forward and crash into the windscreen.
 Slide a glass full of water across a table to the right. The water in the glass will seem as
though it is moving to the left of the glass.
 A football will remain stationery forever unless moved by some external force

Newton’s second law

 The acceleration of mass is proportional to the force on it, provided the mass stays the same
 Newton’s second law tells us that when there is a resultant force acting on an object, the
object will either slow down (decelerate) or speed up (accelerate) in the direction of the net
force
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
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Example 1
 A boy pushed a box of mass 20kg with a force of 50N. What is the acceleration of the box?

Example 2
 What is the force that acts on 2kg mass when a constant acceleration of 3m/ s2 is expressed?

Newton’s third law

 Action and reaction are equal and opposite
 If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert a force on body A of equal
magnitude but in opposite direction.
 Forces occur in pairs i.e. action force and reaction force
 The action and reaction are equal in magnitude, act opposite to one another and act on
different bodies.
Application
 A high jump will exert an action on the ground which reacts by causing the jumper to spring
upwards.
 As birds push down on the air with their wings, the air pushes their wings up and gives them
lift thus making it possible for them to fly

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Machines
 A machine is a device that allows us to use less force to move an object
 Machines are mechanical systems designed to make hard work easier e.g.
inclined planes,
gears,
pulleys
levers
Mechanical Advantage (MA)
 It is the measure of how much easier it is to complete a task using a simple machine. The
greater the MA, the easier it is to do work
 Is the ratio of two forces
Load( L)
𝑀𝐴= Effort (E)
MA> 1 means less effort is needed to lift the load
MA= 1 same amount of effort is needed to lift the load
MA<1 more effort is needed to lift the load
Velocity Ratio (VR)
 Is the ratio of two distances i.e. distance moved by the effort and the distance moved by load.
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Distance moved by effort

𝑉𝑅= Distance moved by load

Efficiency
 Shows us how well input energy (force applied) is converted to useful output energy (energy
to lift the load)
 Is the ratio of work output (MA) and work input (VR)
 It can be expressed as a percentage.
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦= MA
VR ¿ 100 %

Load∗Distance moved by load

Efficiency = ∗100 %
effort∗Distance moved by effort
NB Efficiency, VR and MA are all ratios hence have no units
Levers
It is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed support called fulcrum to lift the load
Examples of levers include
Claw hammer, scissors, wheelbarrow, craw bar, knife, plier

 The lever is a machine which acts as a force multiplier i.e. it allows a smaller force (effort) to
overcome a large force (load) e.g. pliers, crowbar, scissors, wheelbarrow
 By increasing the effort distance MA and VR increases while efficiency remains the same.
 Efficiency is improved through lubrication as it reduces friction
Gears
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number of teeth onload (driven)gear

VR/Gear ratio =
number of teeth on the effort ( driver ) gear

diameter of load(driven) gear

MA =
diameter of effort ( driver ) gear

 A gear ratio of 2.25 means that the driven gear rotates 2.25 times every time the driver gear
rotates 1 time
Efficiency can be improved by
 Lubrication
 Appropriate shaping of gear teeth
 Proper alignment of gear teeth to reduce friction

Inclined planes
 Is a flat surface that is at an angle to the horizontal

length of incline(d )
VR = height of incline(h)
Efficiency can be improved through
 Lubrication
 Increasing length of incline
Pulleys
 Is a wheel with a groove through which a rope or belt passes
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Single fixed pulley

 The load is raised off the ground by an effort which is also directed down wards; therefore,
the pulley changes the direction of the force.
 It is easier to lift a load by pulling down the rope than lifting the load
 MA = 1 because the values of the load and effort will be the same
 VR = 1 because distance moved by the load and effort must be the same
Single moveable pulley

 The tension in the string is the same as the effort i.e. it is also an upward force
 MA = 2 because the load is two times the effort
 VR = 2 because as the pulley moves up the load, the string moves twice the distance
Block and Tackle
 When two or more pulleys used, the machines become a force multiplier as well as direction
changer
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 Using more pulleys/wheels reduce the effort you need to lift the load
 More pulleys means larger MA
 VR = the number of pulleys
Efficiency of pulleys can be improved through
 Lubrication
 Using lighter pulleys
 Increasing number of pulleys
Energy losses in machines
 Machines are used to do work, converting energy from one form to another.
 In practice machines are never 100% efficient.
 This means that total energy input is greater than the useful work output.
 Some of the energy input is converted to unwanted forms such as heat and sound.
Ways of reducing friction or improving efficiency of machines
Lubrication
 To overcome or minimize friction, the movable parts of the machine are lubricated
Using rollers and ball bearings.
 Are made of hardened chrome steel
 Are used with lubrication
mass reduction
 Some of the energy input is used to overcome mass of moving parts of the machine hence
there is need for mass reduction by constructing a machine with light parts
Reducing contact area
 Reducing the area over which friction occurs improves efficiency of machines

Petrol and Diesel engines

 An engine is a machine that uses chemical (fuel) to create mechanical energy
 Mechanical energy is the sum of potential and kinetic energy
 Carburettor
 Ensures that the correct amount of air and fuel are mixed together
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 The petrol comes out as fine sprays that mixes with air forming a petrol-air mixture which
then passes into the cylinder
 Only petrol engines have carburetors
Part Function Defects and effects
Jets fuel supply Worn out, more fuel, incomplete
combustion, less efficient
Choke control air supply Sticking, limited air, incomplete
combustion, less efficient
Filters clean air and fuel Blocked, limited air, fuel, incomplete
combustion, less efficient
Throttle controls amount of fuel air mixtures Blocked, failure of engine to start
that gets to the cylinders

The four stroke engine

 Is the common type of diesel and petrol engine
 Is an internal combustion engine
 A stroke is the full travel of the piston along the cylinder in either direction
 there are four piston strokes namely
intake/ inlet
compression
power/combustion
exhaust
How the four stroke engine works
Piston stroke Petrol engine Diesel engine Piston movement
Intake The petrol and air are Air is sucked into the The piston moves
sucked into the chamber down the cylinder
cylinder
Compression The mixture of fuel The air is compressed The piston moves up
and air is compressed and the temperature the cylinder
of the air increases to
more than 540
Combustion(power) The mixture of fuel Fuel is injected and The piston moves
and air is ignited by the fuel is ignited down the cylinder
spark plugs
Exhaust The piston pushes The piston pushes The piston moves up
exhaust fumes exhaust fumes the cylinder
through the exhaust through the exhaust
valve valve

Comparing petrol and diesel engine

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DIESEL PETROL
Fuel is ignited by heat produced from Fuel ignited by the spark plug
compressing the air
Diesel engine is more efficient (40%) Less efficient (25%)
Less pollution by carbon monoxide More pollution by carbon monoxide produced
by incomplete combustion
Fuel injector present Carburetor present
No spark plug Spark plug
Higher maintenance cost Low maintainance cost

The fuel injector

 Pump fuel into the combustion chamber.
 It makes sure that the correct quantity of fuel is injected at the correct time
The operation of a modern petrol and diesel engine
Petrol Engine
 Have more powerful, better fuel efficiency and release few harmful emissions
 Carburetors have been replaced with an electronically controlled fuel injector to allow for
more accurate ratio of fuel and air before the spark plugs ignite the mixture. This improves
efficiency of the petrol engines.
 Most of the operating systems of new petrol engines are run by computers, which makes the
process more accurate
 It has turbo chargers to increase compression power
Diesel Engine
 Cylinder made of stronger material to allow the temperature of the air in the cylinder to
increase even more.
 Higher air temperature increases the efficiency of the ignition of the diesel fuel. It allows for
a more powerful explosion that increases the efficiency and power output of the engine.
 It has turbo-intercooler to improve efficiency
 Has pre-combustion chambers and has multiple holes on the injector

Advantages of modern petrol engines over old petrol engines

 Fast start
 Increased efficiency due to use of computers and stronger materials
 Increased power due to use of more accurate fuel injector and more powerful explosions can
occur in the combustion chamber.
 Reduces the number of litres of petrol needed to drive a certain distance thus reducing
running costs of the vehicle
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HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat energy (thermal energy) is energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object
 An object with a higher temperature has more heat energy and that with a lower temperature
has less heat energy
 Heat energy is transferred through the following ways
Conduction
 Heat transfer through solids by vibrations of particles.
 All solids are made up of atoms or molecules
 When heat is applied at one end free electrons are given kinetic energy by heat and they
move along the metal carrying energy.
 Particles begin to vibrate vigorously and in turn transmit the energy they have to their
neighboring particles.
Good and bad Conductors
 Equal sized rods of different materials had match sticks attached on ends by wax and heat is
applied.
 Heat flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature, therefore
the wax on the rods melts.
 The wax melts faster on the copper rod, followed by brass, aluminium , steel, iron and lastly
wood

 Metals are good heat conductors and transfer heat energy rapidly while nonmetals, gases and
liquids are poor conductors and transfer heat slowly.
 They are called thermal insulators
Radiation
 Heat transfer through a vacuum
 Heat emission is the transfer of heat through radiation
 No material medium is required and heat travel in form of waves i.e. electromagnetic waves.
Convection
 Convection is heat transfer through fluids (liquids or gas).
 The movement of a liquid or gas allows heat to be transferred by convection currents.
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 A convection current is the movement of fluid by the change in densities in various parts of
the fluid
 Convection currents occur only in fluids (liquids and gases) because convection involves the
bulk movement of the fluids which carry heat with them
Convection in liquids
 When heated at the bottom of the beaker the potassium permanganate is seen moving around
in convection currents

 The potassium permanganate is used to colour the moving water so that the movement can be
observed.
 Purple streams of water are seen to rise vertically upwards in the centre of the flask of liquid
and then sink again along the sides of the flask.
 When the water at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands.
 The fluid is now less dense than the surrounding liquid and therefore starts to rise.
 The cooler regions of the fluid in the upper part of the flask, being denser now descend.
 This movement due to difference in density sets up convection current.
 Movement of the water/gas continue until all the liquid /gas is of the same temperature
Good and bad reflectors, absorbers and emitters of heat
 Absorption occurs when an object receives heat energy and increases in temperature
 Reflection occurs when heat energy strikes an object and bounces back off the object
 Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of heat
 Light shiny, white surfaces are good reflectors but bad absorbers and emittors of heat energy

Discuss
 Astronauts wear suits that are shiny and light in colour
 A white vs a black car
 Painting the walls of your house with white colour/roof

ELECTRICITY
Static Electricity
Electrostatic charging
 Friction between objects can cause electrons to be transferred from one object to another.
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 When the object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.

 When an object loses electrons it becomes positively charged.
 Perspex attains positive charge while polythene/PVC attains negative charge when rubbed
Forces between charges
 Like charges repell (repelling force)
 Unlike charges attract (attracting force)

Electrostatic induction
Creation of charge in a neutral object by bringing a charged object near a neutral object
Equal number of electrons and protons in a pith ball

Electrons in pith ball move away from the negative charges in the rod

On contact, electrons are transferred from the road to the pith ball making the pith ball
negatively charged

Negatively charged pith ball is repelled by the negatively charged road

Gold leaf electroscope

 Is an instrument used to detect a charge
 Also used to measure electric charge
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Detecting a charge
The electroscope in an uncharged state, the gold leaf is flat, no charge

The electroscope with a negatively charged rod on the metal disc, the gold leaf has lifted,
negatively charged

The electroscope is charged, the rod is removed, the gold leaf remains lifted up (negatively
charged

LIGHTNING
Production of lightning
 Lightining is a rapid flow of charge (electrons) towards the earth’s surface
 The thunder clouds are charged by friction between the water molecules in the thundercloud
and the air molecules
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 Positive charges form at the top of the cloud and negative at the bottom.
 As violent movement on the cloud continues, charging also continues i.e. very high voltage
builds up between the positive and negative charges within the cloud.
 Negative charges attract positive charges and this cause buildup of positive charges on the
ground
 When the charge on the thundercloud is sufficiently large, it discharges to the surface in the
form of lightining.
 The huge quantity of charge is discharged to the nearest or sharpest object on the ground
The principle of a lightning conductor
 The lightning conductor provides an alternative safe path for the flow of charge from the top
of the building to the earth.

 When a negatively charged thundercloud passes overhead, it acts inductively on the

conductor, charging the spikes positively and the earth plate negatively.
 Negative electrons are attracted to the spikes and become discharged.
 The electrons are then passed down the conductor and are dissipated (earthed) to the ground
from the copper plate.
 The conductor is placed above the building to collect charges and pass it harmlessly into the
earth.
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 The conductor is made of thick copper strip to conduct electrons to the ground since copper
is a good conductor of electricity.
 The copper strip is attached to a copper plate in the ground to earth excess electrons
Dangers of lightning
 Light voltage causes outbreak of fire
 Flow of current result in electrocution and severe burns
 Death due to electrocution
 Destruction of property/livestock
 Heating effect of current cause destruction of buildings

Safety precaution against lightning

 Stay indoors/ inside car
 Keep away from metallic objects such as fences
 Disconnect roof top aerials
 Do not shelter near or under isolated trees
 Disconnect electrical appliances
 Avoid being in contact with water during a lightning storm i.e. swimming

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
 Is the flow of charges in an electric circuit
 Electric circuit is the pathway through which current flows

Circuit symbols
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Resistor
 Is a device that offers opposition to the flow of current / electrical energy
 A light bulb is a resistor that changes electrical energy into light energy and heat
Fuse
 Is a device that protects appliances and users from electrical damage
 Fuse and switch are connected to the positive terminal of electrical energy
Voltmeter
 Measures voltage
Ammeter
 Is used to measure current

OHM’S LAW
 The Ohm’s law states that the current through a metallic conductor is proportional to the
voltage (potential difference) across the conductor and inversely proportional to resistance,
provided temperature remains constant.
 Electric current is proportional to voltage means that current increases in the same ratio as
when voltage increases
 Electric current is inversely proportional to resistance means that current decreases in the
same ratio as the resistance increases
V ( voltage)
I ( current ) =
R(resistance)
Examples 1 A p.d measured across a light bulb is 12V. The current measured is 5A. Calculate
resistance
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Example 2 A potential difference of 240V applied across the heating coil of an electric kettle
drives a current of 8A through the coil. Calculate
(a) The resistance of the coil
(b) The new current flowing through the coil if the p.d. applied is changed to 220V
Experiment
Aim: To determine the relationship between potential difference across the light bulb and
current flowing through it
Diagram

Method
 Adjust the variable resistor to allow the smallest possible current to flow in the circuit and
record corresponding ammeter and voltmeter reading.
 Adjust the variable resistor to allow a larger current to flow in the circuit and note the values
of I and V.
 Repeat the above for five sets of I and V readings
 Record reading on the table below
Reading I P.d V
Number (Current) (Voltage) I
1
2
3
4

 Plot a graph showing V against I, and determine the gradient of the graph.
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 The gradient of the graph gives the resistance of the load, R.

 The graph is a straight line passing through the origin thus current is directly proportional to
the voltage across the resistor

Limitations of the Ohm’s law

 Temperature – if temperature increases, the resistance also increases and if it decreases
resistance also decreases. This will cause variations in the answers when using Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law is not obeyed when
 Temperature of conductor changes e.g. bulbs and heater elements
 The conductor is cooled
 The conductor does not have a uniform cross sectional area
Resistance
 Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current measured in ohms (Ω)
 The greater the resistance the less current will flow
Factors that affect resistance
Length of the conductor
 resistance increases with an increase in length of the material.
 The longer the wire, the greater the resistance it has
Thickness of the conductor (cross sectional area) –
 resistance increases with an increase in cross sectional area.
 The larger the cross sectional area of a wire, the smaller the resistance it has.
Temperature
 higher temperature offers more resistance
Material of the conductor
 Good conductors offer little resistance eg metals
 Insulators offer a high resistance

Calculating resistance
Of resistors in series
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The total resistance in an electrical circuit is equal to the sum of all the resistors in series
. RTotal =R1 + R2 + R3
RT =2 Ω+3 Ω+4 Ω=9 Ω
Of resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +
R T R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT 2 6 4
RT =1.1 Ω
R1 R2 Product of resistances
 For the simpler case of two resistors in parallel ∴ 𝑅 = =
R 1+ R 2 ∑ of resistances
A circuit with bulbs connected in series
 The total voltage across resistors (lightbulb) that are in series is the sum of the voltage across
the resistor
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V 3=V 1+V 2
An electrical circuit with light bulbs connected in parallel
 When resistors or light bulbs are connected in parallel the voltage across each resistor is the
same therefore

V 1=V 2
A3 =A 1+ A 2
 The current will split, more current choosing the path with the lowest resistance
An electrical circuit with light bulbs connected in series and parallel

Reading on voltmeter 3 is equal to the sum of the reading on voltmeter 1 and 2 because the light
bulbs are connected in series
V 3=V 4
A3 =A 1+ A 2

Electrical power and energy

 Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred in an electrical circuit
Power (P) (watts)=Voltage (V) x Current (I)
P=VI Or I 2 R
 The more power an appliance requires the more expensive it is to run
Electrical energy =Power x Time
E(kilowatts)=P x T Or VIt
1000w = 1kw
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Example
The potential difference across the light bulb is 12v, the current running through the light bulb is
3.2 A. calculate electrical power of the light and the electrical energy if the light bulb is on for
two hours.