Subject Name: RDBMS Unit No: 2 Subject Code: 4330702

Unit – II
SQL In built functions and Joins

2.1 Operators Arithmetic, Comparison, Logical SQL functions- Single row

function

Operators are the foundation of any programming language. We can define operators as
symbols that help us to perform specific mathematical and logical computations on operands.
In other words, we can say that an operator operates the operands. SQL operators have three
different categories.
❖ Arithmetic operator
❖ Comparison operator
❖ Logical operator

Arithmetic operators:

We can use various arithmetic operators on the data stored in the tables. Arithmetic
Operators are:

Operator Description

+ The addition is used to perform an addition operation on the data values.

– This operator is used for the subtraction of the data values.

This operator works with the ‘ALL’ keyword and it calculates division
/ operations.

* This operator is used for multiply data values.

% Modulus is used to get the remainder when data is divided by another.

Example:

SELECT employee_id, employee_name, salary, salary + 100 FROM employee;

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Comparison operators:

❖ Another important operator in SQL is a comparison operator, which is used to compare

one expression’s value to other expressions.
❖ SQL supports different types of the comparison operator, which is described below:

Operator Description

= Equal to.

> Greater than.

< Less than.

Greater than equal

>= to.

<= Less than equal to.

<> Not equal to.

Example:

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE salary < 20000;

Logical operators:

The Logical operators are those that are true or false. They return true or false values to combine
one or more true or false values.

Operator Description

Logical AND compares between two Booleans as expressions and

AND returns true when both expressions are true.

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Logical OR compares between two Booleans as expressions and

OR returns true when one of the expressions is true.

Not takes a single Boolean as an argument and changes its value

NOT from false to true or from true to false.

❖ AND Operator:

This operator displays only those records where both the conditions condition1 and condition2
evaluates to True.
Syntax:

SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition1 AND condition2 and ...conditionN;

❖ OR Operator:

This operator displays the records where either one of the conditions condition1 and condition2
evaluates to True. That is, either condition1 is True or condition2 is True.

Syntax:

SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR... conditionN;

❖ NOT Operator:
The NOT operator in SQL shows the record from the table if the condition evaluates to false. It
is always used with the WHERE clause.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2 ...., columnN FROM table_Name WHERE NOT condition;

SQL functions - Single row function.

1. Date functions (add-months, months-between, round, truncate)

1) ADD_MONTHS

❖ The add_months function returns a new date after adding n months.

Syntax: ADD_MONTHS (Date1, n)

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❖ Date1 is the starting date (before the n months have been added).
❖ n is the number of months to add to date1.

Example:

SELECT ADD_MONTHS ('01-Aug-23', 3) FROM dual;

Output: '01-Nov-23‘

SELECT ADD_MONTHS ('01-Aug-23', -3) FROM dual;

Output: '01-May-23'

SELECT ADD_MONTHS ('21-Aug-23', -3) FROM dual;

Output: '21-May-23'

SELECT ADD_MONTHS ('31-Jan-23', 1) FROM dual;

Output: '28-Feb-23'

2) MONTHS_BETWEEN
❖ Returns the months in between (separating) two given dates

Syntax: MONTHS_BETWEEN (Date1, Date2)

❖ Date1 and Date2 are the dates used to calculate the number of months.

Example:

SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN (‘31-MAR-23‘, ‘31-DEC-22‘) FROM dual;

Output: 3

SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN (‘2003/07/23‘, ‘2003/07/23‘) FROM dual;

Output: 0

SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN (‘2003/08/23‘, ‘2003/06/23‘) FROM dual;

Output: 2

3) ROUND

❖ ROUND function returns a date rounded to a specific unit of measure.

Syntax: ROUND (date, [format]);

❖ Date is the date to round.

❖ Format is the unit of measure to apply for rounding.
❖ If the format parameter is omitted, the ROUND function will round to the nearest
day.

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Example:

ROUND (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23'),'YEAR') would return '01-JAN-24'

ROUND (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23'),'Q') would return '01-OCT-23'
ROUND (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23'),'MONTH') would return '01-SEP-23'
ROUND (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23'),'DDD') would return '22-AUG-23'
ROUND (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23'),'DAY') would return '24-AUG-23'

4) TRUNCATE

❖ The Oracle/PLSQL TRUNC function returns a date truncated to a specific unit of

measure.

Syntax: TRUNC (Date, [Format])

❖ Date is the date to truncate.

❖ Format is the unit of measure to apply for truncating.
❖ If the format parameter is omitted, the TRUNC function will truncate the date to the
day value, so that any hours, minutes, or seconds will be truncated off.

Example:

TRUNC (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23'), 'YEAR') would return '01-JAN-23'

TRUNC (TO_DATE ('22-AUG-23') 'MONTH') would return '01-AUG-23'

2. Numeric Functions (abs, power, mod, round, trunc, sqrt)

❖ Numeric functions are used to perform operations on numbers. They accept numeric
values as input and return numeric values as output. Few of the Numeric functions
are:

Function Name Description Example

ABS (x) Absolute value of the number 'x' Select ABS(-15) from dual;

SQRT(x) Return square root of ‘n’. Select SQRT(64) from dual;

POWER(m,n) Return m raised to nth Power. Select POWER(2,3) from

dual;
Return remainder of m divided by n Select MOD(10,2) from dual;
MOD(m,n)
operations.

Integer value that is Greater than or Select CEIL(25.57) from

CEIL (x) dual;
equal to the number 'x'

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Integer value that is Less than or equal Select FLOOR(25.57) from

FLOOR (x) dual;
to the number 'x'

Truncates value of number 'x' up to 'y' Select TRUNC(25.57,2) from

TRUNC (x, y) dual;
decimal places

Rounded off value of the number 'x' up Select ROUND(25.57,2)

ROUND (x, y) from dual;
to the number 'y' decimal places

3. Character Fucntions (initcap, lower, upper, ltrim, rtrim, replace,

substring, instr)

Function Name Examples Return Value

LOWER(string_value) LOWER('Good Morning') good morning

UPPER(string_value) UPPER('Good Morning') GOOD

MORNING
INITCAP(string_value) INITCAP('GOOD MORNING') Good Morning

LTRIM(string_value, trim_text) LTRIM ('Good Morning', 'Good) Morning

RTRIM (string_value, RTRIM ('Good Morning', ' Morning') Good
trim_text)
TRIM (trim_text FROM
TRIM ('o' FROM 'Good Morning') Gd Mrning
string_value)

SUBSTR (string_value, m, n) SUBSTR ('Good Morning', 6, 7) Morning

LENGTH (string_value) LENGTH ('Good Morning') 12

LPAD (string_value, n,
LPAD ('Good', 6, '*') **Good
pad_value)

RPAD (string_value, n,
RPAD ('Good', 6, '*') Good**
pad_value)

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4. Conversion Functions (to-char, to-date, to-number)

Function Name Examples Return Value

TO_CHAR (3000, '$9999') $3000

TO_CHAR ()
TO_CHAR (SYSDATE, 'Day, Month YYYY') Monday, June 2023
TO_DATE () TO_DATE ('01-Jun-23') 01-Jun-23

TO_NUMBER() TO_NUMBER(‘1234.56’) 1234.56

NVL () NVL (null, 1) 1

2.2 Groupby, Having and Order by clause

1) SQL GROUP BY Clause

❖ The SQL GROUP BY Clause is used along with the group functions to retrieve data
grouped according to one or more columns.

❖ Syntax:
Select column1, column2……. columnN, Aggregate Function (argument) From
TableName Group By column1, column2……. columnN;

❖ Example:
If you want to know the total amount of salary spent on each department, the query
would be:

Id Name Dept Age Salary Location

100 Ramesh Electrical 24 25000 Bangalore
101 Hrithik Electronics 28 35000 Bangalore
102 Harsha Aeronautics 28 35000 Mysore
103 Soumya Electronics 22 20000 Bangalore
104 Priya InfoTech 25 30000 Mangalore

Example:

SELECT dept, SUM (salary) FROM employee GROUP BY dept;

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The output would be like:

Dept Salary
Electrical 25000
Electronics 55000
Aeronautics 35000
InfoTech 30000

2) SQL ORDER BY

❖ The ORDER BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to sort results either in

ascending or descending order. Oracle sorts query results in ascending order by
default.

Syntax:
Select column1, column2……. columnN From TableName ORDER BY column1,
column2……. columnN;

Id Name Dept Age Salary Location

100 Ramesh Electrical 24 25000 Bangalore
101 Hrithik Electronics 28 35000 Bangalore
103 Soumya Electronics 22 20000 Bangalore
104 Priya InfoTech 25 30000 Mangalore

Example:

SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY salary;

❖ The output would be like

Name Salary
Soumya 20000
Ramesh 25000
Priya 30000
Hrithik 35000

3) SQL HAVING Clause

❖ Having clause is used to filter data based on the group functions. This is similar to
WHERE condition but is used with group functions.
❖ Group functions cannot be used in WHERE Clause but can be used in HAVING
clause.

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❖ The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY clause in a query and must also
precedes the ORDER BY clause if used.
❖ The following is the syntax of the SELECT statement, including the HAVING
clause:

Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2 FROM TableName WHERE [conditions] GROUP BY
column1, column2 HAVING [conditions];

Example:
SELECT dept, SUM (salary) FROM employee GROUP BY dept HAVING SUM
(salary) > 25000;

2.3 Joins: Simple, Equi-join, Non-equi, Self-Joins, Outer-joins.

❖ SQL Joins are used to relate information in different tables.

❖ A Join condition is a part of the sql query that retrieves rows from two or more
tables.
❖ A SQL Join condition is used in the SQL WHERE Clause of select, update, delete
statements.

Syntax:
SELECT col1, col2, col3...FROM table_name1, table_name2 WHERE
table_name1.col2 = table_name2.col1;

❖ If a sql join condition is omitted or if it is invalid the joint operation will result in a
Cartesian product.
❖ The Cartesian product returns a number of rows equal to the product of all rows in
all the tables being joined.

Example, if the first table has 20 rows and the second table has 10 rows, the result will
be 20 * 10 or 200 rows. This query takes a long time to execute.

❖ Let‘s use the below two tables to explain the sql join conditions.

Product_Id Product_Name Supplier_Name Price

100 Camera Nikon 300

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101 Television Onida 100

102 Refrigerator Videocon 150

103 Ipod Apple 75

104 Mobile Nokia 50

Table Name: Product

Order_id Product_Id Total_Unit Custmer

5100 104 30 Infosys

5101 103 5 Satyam

5102 102 25 Wipro

5103 101 10 TCS

Table Name: Order_Item

❖ SQL Joins can be classified into Equi join and Non Equi joins.

1) SQL Equi joins

❖ It is a simple sql join condition which uses the equal sign as the comparison
operator. Two types of equi joins are SQL Outer join and SQL Inner join.
❖ Example: You can get the information about a customer who purchased a product
and the quantity of product.
❖ An equi-join is further classified into two categories: 1) SQL Inner Join 2) SQL
Outer Join

A) SQL Inner Join:

❖ All the rows returned by the sql query satisfy the sql join condition specified.
For example:
❖ If you want to display the product information for each order the query will be as given
below. Since you are retrieving the data from two tables, you need to identify the
common column between these two tables, which is the product_id.
❖ The query for this type of sql joins would be like,
SELECT order_id, product_name, unit_price, supplier_name, total_units
FROM product, Oreder_Item WHERE order_items.product_id =
product.product_id;

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❖ The columns must be referenced by the table name in the join condition, because
product_id is a column in both the tables and needs a way to be identified. This avoids
ambiguity in using the columns in the SQL SELECT statement.
❖ The number of join conditions is (n-1), if there are more than two tables joined in a query
where 'n' is the number of tables involved. The rule must be true to avoid Cartesian
product.
❖ We can also use aliases to reference the column name, then the above query would be
like,
SELECT o.order_id, p.product_name, p.unit_price, p.supplier_name, o.total_units
FROM product p, Oreder_Item oWHERE o.product_id = p.product_id;

B) SQL Outer Join:

❖ This sql join condition returns all rows from both tables which satisfy the join
condition along with rows which do not satisfy the join condition from one of the
tables.
❖ The sql outer join operator in Oracle is (+) and is used on one side of the join
condition only.
❖ The syntax differs for different RDBMS implementation. Few of them represent the
join conditions as "sql left outer join", "sql right outer join".
❖ If you want to display all the product data along with order items data, with null
values displayed for order items if a product has no order item, the sql query for

Outer join would be as shown below:

SELECT p.product_id, p.product_name, o.order_id, o.total_units FROM Oreder_Item o,

product p WHERE o.product_id (+) = p.product_id;

The output would be like,

product_id product_name order_id total_units

100 Camera 5104 15
101 Television 5103 10
102 Refrigerator 5101 5
103 IPod 5102 25
104 Mobile 5100 30
NOTE:
If the (+) operator is used in the left side of the join condition it is equivalent to left outer
join. If used on the right side of the join condition it is equivalent to right outer join.

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C) SQL Self Join:

❖ A Self Join is a type of sql join which is used to join a table to it, particularly when
the table has a FOREIGN KEY that references its own PRIMARY KEY.
❖ It is necessary to ensure that the join statement defines an alias for both copies of the
table to avoid column ambiguity.

The below query is an example of a self join,

SELECT a.sales_person_id, a.name, a.manager_id, b.sales_person_id, b.name FROM

sales_person a, sales_person b WHERE a.manager_id = b.sales_person_id;

2) SQL Non equi joins

❖ A Non Equi Join is a SQL Join whose condition is established using all comparison
operators except the equal (=) operator. Like >=, <=, <, >

For example:

SELECT first_name, last_name, subject FROM student_details WHERE subject! =

'computer'

❖ The output would be something like,

First_name Last_name Subject

Anajali Bhagwat Maths
Shekar Gowda Maths
Rahul Sharma Science
Stephen Fleming Science

2.4 Subqueries - Multiple, Correlated

❖ A Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query within another SQL query and
embedded within the WHERE clause.
❖ A Subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition
to further restrict the data to be retrieved.
❖ Subquery can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN etc.

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There are a few rules that Sub queries must follow:

❖ Subquery must be enclosed within parentheses.

❖ A Subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple
columns are in the main query for the Subquery to compare its selected columns.
❖ An ORDER BY cannot be used in a Subquery, although the main query can use
an ORDER BY.
❖ The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same function as the ORDER BY in
a Subquery.
❖ Subquery that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value
operators, such as the IN operator.
❖ The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a
BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.
❖ A Subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
❖ The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a Subquery; however, the
BETWEEN operator can be used within the Subquery.
Syntax:

SELECT column_name [, column_name] FROM table1 [, table2] WHERE column_name

OPERATOR (SELECT column_name [, column_name] FROM table1 [, table2] [WHERE])

Example: Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

Id Name Dept Age Salary Location

100 Ramesh Electrical 24 2500 Bangalore
101 Hrithik Electronics 28 6500 Bangalore
102 Harsha Aeronautics 28 5500 Mysore
103 Soumya Electronics 22 2000 Bangalore
104 Priya InfoTech 25 3000 Mangalore

✓ Now, let us check following Subquery with SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY > 4500);

✓ This would produce the following result:

Id Name Dept Age Salary Location

101 Hrithik Electronics 28 6500 Bangalore
102 Harsha Aeronautics 28 5500 Mysore

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Correlated Subquery
❖ A query is called correlated Subquery when both the inner query and the outer query
are interdependent.
❖ For every row processed by the inner query, the outer query is processed as well.
❖ The inner query depends on the outer query before it can be processed.

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID, MAX (SALARY) FROM

CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE > 25);

✓ This would produce the following result:

Id Name Dept Age Salary Location

101 Hrithik Electronics 28 6500 Bangalore

2.5 Implementation of Queries using SQL Set operators: Union, union all,
Intersect, Minus

1) UNION Clause

❖ The UNION clause merges or combines the output of two or more queries into a single
set of rows and columns
❖ Multiple queries can be put together and their output combined using the UNION clause.

❖ The output of both queries will be displayed as above.

o Output : Record only in query one + records only in query two + a single set of
records which is common in both queries.
Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 UNION SELECT * FROM table2;

Example:
Select salesman_no ‘ID’, name from salesman_master Where city=‘bombay‘ UNION
Select client_no ‘ID’, name from client_master Where city=‘bombay‘;

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Restriction on UNION clause:

✓ The number of column in all the queries should be same.
✓ The data type of columns in each query should be same
✓ Unions cannot be used in Sub queries
✓ Union cannot be used with aggregate functions

2) UNION ALL Clause

Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 UNION ALL SELECT * FROM table2;

3) INTERSECT Clause

❖ The INTERSECT clause outputs only those rows produced by both queries intersected.
❖ The output of INTERSECT clause will include only those rows that are retrieved by both
the queries

❖ The output of both queries will be displayed as above

❖ The final output of INTERSECT clause will be:
❖ A single set of Records which is common in both queries.

SELECT * FROM table1 INTERSECT SELECT * FROM table2;

Example:

Select sman_no, name from salesman_master where city='bombay' INTERSECT

Select salesman_master. sman_no, name from salesman_master, sales_order where
salesman_master. sman_no=sales_order. sman_no;
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Output:
name Sman_no

Kiran S00001

Ravi S00003

4) MINUS Clause
✓ The MINUS clause outputs the rows produced by the first query, after filtering the rows
retrieved by the second query.

✓ The output of both queries will be displayed as above

✓ The final output of MINUS clause will be:
✓ Output: Records only in query one
✓ Example: Retrieve all the product number of non-moving items from the Product_Master
table.
SELECT * FROM table1 MINUS SELECT * FROM table2;
Table Name: sales_order_details

Product_no Order_no
P00001 O19001
P00002 O19002
P00003 O19003
P00004 O19004

Table Name: Product_Master

Description Product_no
floppies P00001
Monitors P00002
Mouse P00003
HDD P00007
1.44 drive P00008

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Select product_no from Product_Master MINUS

Select product_no from sales_order_details;

Output:
Product_no

P00007

P00008

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