1 Transportation Engineering – 21CV52

Module 5
ELEMENTS OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND ELEMENTS OF
RAILWAYS AND AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Railways
Introduction
In the year 1832 the first Railway running on steam engine, was launched in England.
Thereafter on 1st of August, 1849 the Great Indian Peninsular Railways Company was
established in India. On 17th of August 1849, a contract was signed between the Great Indian
Peninsular Railways Company and East India Company. As a result of the contract an
experiment was made by laying a railway track between Bombay and Thane (56Kms).
• On 16th April, 1853, the first train service was started from Bombay to Thane.
• On 15th August, 1854, the 2nd train service commenced between Howrah and Hubli.
• On the Ist July, 1856, the 3rd train service in India and first in South India commenced
between Vyasarpadi and Walajah Road and on the same day the section between
Vyasarpadi and Royapuram by Madras Railway Company was also opened.
Subsequently construction of this efficient transport system began simultaneously in
different parts of the Country. By the end of 19th Century 24752 Kms. of rail track was laid for
traffic. At this juncture the power, capital, revenue rested with the British. Revenue started
flowing through passenger as well as through goods traffic.
Interaction Among Different Modes of Transportation
The interaction of different modes of transport for their participation in the united
transportation process is to ensure co-ordination and co-operation of fulfilment of technological
operations. Rational interaction of different modes of transport is the basis for the effective
functioning of an integrated transport system of the country.
The unity of the transport system allows to determine the main profitable areas of activity of
each mode of transport, introduce advanced technology and forms of interaction, as well as to
coordinate with the state of the interacting modes to speed up the transportation process and
reduce costs (transport costs of the enterprises).
The interaction of different modes of transport is carried out mainly in the transport nodes
where traffic flows are processed and serviced by passenger and goods, also its move from one
mode to another.
The interaction of transport modes involves the coordination of processes. The aim of
coordination is to align the volumes of transportation by different modes of transport and the
used technologies; the preparation of coordinated timetables for different transport modes. For
this purpose special plans-graphics are developed, in particular a continuous plan of transport
mode operation. This plan is developed to coordinate the activities of all types of transport in
real time to reduce the influence of fluctuation to transport process,

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Forms and methods of Interaction and coordination of various mode of transport realized in the
technical, technological, organizational, economic and legal fields:
1.Technical area of transport collaboration is consist of next elements:
• harmonization of capacities and processing abilities of cooperated systems and devices
on the lines and transport nodes.
• harmonization of rolling stock and containers by size and capacity for effective using
of transshipment facilities and points of passengers transfer.
• creation of inter-modal technical means of communication and information transfer.
2. The technological area includes several elements:
• organization of an integrated operation system of different modes of transport.
• developing of contact schedules of participating modes of transport, shippers and
consignees.
• projecting of interconnected convenient arrival and departure of vehicles of different
modes of transport;
• organization of integrated technological processes in huge nodes and intermodal
transport on the lines.
3. The organizational area (management and information areas) includes:
• development of a single coherent system of control of transport-road complex of the
country at the macro and regional levels.
• preparation of regulatory documents on the organization of the multimodal transport
process with regard to the safety of transport and environment.
• the organization of transport with a single logistical center.
• prompt notification and regulation of supply of rolling stock to the places of loading,
unloading and transshipment of goods in transport nodes.
• Organizing the sale of single tickets for the passengers of several modes of transport
and integration of transport-forwarding services in intermodal transportation.
4. Economic area includes
• the development and approval of plans and forecasts of demand for transport services
by various modes of transport owned by different owners.
• identifying demand and future volumes of intermodal freight by region, based on
market research.
• developing the strategy of the transport sector of the country, size of necessary
investments and how they are subsidized for every mode of transport.
• studying and harmonization of indicators taking into account transportation costs for
the correct determination of macro-economic indicators (gross domestic product,
input and output model.

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• the solution of problems of development and distribution of production forces,

• the development of a common methodological basis for calculations of operating
costs, efficiency of capital investments in transport and labor productivity;
• justification and approval of the general provision of the methodical pricing and
tariffs for transportation on one mode and in intermodal transport in terms of
government regulation and free pricing, as well as stimulating the production of
harmonized methods for intermodal transportation for customers;
• development of unified indicators of transport for companies and regions, as well as
values of quality and efficiency of transport services for clients.
5 The legal area includes
• legal issues relating to the relationship between organizations of different types of
transport and between transport management and clients, including provisions on the
mutual responsibility of the parties to implement agreements and contracts for
transportation.
• security, transportation of cargo and baggage including the multimodal transportation.
• All the processes of interaction between different modes of transport are divided into
deterministic, stochastic, and their combinations. The process where core values vary
according to certain patterns, result of the transport process is known in advance, is
called deterministic. The process where core values changing randomly, and the
conditions under which it occurs, can contain elements of uncertainty are called
stochastic.
Track components
The Typical components are – Rails, Sleepers (or ties), - Fasteners, - Ballast (or slab track),
Sub grade

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Gauge
The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the two rails
forming a track is known as Gauge. Indian railway followed this practice. In European
countries, the gauge is measured between the inner faces of two rails at a point 14 mm beiow
the top of the rail.
Gauges On World Railways Various gauges have been adopted by different railways in the
world due to historical and other considerations. Initially British Railways had adopted a gauge
of 1525 mm (5 feet), but the wheel flanges at that time were on the outside of the rails.
Subsequently in order to guide the wheels better, the flanges were made inside the rails. The
gauge then became 1435 mm (4'8.5"), as at that time the width of the rail at the top was 45 mm
(1.75 "). The 1435 mm gauge became the standard on most European Railways. The various
gauges on world railways are given in Table.

Different Gauges On Indian Railways

The East India Company intended to adopt the standard gauge of 1435 mm in India also. This
proposal was, however, challenged by W. Simms, Consulting Engineer to the Government of
India, who recommended a wider gauge of 1676 mm (5 '6 "). The Court of Directors of the
East India Company decided to adopt Simms’s recommendation and 5'6 " finally became the
Indian standard gauge in1871, the Government of India wanted to construct cheaper railways
for the development of the country and 1000 mm metre gauge was introduced. In due course
of time, two more gauges of widths 762 mm (2 ‘6 “) and 610 mm (2 '0 ") were introduced for
thinly populated areas, mountain railway miscellaneous purposes. The details of the various.
Gauges existing on Indian railways are given in table below.

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Broad Gauge: - When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a track is l676mm the gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G).This gauge is also
known as standard gauge of India and is the broadest gauge of the world. The Other countries
using the Broad Gauge are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Brazil, Argentine, etc. 50% India's
railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability: - Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions:-
(i) When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in plain areas which are densely populated i.e. for
routes of maximum traffic, intensities and at places which are centers of industry and
commerce.
Metre Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre Gauge (M.G) The other
countries using Metre gauge are France, Switzerland, Argentine, ctc. 40% of India's railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability:-Metre Gauge is suitable under the following conditions:
i)When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in under-developed areas and in interior areas, where
traffic intensity is small and prospects for future development are not very bright.
Narrow Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a rack is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as Narrow gauge (N.G)
The other countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India's railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability: narrow gauge is suitable under the following conditions.

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(i) When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to the provision
of sharp curves, steep gradient, narrow bridges and tunnels etc.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
This gauge is, therefore used in hilly and very thinly populated areas. The feeder gauge is
commonly used for feeding raw materials to big government manufacturing, concerns as well
as to private factories such as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc,.
Choice Of Gauge
The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge and all new railway
lines are constructed to adhere to the standard gauge. However, the following factors
theoretically influence the choice of the gauge:
Cost considerations: There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider gauge
is adopted. In this connection, the following points are important
(a) There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land, earthwork, rails,
sleepers, ballast, and other track items when constructing a wider gauge.
(b) The cost of building bridges, culverts, and tunnels increases only marginally due to a
wider gauge.
(c) The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters, level crossings,
signals, etc., associated with the railway network is more or less the same for all
gauges.
(d) The cost of rolling stock is independent of the gauge of the track for carrying the same
volume of traffic.
Traffic considerations
The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and the speed and hauling capacity of
the train. Thus, the following points need to be considered.
(a) As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can theoretically carry more
traffic.
(b) A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed is a function of
the diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the width of the gauge. As a
thumb rule, diameter of the wheel is kept 75 per cent of gauge width.
(c) The type of traction and signalling equipment required are independent of the gauge.
Physical features of the country
It ts possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a narrow gauge as compared to
a wider gauge.
Uniformity of gauge
The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth, speedy, and efficient operation
of trains. Therefore, a single gauge should be adopted irrespective of the minor advantages of
a wider gauge and the few limitations of a narrower gauge.

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Rail
Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an unchanging,
continuous, and level surface for the movement of trains. To be able to withstand stresses, they
are made of highcarbon steel. Standard rail sections, their specifications, and various types of
rail defects are discussed in this section.
Function Of Rails
Rails are similar to steel girders. They perform the following functions in a track:
(a) Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
(b) They provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The friction
between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one metalledroad.
(c) They serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
(d) They bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through axles
and wheels of rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
(e) They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the formation
through sleepers and the ballast.

Requirements Of An Ideal Rail Section

The requirements of an ideal rail section are as follows:
(a) The rail should have the most economical section consistent with strength, stiffness,
and durability.
(b) The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to the mid-
height of the rail so that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
(c) A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and there should be an economical
and balanced distribution of metal in its various components so that each of them can
fulfill its requirements properly.
The requirements, as well as the main considerations, for the design of these rail components
are as follows:

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Head: The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow for vertical wear. The rail head
should also be sufficiently wide so that not only is a wider running surface available, but also
the rail has the desired lateral stiffness.
Web: The web should be sufficiently thick so as to withstand the stresses arising due to the
loads bore by it, after allowing for normal corrosion.
Foot: The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to withstand vertical and horizontal
forces after allowing for loss due to corrosion. The foot should be wide enough for stability
against overturning. The design of the foot should be such that it can be economically and
efficiently rolled.
Fishing angles: These must ensure proper transmission of loads from the rails to the fish plates.
The fishing angles should be such that the tightening of the plate does not produce any
excessive stress on the web of the rail.
Height of the rail: The height should be adequate so that the rail has sufficient vertical stiffness
and strength as a beam.
Weight of rails
Though the weights of a rail and its section depend upon various considerations, the heaviest
axle load that the rail has to carryolavs the most important role. The following is the thumb
rule for dinning the maximum axle load with relation to the rail section:
• Maximum axle load = 560 x sectional weight of rail in Ibs per yard or kg per meter
• for rails of 90 Ibs per yard, Maximum axle load = 560 x 90 Ibs =50,400 Ibs or 22.5
tonnes .
• For rails of 52 kg perm Maximum axle load = 560x 52 kg = 29.12 tonnes
• For rail of 60 kg perm, Max. axle load for 60 kg/m rail = 560x60 kg= 33.60 tonnes
Length of rails
Theoretically, the longer is the rail, the lesser would be the number of joints and fittings
required and the lesser the cost of construction and maintenance. Longer rails are economical
and provide smooth and comfortable rides. The length of a rail is, however, restricted due to
the following factors:
(a) Lack of facilities for transport of longer rails, particularly on curves
(b) Difficulties in manufacturing very long rails
(c) Difficulties in acquiring bigger expansion joints for long rails
(d) Heavy internal thermal stresses in long rails
Taking the above factors into consideration, Indian Railways has standardized a rail length of
13 m (previously 42 ft) for broad gauge and 12 m (previously 39 ft) for MG and NG tracks.
Indian Railways is also planning to use 39 m, and even longer rails in its track system. Now 65
m/78 m long rails are being produced at SAIL, Bhilai and it is planned to manufacture 130 m
long rails

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SLEEPRS
Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. They have an important role n
the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast. Several types of sleepers
are used on Indian Railways. The characteristics of these sleepers and their suitability with
respect to load conditions are described in this section.
Functions And Requirements of Sleepers The main functions of sleepers are as follows:
(a) Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment
(b) Giving a firm and even support to the rails
(c) Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast
(d) Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads
(e) Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way
(f) Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life
Apart from performing these functions the ideal sleeper should normally fulfill the following
requirements.
a) The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.
b) The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.
c) The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix and
remove the rails easily.
d) The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not crushed
e) the sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge properly.
f) the material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
damaged during packing.
g) the design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.
h) the sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the passage
of fast moving train.
i) the sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti- theft features.
Sleeper Density And Spacing Of The Sleeper Sleeper
density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as (M + x) or (N + x), where M
or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that varies according to factors such
as
(a) axle load and speed,
(b) type and section of rails,
(c) type and strength of the sleepers,

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(d) type of ballast and depth of ballast cushion, and

(e) nature of formation.
If the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m,
it implies that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail length of the track on that route. The
number of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating the number of sleepers per
kilometer of the track, for example, 1540 sleepers/km. This specification becomes more
relevant particularly in cases where rails are welded and the length of the rail does not have
much bearing on the number of sleepers required. This system of specifying the number of
sleepers per kilometer exists in many foreign countries and is now being adopted on Indian
Railways as well. The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing
is not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer near the joints because of the
weakness of the joints and impact of moving loads on them. There is, however, a limitation to
the close spacing of the sleepers, as enough space is required for working the beaters that are
used to pack the joint sleepers. The standard spacing specifications adopted for a fish-plated-
track on Indian Railways are given in Table below. The notations used in this table are
explained in Fig. below.

Types Of Sleepers
The sleepers mostly used on Indian Railways are
(i) Wooden sleepers,
(ii) cast iron (CI)sleepers,
(iii) steel sleepers, and
(iv) Concrete sleepers. Comparison of different types of sleepers

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Ballast
Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular maternal placed and
packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the formation. It
provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track. Different types of
ballast materials and their specifications are discussed in this chapter.
Functions Of Ballast
The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track .
• It provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to reston.
• It holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
• It transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.
• It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
• It provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
• It provides effective drainage to the track.

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• It provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track
Types of Ballast
The different types of ballast used on Indian Railways are described here
Sand ballast: Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. it is also used with wooden
iron steel trough sleepers in areas where traffic density is very low. Coarse sand is preferred in
comparison to fine sand. it has good drainage properties, but has the drawback of blowing off
because of being light. It also causes excessive wear of the rail top and the moving parts of the
rolling stock.
Moorum ballast: The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum. It is red,
and sometimes yellow, in colour. The moorum ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in
new constructions and also as subballast. As it prevents water from percolating into the
formation, it is also used as a blanketing material for black cotton soil.
Coal ash or cinder: This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as the initial
ballast in new constructions since it is very cheap and easily available. It is harmful for steel
sleepers and fittings because of its corrosive action.
Broken stone ballast
This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. Good stone ballast is generally
procured from. hard stones such as granite, quartzite, and hard trap. The quality of stone should
be such that neither it should be porous nor it flake off due to the weathering. Good quality
hard stone is normally used for high-speed tracks. This type of ballast works out to be
economical in the longrun.
Other types of ballast
There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat ballast, gravel ballast, kankar stone
ballast, and even earth ballast. These types of ballast are used only in special circumstances.
The comparative advantages, disadvantages, and suitability of different types of ballast are
given in Table below.
Sizes Of Ballast
Previously, 50 mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat-bottom sleepers such as concrete and
wooden sleepers, and 40 mm (1.5") ballasts for metal sleepers such as CST-9 and trough
sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50 mm (2") ballasts have been adopted universally for all
types of sleepers.
Points and crossings are subjected to heavy blows of moving loads and hence are maintained
to a heigher degree of precision. A small sized, 25 mm (1") ballast: s. therefore, preferable
because of its fineness for slight adjustments, better compaction, and increased frictional area
of the ballast. For uniformity sake, the Indian Railways has adopted the same standard size of
ballast for the main line as well as for points and crossings.
This standard size of ballast should be as per Indian Railways specification. The specification
provides grading of ballast from 25 mm to 65 mm, maximum quantity of ballast being in the
range of 40 mm to 50 mm size.

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Requirements Of Good Ballast

Ballast material should possess the following properties,
a) It should be tough and wear resistant.
b) It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the moving loads,

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c) It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.

d) It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.
e) It should resist both attrition and abrasion.
f) It should be durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under adverse
weather conditions
g) It should allow for good drainage of water,
h) It should be cheap and economical.
Design Of Ballast Section
The design of the ballast section includes the determination of the depth of the ballast cushion
below the sleeper and its profile. These aspects are discussed as follows.
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion
The load on the sleeper is transferred through the medium of the ballast to the formation. The
pressure distribution in the ballast section depends upon the size and shape of the ballast and
the degree of consolidation. Though the lines of equal pressure are in the shape of a bulb as
discussed in, yet for simplicity, the dispersion of load can be assumed to be roughly 45° to the
vertical. In order to ensure that the load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of the
ballast should be such that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other. For the even
distribution of load on the formation, the depth of the ballast is determined by the following
formula:
Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 x depth of ballast
Railway Fixtures And Fastening
All those fittings which are required for connecting the rails end to end and for fixing the rails
to the sleepers in a track are known as fixtures and fastenings.
They include –
1) Fish plates
2) Spikes
3) Bolts
4) Chairs
5) Keys
6) Blocks
7) Bearing plates
The different functions of these fitting are :
1) To keep the rails in the proper positions.
2) Connection of rail to rail.

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3) To set points and crossings properly

4) To allow for expansion and contraction of rails.
The various types of fixtures and fastenings listed above are briefly described below :
FISH PLATES : These plates are used to maintain proper alignment of the rail line. They
maintain the continuity of the rails and also allow expansion or contraction of rails caused due
to temperature variations.
Generally these plates are made of mild steel and 20 mm in thickness.
They are 45.6 cm long and provided with 4 no. of 32 mm diameter holes at 11.4 center to center.
Indian railways generally adopt following two types of fish plates :-
1) Bone shaped fish plate
2) Increased depth fish plate
Bone shaped fish plate is used for connecting flat footed rails. The increased depth fish plate is
generally used for connecting Bull-headed rails.
SPIKES : They are used to hold the rails to the wooden sleeper. A good spike should have
following qualities :
1) It should have sufficient strength to hold the rail in position.
2) It should help in maintaining proper gauge.
3) It should be easy to fix and replace from the sleepers.
Indian Railways use following types of spikes :-
1. Dog spikes
2. Screw spikes
3. Round spikes
4. Standard spikes
5. Elastic spikes
BOLTS : They are used for connecting :
1) Fish plates to the rails at each rail joint.
2) Chairs or bearing plates to timber sleepers.
3) Sleepers to bridge girders, etc
The different types of bolts used in Indian Railways are :
1. Hook bolts
2. Fish bolts
3. Fang bolts

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4. Rag bolts
Hook bolts are used for fixing timber sleepers to bridge girders. They are popularly known as
dog bolts. Fish bolts are used to connect fish plates to the rails at rail joints. Fang bolts are used
for fixing side chairs to the sleepers. Rag bolts are generally used to connect longitudinal timber
sleeper or concrete sleepers to the walls of ash pits.
CHAIRS : They are used to hold the double headed and bull headed rails in required position.
They are made of cast iron having two jaws and a rail seat. In order to fix the double headed or
bull headed rail to a chair, the rail is placed between the two jaws of the chair.
KEYS : They are small tapered pieces of timber or steel to connect rails to chairs on metal
sleepers. Types of keys generally used are :
1) timber keys
2) metal keys
3) Stuart's keys
4) Morgan keys
BLOCKS : They are inserted in between the two rails running close to each other and bolted
to maintain the required distance. They may touch either the webs or the finishing faces or
both.
BEARING PLATES : They are the plates placed in between the flat footed rails and timber
sleepers on a track. They serve as chairs for flat footed rails. They are made of cast iron,
wrought iron or steel. Generally, they are of following types :
1) Flat bearing plates
2) canted bearing plates
Flat bearing plates are used at locations where rails are laid flat. Also they are used in turn out
tracks under points and crossings. Canted Bearing plates are used on soft timber sleepers
beneath outside rail on curves, on sleepers placed on either side of rail joints, bridges etc. where
rails are laid at an inward tilt of 1 in 20
Various resistances and their evaluation
Introduction
Various forces offer resistance to the movement of a train on the track. These resistances may
be the result of movement of the various parts of the locomotives as well as the friction between
them, the irregularities in the track profile, or the atmospheric resistance to a train moving at
great speed. The tractive power of a locomotive should be adequate enough to overcome these
resistances and haul the train at a specified speed.
Resistance Due To Friction
Resistance due to friction is the resistance offered by the friction between the internal parts of
locomotives and wagons as well as between the metal surface of the rail and the wheel to a

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train moving at a constant speed. This resistance is independent of speed and can be further
broken down into the following parts.
Journal friction: This is dependent on the type of bearing, the lubricant used, the temperature
and condition of the bearing, etc. In the case of roll bearings, it varies from 0.5 to 1.0 kg per
tonne.
Internal resistance: This resistance is consequential to the movement of the various parts of the
locomotive and wagons.
Rolling resistance: This occurs due to rail-wheel interaction on account of the movement of
steel wheels an a steel rail. The total frictional resistance is given by the empirical formula
R1 = 0.0016 W
Where R1 is the frictional resistance independent of speed and W is the weight of the train in
tonnes.
Resistance Due To Wave Action
When a train moves with speed a certain resistance develops due to the wave action in the rail.
Similarly, track irregularities such as longitudinal unevenness and differences in cross levels
also offer resistance to a moving train. Such resistances are different for different speeds, There
is no method for the precise calculation of these resistances but the following formula has been
evolved based on experience:
R2 = 0.00008 WV
Where R2 is the resistance (in tonnes) due to wave action and track irregularities on account of
the speed of the train, W is the weight of the train in tonnes, and V is the speed of the train in
kmph.
Resistance Due To Wind
When a vehicle moves with speed, a certain resistance develops, as the vehicle has to move
forward against the wind. Wind resistance consists of side resistance, head resistance, and tail
resistance, but its exact magnitude depends upon the size and shape of the vehicle, its speed,
and the wind direction as well as its velocity. Wind resistance depends upon the exposed area
of the vehicle and the velocity and direction of the wind. In Fig. below, V is the velocity of
wind at an angle 𝜃 The horizontal component of wind, V cosө, opposes the movement of the
train. Wind normally exerts maximum pressure when it acts at an angle of 60° to the direction
of movement of the train. Wind resistance can be obtained by the following formula:
R3=0.000017AV2
Where A is the exposed area of vehicle (m2) and V is the velocity of wind (kmph)
R3=000006WV2 Where R3 is the wind resistance in tonnes, V is the velocity of the train in km
per hour, and W is the weight of the train in tonnes.

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Resistance Due To Gradient

When a train moves on a rising gradient, it requires extra effort in order to move against
gravity as shown in fig below. Assuming that a wheel of weight W is moving on a rising
gradient OA, the following forces act on the wheel.
(a) Weight of the wheel(W), which acts downward
(b) Normal pressure N on the rail, which acts perpendicular to OA
(c) Resistance due to rising gradient (R4), which acts parallel to OA
These three forces meet at a common point Q and the triangle QCD can be taken as a triangle
of forces. It can also be geometrically proved that the two triangles QCD and AOB are
similar.

Resistance Due To Curvature

When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to overcome the resistance
offered by the curvature of the track. Curve resistance is caused basically because of the
following reasons fig below:

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a. The vehicle cannot adapt itself to a curved track because of its rigid wheel base. This
is why the frame takes up a tangential position as the vehicle tries to move in a
longitudinal direction along the curve as shown in Fig. below. On account of this, the
flange of the outer wheel of the leading axle rubs against the inner face of the outer
rail, giving rise to resistance to the movement of the train
b. Curve resistance can sometimes be the result of longitudinal slip, which causes the
forward motion of the wheels on a curved track. The outer wheel flange of the trailing
axle remains clear and tends to derail. The position worsens further if the wheel base
is long and the curve is sharp.
c. Curve resistance is caused when a transverse slip occurs, which increases the friction
between the wheel flanges and the rails
d. Poor track maintenance, particularly bad alignment, worn-out and improper levels,
also increase resistance.
e. Inadequate superelevation increases the pressure on the outer rail and, similarly,
excess superelevation puts greater pressure on the inner rails, and this also
contributes to an increase in resistance.
The value of curve resistance can be determined by the following equation:
Curve resistance = C x (FG/R)
Where F is the force of sliding friction, G is the gauge of the tack R is the mean radius of the
curve, and C is the constant, which is dependent on various factors. This equation indicates
that
(a) curve resistance increases with increase in gauge width and
(b) resistance is inversely proportional to the radius, i.e., it increases with an increase in
the degree of the curve.
Empirical formulae have been worked out for curve resistance, which are as follows:
Curve resistance for BG (Rs) = 0.0004 WD
Curve resistance for MG (Rs) = 0.0003 WD
Curve resistance for NG (Rs) = 0.0002 WD
Compensated gradient for curvature Curve resistance is quite often compensated or offset by
a reduction in the gradient. In this way, the effect of curve resistance is translated in terms of
resistance due to gradient. The compensation is 0.04 percent, on BG, 0.03 percent on MG,
and 0.02 percent on NG lines for every 1 ֯of the curve This will be clear through the solved
example given below.
Resistance Due To Starting And Accelerating
Trains face these resistances at stations when they start, accelerate and decelerate. The values
of these resistances are as follows:
Resistance on starting, R6 = 0.15 W1 +0.005W2

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Resistance due to acceleration, R7= 0.028aW

where W1 is the weight of the locomotive in tonnes, W2 the weight of the trailing vehicles in
tonnes, W is the total weight of the locomotive and vehicle in tonnes. i.e. W1+W2, and a is
the acceleration. which can be calculated by finding the increase in velocity per unit time,
i.e.,(V2 – V2)/t where V2 is the final velocity. V1 is the initial velocity, and t is the time
taken.
Wheel and axis arrangements and coning of wheel
Introduction
Wheels and axles we have the different types of the locomotives under wagons which
are used for the hauling of the passengers and freight. All these wagons and locomotives have
different specifications depending on the gauges for which they have been used. If you look
at the various locomotives from the very starting of our history, we have been using steam
locomotives and then they have been replaced by diesel locomotives and finally by the
electric locomotives.
In the case of the steam locomotives, the wheels and axles are classified by on the
basis of Whyte system. Traditionally, steam locomotives have been classified using either
their wheel arrangements or sometimes they are also been classified on the basis of axle
arrangements. In the case of the wheel arrangements classification, they are being classified
on the basis of Whyte system and other system locomotives have three different types of
wheel basis. They have the wheel basis which are either coupled or which are having the
driving conditions or detective power attached to them or the wheel basis on which no
attractive power is attached.
In Indian practice, the Indian practice has been taken from the United Kingdom
because British were the persons who introduced the Indian railways in our country and in
this system we count wheels and we do not count the axles as far as the steam locomotives
are concerned. In the case of steam locomotives, one examples is been taken here where it is
been shown as 2-4-2. Now this 2-4-2 has the significance in terms of the wheel basis as been
defined earlier. The first 2 is the front wheels or the 2 number of wheels have been placed or
what we can say is that there is one axle which is being placed in the front condition.
Then the 4 part is to the 4 number of wheels which have been placed in the central
condition where they are the powered wheels or the driving wheels and therefore they
transforms into the 2 axles condition and then there are trailing wheels where we have 2
wheels at the back and again, if it transform them into the actual condition, it will be working
to one axle.
The compound locomotive is a condition where there is a more attractive power which is
required to haul the passenger or. the freight. The heavy amount of the freight which is to be
transported and the trailing conditions governs the conditions where we require to provide
two locomotives together so as to haul them. Here, this is an example of compound
locomotive where two locomotive of condition 2-8-2 or 2-8- 4 have been joined together so
as to haul the traffic or the passengers or the freight. Again, if we go by the Whyte condition,
Whyte system of classification of the locomotives of the wheel configuration then 2-8-2
means they have 2 front wheels, 8 medium or central wheels and 2 trailer wheels, in case of

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the first locomotives whereas in the case of the second locomotives we have 2 front wheels, 8
central condition wheels which are electrically driven, which are driven for the movement of
the locomotives and then in this case we have 4 trailing wheels.
Coning wheels has the following disadvantages:
1. In order to minimize the above below disadvantages the tilting of rails is done. i.e. the
rails are not laid flat but tilted inwards by using inclined base plates sloped at 1 in 20
which is also the slope of coned surface of wheels.
2. The pressure of the horizontal component near the inner edge of the rail has a
tendency to wear the rail quickly.
3. The horizontal components tend to turn the rail outwardly and hence the gauge is
widened sometimes.
4. If no base plates are provided, sleepers under the outer edges of the rails are damaged.
Advantages of Tilting of Rails
1. It maintains the gauge properly.
2. The wear at the head of rail is uniform. It increases the life of sleepers and the rails
Classification of routes
The Railway Board has classified the railway lines in India based on the importance of the
route, the traffic carried, and the maximum permissible speed on the route. The complete
classification is given below.
Broad Gauge Routes
All the broad gauge (BG) routes of Indian Railways have been classified into five different
groups based on speed criteria as given below.
Group A lines
These lines are meant for a sanctioned speed of 160 km/h
New Delhi to Howrah by Rajdhani route
New Delhi to Mumbai Central by Frontier Mail/Rajdhani route
New Delhi to Chennai Central by Grand Trunk route
Howrah to Mumbai VT via Nagpur
Group B lines
These lines are meant for a sanctioned speed of 130 kmph:
Allahabad-Itarsi-Bhusaval
Kalyan-Wadi Raichur-Madras
Kharagpur-Waltair-Vijayawada
Wadi-Secunderabad-Kazipet

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Howrah-Bandel-Burdwan-Barharwa over Farakka-Malda town

Barsoi-New Jalpaiguri
Sitarampur-Kiul-Patna-Mughalsarai
Kiul-Sahibganj-Barharwa
Delhi-Ambala Cantt-Kalka
Ambala Cantt-Moradabad-Lucknow-Paratapgarh-Mughalsarai
Group C lines
These lines are meant for suburban sections of Mumbai, Kolkata, and Delhi.
Group D and D Spl lines
These lines are meant for sections where the maximum sanctioned speed is 100 km/h.
Group E and E Spl lines
These lines are meant for other sections and branch lines.
D Spl and E Spl routes Based on the importance of routes, it has been decided that few
selected routes presently falling under D and E routes will be classified as D special and E
special routes. This has been done for the purpose of track renewal and priority allotment of
funds. The track standards for these routes will be 60-kg 90 ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
rails and prestressed concrete (PSC) sleepers with sleeper density of 1660 per km.
Metre Gauge Routes
Depending upon the importance of routes, traffic carried, and maximum permissible speed, the
metre gauge (MG) tracks of Indian Railways were earlier classified into three main categories,
namely, trunk routes, main lines, and branch lines. These track standards have since been
revised and now the MG routes have been classified as Q, R1, R2, R3, and S routes as discussed
below.
Review of track standard for MG Routes
A committee of directors, chief engineers, and additional commissioner of railway safety
(ACRS) was formed in 1977 to review the track standards for MG routes.
The committee submitted its report in December 1981, in which it recommended that MG
routes be classified into four categories, namely, P, Q, R, and S routes, based on speed criteria.
The committee's recommendations were accepted by the Railway Board after certain
modifications. The final categories are as follows.
Q routes Routes with a maximum permissible speed of more than 75 kmph. The traffic density
is generally more than 2.5 GMT [gross million tonne(s) per km/ annum].
R routes Routes with a speed potential of 75 kmph and a traffic density of more than 1.5 GMT.
R routes have further been classified into three categories depending upon the volume of traffic:
(i) R1-traffic density more than 5 GMT

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(ii) R2-traffic density between 2.5 and 5 GMT

(iii) R3-traffic density between 1.5 and 2.5 GMT
S routes Routes with a speed potential of less than 75 kmph and a traffic density of less than
1.5 GMT. These consist of routes that are not covered in Q, R1, R2, and R3 routes. S routes
have been further subclassified into three routes, namely, S1, S2, and S3. S1 routes are used
for the through movement of freight traffic, S3 routes are uneconomical branch lines, and S2
routes are those which are neither S1 nor S3 routes.
Airports
Intoduction
An airport is a place where airplanes can land or take off. Most airports in the world have only
a long strip of level ground called a runway. Many airports have buildings which are used to
hold airplanes and passengers. A building that holds passengers waiting for their planes
or luggage is called a terminal. The sections between planes and the terminal are called "gates".
Airports also have buildings called hangars to hold planes when they are not used. Some
airports have buildings to control the airport, like a control tower which tells planes where to
go.
Airports usually have paved runways, maintenance facilities, and serve as a terminal for
passengers and cargo. They may also include adjacent utility buildings such as control towers,
hangars, and terminals.
Airports can be landside or airside. Landside descriptions cover how passengers arrive/depart
the airport terminal building. According to the International Civil Aviation (ICAO), the aviation
industry consists of some 1,400 commercial airlines, 4,130 airports and 173 air navigation
services providers (ANSPs).
An international airport is a large airport that airplanes can use to fly to and from
other countries. A domestic airport is an airport which is usually smaller and only has
airplanes coming from different places in the same country. Most international airports
have shops and restaurants for airplane passengers to use.
An airport used by the military is often called an air force base or airbase. An aircraft
carrier is a floating airbase.
Airports are made and operated for safety. Today, people must walk through a metal detector,
a machine that can tell if metal goes through it. If it makes a noise, the officers will make that
person take off all things on them that are metal. They also have X-ray machines that can look
into luggage. If officers find items such as weapons, or anything that can be used to kill people,
that item (and the person who has it) are taken away and possibly arrested. As well as this,
passengers are not allowed to bring bottles or containers with over 100 ml of liquid onto the
plane because they could be turned into bombs. Therefore, all water bottles must be emptied
before entering the secured area.
An airport is a crucial infrastructure component within the realm of civil engineering, serving
as a vital nexus for air travel, commerce, and transportation. As one of the most complex and
dynamic engineering projects, airports require meticulous planning, design, construction, and
management to ensure safe and efficient operation.
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In its essence, an airport comprises various interconnected systems and facilities designed to
facilitate the movement of aircraft, passengers, cargo, and support services. From runway and
taxiway networks to terminal buildings, hangars, fueling stations, and air traffic control towers,
each element of an airport plays a pivotal role in enabling seamless air travel operations.
Civil engineers are instrumental in every phase of an airport's lifecycle, from conceptualization
and site selection to construction oversight, maintenance, and expansion. They employ
sophisticated techniques in structural, geotechnical, hydraulic, and transportation engineering
to address diverse challenges such as runway design for different aircraft types, environmental
impact mitigation, noise control, and optimizing passenger flow within terminals.
Moreover, with the rapid evolution of aviation technology and increasing demands for
sustainable infrastructure, civil engineers are at the forefront of implementing innovative
solutions in airport design and operation. This includes incorporating renewable energy
sources, enhancing airfield pavement durability, implementing intelligent transportation
systems, and adopting green building practices to minimize environmental footprint and
maximize efficiency.
In essence, airports represent the pinnacle of modern civil engineering achievements,
embodying the seamless integration of technology, infrastructure, and human ingenuity to
connect the world and propel global commerce and mobility forward.
TYPICAL LAYOUT OF AN AIRPORT WITH COMPONENT PARTS AND
FUNCTIONS
The main components of an airport layout are:
An airfield consisting of landing strip which consists of runway, shoulders, stopways, taxiways,
apron. Terminal area consisting of gates, terminal building, aircraft service facilities, flight
support area consisting of air traffic control, navigational aids, fuelling of aircraft etc.,
1. Runway: it is a paved strip provided specially for landing and take-off. It is usually
oriented in the direction of prevailing winds.
2. Shoulder: it is provided on either side of runway to serve as safety zones.
3. Taxiway: it is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars,
terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete.
4. Apron: it is the area of an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled
etc.,
5. Holding apron: these are also known as run up or warm up paids. These are located
where the aircrafts wait for their turn to take-off and where they are finally checked
before the take off. It is usually provided near the runway ends.
6. Hangars: the primary function of a hangar is to provide an enclosure for servicing over
heading and doing repairs of the aircrafts. They are constructed of steel frames and
covered with galvanized iron sheets

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7. Gate: it is an area of an airport that provides a waiting area for passengers before
boarding their flight. It is an opening in the terminal building through which passengers
enter/ leave the terminal building.
8. Terminal building: it is where passengers are able to get on and off aircraft. The
passengers can buy tickets, leave or pick up their luggage and be checked by security
staff. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes through gates are usually called
concourses.

AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION
For the purpose of stipulating geometric design standards for the various types of airports and
the functions which they serve, letter and numerical codes and other descriptors have been
adopted to classify airports. The airports have been classified by various agencies namely:
(i) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
(ii) Federal Aviation agency (FAA)
(iii) United States Airforce
ICAO Classification/ ICAO Stipulations ICAO has classified airports in two ways * based on
the basic runway length of the airport. * based on the equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)
and tire pressure of the aircraft which will use the airport.
BASED ON BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH
The classification is done by using the letters A, B, C, D and E in which A type has the longest
runway length and E type has the shortest length.

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BASED ON ESWL AND TIRE PRESSURE

The classification has been done using numbers, namely 1 to 7

Classification also describes other geometric standards of the airport.

(i) Maximum effective grade – 1.0 % for A, B, C and 2.0 % D and E types
(ii) Maximum transverse grade – 1.5 % for A, B, C and 2.0 % D and E types
(iii) Rate of change of longitudinal grade for 30m length of vertical curve is 0.1% for A and
B, 0.2% for C and 0.4% for D and E types.
(iv) Safety area – minimum width of 150m for A, B, C and 78m for D and E types. It extends
atleast 60m beyond runway end on either side.
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE DESIGN AND PLANNING OF
AIRPORT LAYOUT
Aircraft characteristics are of prime importance to the airport planner and designer. The
following are the characteristics:
1. Type of propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Minimum turning radius

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4. Minimum circling radius

5. Speed of aircraft
6. Capacity of aircraft
7. Aircraft weight and wheel configuration
8. Jet blast
9. Fuel spillage
10. Noise
Type of propulsion: The size of aircraft, circling radius, speed characteristics, weight carrying
capacity, noise nuisance etc., depends upon the types of propulsion of the aircraft. The
performance, characteristics of aircrafts which determine the basic runway length also depend
upon the type of propulsion. The heat nuisance due to exhaust gases is a characteristic of turbo
jet and turbo prop engines.
Size of aircraft: The size of aircraft involves the following dimension,
(a) Wing span: it decides the width of taxiway, separation clearance between two parallel
taxiways, size of aprons and hangars etc.
(b) Fuselage length: it decides the widening of taxiways on curves, width of exit taxiway,
sizes of aprons and hangars.
(c) Height: it decides the height of the hanger gate and other installations inside the hangar.
(d) Gear thread (distance between main gears)
(e) Wheel base,
(f) Tail width
Minimum turning radius: In order to decide the radius of taxiways, the position of aircrafts
in loading aprons and hangars, and to establish the path of the moment of aircraft, it is very
essential to study the geometry of the turning movement. To determine the minimum turning
radius, a line is drawn through the axis of the nose gear when it is at its maximum angle of
rotation. The point where the line intersects another line drawn through the axis of the two main
gears called the center of rotation. The distance of the farther wing tip from the center of
rotation represents the minimum turning radius. For example: large turbo jet – 50 to 60 inch.

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Minimum circling radius: There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take
turn in space. This radius depends upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume and weather
conditions. The radii recommended are:
(i) Small general aviation aircraft’s under VFR ( Visual Flight Rules) = 1.6 Km
(ii) Bigger aircrafts, say two piston engine under VFR conditions = 3.2 Km
(iii) Piston engine aircraft under IFR (Instrument Flight Rules ) conditions = 13 Km
(iv) Jet engine aircrafts under IFR conditions = 80 Km
Speed of aircraft: The speed of aircrafts can be defined in two ways namely ground speed and
air speed. Ground speed is the speed of aircraft with the ground when the aircraft is flying in
air at its maximum speed. Air speed is the speed of airways relative to wind. For example:
flying speed of aircraft = 500 Kms and there is head wind of 50 Kmph, then air speed = 500 –
50 = 450 Kmph.
Aircraft capacity: The number of passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel that can be
accommodated depends upon the capacity of the aircraft. The capacity of aircraft using airport
have an important effect on the capacity of runway systems as well as that of the passenger
processing terminal facilities.
Weight of aircraft and wheel configuration: Weight of the aircraft directly influence the
length of the runway as well as the structural requirements i.e., the thickness of the runway,
taxiway, apron and hangars. It depends upon not only on the weight of the passenger, baggage,
cargo and fuel it is carrying and its structural weight, but also on the fuel which is continuously
decreasing during the course of the flight.
Jet blast: The velocity of jet blast is as high as 300 Kmph. Which eject hot exhaust gases. The
high velocity causes inconvenience to the passengers travelling in the aircraft. Jet blast
deflectors are used as an effective measure for diverting the smoke ejected by the engine to
avoid inconvenience to the passengers. It is desirable to provide cement concrete pavement
atleast at the touch down portion to resist the effect of the blast as bituminous pavements are
easily effected by jet blast.
Fuel spillage: At loading aprons and hangars fuel spillage from the aircrafts is quiet common
and it should be made to bring it with minimum limit. Flexible pavement are severely affected
by this and hence it is necessary that the engine and the main landing gears are kept under
constant supervision by the concerned authorities.
Noise: Noise generated by aircraft creates problems in making decisions on layout and
capacity. The correct assessment measure to minimize the future noise patterns is to optimize
the runways layout i.e., reduction in field length is found to be the most effective ways of
minimizing the impact of aircraft noise.
CRITERIA FOR AIRPORT SITE SELECTION
The factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation
• Regional plan
• Airport use

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• Proximity to other airports

• Ground accessibility
• Topography
• Obstructions
• Visibility
• Wind
• Noise nuisance
• Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
• Future development
• Availability of utilities from town
• Economic considerations
Above factors are briefly discussed as follows:
1. Regional Plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan, thereby forming
it an integral part of the national network of airport.
2. Airport Use: The selection of site depends upon the use of an airport i.e. whether for
civilian or for military operations. However, during the emergency, civilian airports are
taken over by the defense. Therefore, the airport site selected should be such that it
provides natural protection to the area from air raids.
3. Proximity to other airports: The site should be selected at a considerable distance from
the existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the
movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports
mainly depends upon the volume of air traffic, the type of aircraft and the air traffic
control. The following minimum spacings have been suggested as a guide for planning:
(i) For airports serving small general aviation aircraft’s under VFR (Visual Flight Rules):
3.2 km
(ii) For airports serving bigger aircrafts, say two piston engine, under VFR conditions: 6.4
km
(iii) For airports operating piston engine aircrafts under IFR (Instrumental flight rules)
conditions: 25.6 km
(iv) For aircrafts operating jet engine aircrafts under IFR conditions: 160km If the suggested
minimum spacing between the airports cannot be provided, then the landing and take-
off of aircrafts in each airport are properly timed to avoid interference. This obviously
reduces the capacity of each airport.
4. Ground Accessibility: The site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users.
The airline passenger is more concerned with his door-to-door time rather than the actual time
in air travel. The time to reach the airport is, therefore, an important consideration. The time

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required reaching an airport in a passenger car, from the business or residential centers should
normally not exceed 30minutes. The best location is a site adjacent to the main highway.
5. Topography: This includes natural features like ground contours, trees, streams etc. A raised
ground e.g. a hill top, is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport. The reasons are:
• Less obstruction in approach zones and turning zones
• Natural drainage, low land may result in flooding
• More uniform wind
• Better visibility due to less fog
6. Obstructions: When aircraft is landing or taking off, it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason, long clearance areas are provided on either
side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose altitude.
The areas should be kept free of obstructions. The obstructions may consist of fences, trees,
pole lines, building and other natural or manmade objects. Sometimes the ground itself may
slope upwards from the end of the runways to such an extent that it forms an obstruction to the
aircraft operation. If obstruction exists around a site over which an airport is to be built, the
removal is imperative at any cost.
7. Visibility: Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions, such as fog, smoke and haze. Fog
generally settles in the area where wind blow is minimum, e.g. in a valley. Smoke and haze
nuisance exist at sites nearer to the industrial areas. Therefore, trend of the future development
of industrial area should also be studied and the site should be selected accordingly.
8. Wind: Runway is so oriented that landing and take-off is done by heading into the wind.
Wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity of wind should be collected over a minimum
period of about five years. This helps in proper orientation of runway and influences the shape
of the site needed for the development of airport. The site should be located to windward
direction of the city, so that a minimum smoke from the city is blown over the site.
9. Noise Nuisance: The extent of noise nuisance depends upon the limb-out path of aircraft,
type of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute
with jet engine aircrafts. Therefore, the site should be so selected that the landing and take-off
paths of the circuits pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial development.
Sometimes buffer zone may have to be provided between the take off end of a runway and
nearby residential area. If buffer zone cannot be provided, some acoustical barrier may have to
be installed.
10. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: The original ground profile a site together with
any grading operations, determines the shape of an airport area and the general pattern of the
drainage system. The cost of grading and drainage can often be reduced by selecting a site with
favorable soil characteristics. The most desirable type of soil for airport construction is the one
which contains a reasonable amount of pervious material such as gravel, sand combined with
a natural binder. The soil that becomes plastic when wet is the most undesirable type.
11. Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in
future, more number of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic. Similarly,
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more facilities may be required for processing of passengers, baggage and cargo and for shelter
of aircraft. Additional traffic control devices may also have to be installed. Taking into
consideration the anticipated future developments in the airport, larger area should be acquired
initially.
12. Availability of utilities from town: an airport has to be provided with facilities like water
supply, sewer, telephone, electricity etc., in the selection of site, the availability of these utilities
from the town should be given due consideration.
13. Economic consideration: the cost estimate should be prepared for the entire airport
construction considering both initial and ultimate stages. The estimates should include land
cost, clearing and grading of land, drainage, removal of hazards, paving, turfing, lighting,
construction of buildings, access roads and automobile parking areas. Amongst the various
alternate sites, one which is economical should be preferred.
RUNWAY ORIENTATION
Runway is a compacted, paved, narrow strip of area used for the purpose of landing and take-
off of aircrafts. Runway is usually oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds.
The head wind, i.e., the direction of the wind opposite to the direction of landing and take-off
provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft when it is taking off. As such the aircraft rises
above the ground much earlier and in a shorter length of runway.
During landing, the head wind provides a breaking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a
smaller length of runway. If landing and take-off operations are done along the wind direction,
it would require longer runway.
CROSS WIND COMPONENT AND WIND COVERAGE
It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the centre line of runway
throughout the year. On some day of the year or hour of the day, the wind may blow making
certain angle with the centre line of runway. If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway
center line, its component along the direction of runway will be Vcos𝜃 and that normal to the
runway centre line will be V sin𝜃 where V is the wind velocity. The normal component of the
wind is called cross wind component and may interrupt the safe landing and take-off of the
aircrafts.
The maximum permissible cross wind component depends upon the size of aircraft and the
wind configuration.
FAA recommends that for small aircrafts the cross wind component should not exceed 15
Kmph and for mixed traffic it should not exceed 25 Kmph.
For airports serving big aircrafts ICAO recommends that the cross wind component should not
exceed 35 Kmph.
The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains within the
limits as specified above is called wind coverage. According to FAA, the runway handling
mixed air traffic should be so planned that for 95% of time in a year, the permissible cross wind
component does not exceed 25 Kmph. For busy airports, the wind coverage may be increased
to as much as 98% to 100%.

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Elements of Traffic Engineering

Traffic characteristics
Road user characteristics
The human element is involved in all action of the road users either as pedestrian, cyclist, cart
driver or motorist. The physical, mental and emotional characteristics of human being affect
their ability to operate motor vehicle safely or as pedestrian.
The various factors which affect human characteristics as road users may broadly be classified
under four heads
1. Physical
2. Mental
3. Psychological
4. Environmental
Physical characteristics
The physical characteristics of the road user may be either permanent or temporary. The
permanent characteristics are the vision, hearing, strength and general reaction to traffic
situation.
Vision place the most important role of all these. This includes the acuity of vision, eye
movement, depth, judgement. Glare, vision and glare recovery time of drivers place important
role during night time. Minimum standards for acute vision is within a cone whose angle is
only 3° through the vision is fairly satisfactory up to 10° in general and even up to 20° in the
horizontal plane. In the vertical plane, the field of clear vision may be about two thirds of that
in the horizontal plane. These factors are particularly taken care of while designing and
installing traffic control devices. As the field of clear vision is limited, the road users have to
often shift their eyes within the peripheral field to obtain clear vision. Total time taken for the
eye movement depends on some of the physical characteristics including the response to
stimuli. The depth judgement is important for a driver in judging distance and speed of vehicle
and other object ahead.
The effect of glare adaptability to change of light that is darkness to light and bright light to
darkness should also be studied. Hearing helps driver in a way though it is more important for
pedestrian and cyclist. Though strength is not an important factor in general lack of strength
may make parking manoeuvres difficult, particularly for heavy vehicle. The reaction of traffic
situation depend on the time required perceive and understand the traffic situation and to take
the appropriate action.
Mental factors
Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can affect the road users characteristics.
Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, Traffic behavior, driving practice rules of road
psychology of the road users will be quite useful for safe traffic operation. Reaction to certain
traffic situation becomes more spontaneous with experience. Understanding the traffic

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regulations and special instruction to road users and timely action depends on intelligence and
literacy.
Psychological factor
This affects reaction to traffic situations of road users to a great extent. The emotional factor
such as attentiveness, fear, anger, superstition, general attitude, attitude towards Traffic and
regulations and maturity also come under this category. Distractions by non-traffic events and
worries reduce attentiveness to traffic situations. Dangerous action are like due to impatience.
Some road users do not pay due to regard to the traffic regulations and do not have the right
attitude towards the traffic.
Environmental factor
The various environmental conditions affecting the behavior of road users are traffic stream
characteristics, roadside features, atmosphere condition and locality. The traffic stream may
consist of mixed traffic or heavy traffic. If the percentage of slow moving traffic is high the
need for overtaking increases for the faster vehicles. The adaptability to different traffic stream
characteristics depend on the driver’s characteristics as well as the motivation.
The locality may be shopping center or place with other distraction to the road users thus
affecting their behavior. The other environmental factors of importance are the weather
visibility and other atmospheric conditions.
Behavior of drivers as road users
It is observed that in general the behaviors of drivers very depending on the vehicle class, they
drive. For example, the behavior and attitude of drivers of heavy commercial vehicles or large
public transport buses are found to be different from those of smaller vehicles like car or two
wheelers . One of the reasons may be relatively difficulty in manoeuvres the heavy vehicle
along the congested roads with mixed traffic flow. The Traffic engineer has to take into
consideration the variation in behavior of different types of drivers, before designing the
roadway components and also while implementing appropriate traffic management measures.
Behavior of pedestrian as road users
It is important for traffic planners and engineers to understand the behavior and psychology of
pedestrian as road users. It is desirable to plan and construct and attractive even and firm
surface for the pedestrian to safely and comfortably walk along the roadside comfortably. The
longitudinal and transverse slope should also be within acceptable limits. This will attract the
pedestrian to make use of the specified sidewalks rather than walking along the carriageway.
Similarly, safe pedestrian crossing facility has to be made available at identified location to
enable the pedestrian to cross the roadway safely.
Vehicular Characteristics
It is quite important to study the various vehicular characteristics which affect the design of the
road facilities and the traffic performance. This is because it is possible to design a road for any
vehicle but not for indefinite vehicle type. The basic approach in the traffic engineer is to cater
to the needs of existing and anticipated traffic. It will not be economically feasible to keep on
increasing the geometric standards and the thickness of the payments from time to time to meet
the needs of a few vehicle whose dimensions and weight are increased. Hence the vehicle
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standards should be uniform at least within a country keeping in view the large percentage of
existing vehicle and those likely to be manufactured in the near future.
Static characteristics of vehicle affecting road design are the relevant dimensions, maximum
turning angles and the total weight. The height of driver seat affect the visibility, distance and
the height of headlight affects the headlight sight distance at valley curves.
Dynamic characteristics of vehicle that affect the road designs are speed,
acceleration/deceleration and breaking characteristics and some aspects of vehicle body design.
Vehicle dimensions
The dimension of the vehicle that significantly control the design of highway geometric
elements are the overall witdth, length and height of different vehicle, particularly of the largest
one. The width of the vehicle effect, the width of the traffic lane, shoulder and parking facility.
If the width of the lanes, it is not adequate due to wider vehicle using the roads, the capacity of
road will decrease significantly.
Weight of loaded vehicle
The maximum weight of loaded vehicle and the load on the wheels and axles affect the design
of payment, thickness and gradients. In fact, the limiting gradient are the governor by the both
the weight and the pulling power of the heavy vehicle.
Power of vehicle
The power of heaviest vehicle and their loaded weight govern the permissibility and the
limiting values of gradient on roads. In this regards, the total resistance to traction consisting
of inertia, rolling resistance, air resistance and grade resistance are considered. From the total
hauling capacity and the power required to overcome the total tractive resistance, it is possible
to determine the speed and acceleration of the vehicle which in the turn are useful in planning,
design of road geometric and traffic regulation.
Speed of vehicle
The speed of vehicle affects design of Sight distance, Super elevation, length of transition curve
and limiting radius on horizontal curve, Length of transition curve on vertical value curve and
humps, Width of each traffic lane and shoulder on straight on horizontal curves, Design
gradient, Capacity of Traffic lane, Design and control measurements at intersection.
Breaking characteristics
The deceleration and breaking characteristics of vehicles depends on the design and type of
braking system and its efficiency . The safety of vehicle operation, stopping distance and the
spacing between the two consecutive vehicle in the traffic stream are affected by the efficiency
of braking system. Thus the highway capacity and overtaking sight distance requirements also
indirectly get affected by the acceleration and deceleration characteristics as well as the
breaking characteristics of vehicle.
Breaking test
It is possible to measure the skid resistance of payment surface under the prevailing conditions
by conducting breaking test on the road at the desired running speed . If the breakers are applied

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till the vehicle come to stop, it may be assumed that wheels are fully locked and the break
efficiency is hundred percent. At least two of the following three measurements are needed
during breaking test in order to determine the skid resistance of the pavement.
Breaking distance L meters
Initial speed m/s
Actual duration of break application t sec
Traffic regulations and control
In order to have safe traffic operation on road roads, it is desirable to impose adequate
traffic regulations and traffic control with the help of standard traffic control devices. It is
essential that the traffic regulations and controls should have the legal backing by the enacting
appropriate acts of the Parliament in suitable laws and traffic rules. the traffic regulations and
control are implemented with the help of suitable regulations signals, signs, markings, traffic
inlands and other devices.
The various regulations imposed through the traffic control devices should fulfil the
requirements such as
• Clear visibility during the day and night
• Easy to recognize and understand
• Sufficient time for the driver driving at the design speed or within the legal speed limit
to react and follow the regulations.
It is also necessary to impress on the public, that these regulations and controls are
imposed on the public interest to ensure safety in general.
Traffic regulations
The Traffic regulation should cover all aspects of control on vehicle driver and all other
road users. The regulations should also cover various aspects with respect to Traffic flow. The
regulations should be rational and reasonable, so that the road users do follow these regulations
and control measures. The regulations are enforced from the point of view of safe Traffic
operations. Traffic regulation and laws give legal coverage for strict enforcement. The Traffic
law implemented by legislative laws are obligatory on all road users. The laws should, however,
be uniformed and clear the Traffic regulations and loss cover the following four phases
Driver control
Vehicle control
Traffic flow regulation
General control
Regulation and control on drivers
The controls on drivers include eligibility for driving motor vehicle, issue of driving
license and other regulations on the drivers during the act of driving.

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Driving a motor vehicle without a valid driving license is an offence . Before issue of
driving license for a specified category of vehicle, one has to undergo specified test. The driver
is expected to demonstrate his ability to drive the vehicle safely, and he should be conversant
with the motor vehicle rules and regulations. Separate requirements and test have been
specified for driving different categories of motor vehicle such as two wheelers automobiles,
light motor vehicle, public transport vehicle, heavy commercial, vehicle etc. The minimum
eligibility requirements, financial responsibility in civil liability are also specified in different
category.
These are regulations, prohibited, driving under the influence of alcohol or drunk and
driving, dangerous, driving, including exceeding the specified speed limit etc Which may
render or driver to pay specified penalty or to suspend the driving license for specified period
or to permanently disqualifying from driving a vehicle in the country. The motor vehicle act
has laid down different punishment for different type of offences.
Regulations and control on vehicle
Various regulations and control on vehicle have been specified . They include vehicle
registration, requirements of equipment and accessories of motor vehicle, maximum
permissible dimension and weight, vehicle fitness and inspection etc.
The registration is essential for any new motor vehicle. The information about the
details of vehicle such as the type, make, capacity of engine, manufacturers serial number,
details of owner, license plate number etc are registered in the transport department and police
records. These are different specifications for public transport vehicle, hired vehicle and private
vehicle for displaying the registration number.
Regulations and control on Traffic flow
Regulations of traffic flow have been laid down in every country. In India, the specified flow
regulations for normal travel along a roadway keep-to-the -left overtaking from the right etc.
In addition, there are control on vehicle operation in traffic streams, such as speed limit, one
way moment, prohibition of entry or specified, turning movements or parking etc using
appropriate regulatory sign.
General regulations and control
Some other general regulations and provisions are made . They include reporting of accidents,
recording and disposing traffic violation cases, etc. Implementation of regulations The Traffic
regulations have been enacted and implemented in India with the help of motor vehicle act of
1939 the revised motor vehicle act of 1988 and the several ordinance appending the act. These
have covered various traffic regulatory measures in three major phases Drivers Vehicle
ownership Vehicle operation on road in Traffic stream The various items covered or issue of
driving license, registration of vehicles, transfer of ownership, distinction Between private and
public vehicle, transport authorities, and interstate commissions, limit of speed, weight of the
vehicle, restrictions on parking, vehicle, insurance and fees, sign, signals and general
provisions for punishment of violation and offences.
Traffic Engineering studies and analysis

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The traffic engineering studies carried out for collecting traffic data are also called
traffic survey. Traffic engineering studies are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics
and their movement along the identified roads. The results of these studies are used for the
design of geometric features and traffic control measures for safe and efficient traffic
movement. The analysis of result of these studies are also useful for assessing the need of the
proposed road with justification.
The different traffic engineering studies generally carried out are:
1. Traffic volume studies.
2. Spot speed studies
3. Speed and delay studies
4. Origin and destination (O and D) studies
5. Parking studies
6. Accident studies
Traffic volume studies
Traffic volume is a measured to quantify the traffic flow. Traffic volume or traffic flow is
expressed as the number of vehicles that pass across a given transverse line of the road during
unit time. As the carriageway width of the road may vary, the traffic volume is generally
expressed as number of vehicle per hour or per day, per traffic lane.
In order to express the total traffic flow on a road per unit time, it becomes necessary to convert
the flow of different vehicle classes into one standard vehicle type such as passenger car.
Therefore each vehicle class is the same as equivalence factor called ‘passenger car unit’ (PCU)
in terms of standard passenger car.
Traffic volume characteristics
The traffic volume or the traffic flow is dynamic and varies from time to time. Hourly traffic
volume varies considerably during 24 hours of the day. The peak hourly volume is generally
much higher than the average hourly volume of the entire day. Even within one peak hour
period the traffic flow may vary during the different smaller time periods of say five or ten
minutes. Daily traffic volumes vary considerably on different days of a week and during
different months or seasons of the year.
The traffic volume data are considered reliable only for the time duration when the counts were
actually carried out. It may be mentioned that the traffic flow generally follows a rhythmic
pattern and are generally repetitive. An understanding of the traffic volume characteristics with
the following details will help in planning a new road project or for up-grading existing road
facilities and for effective management of traffic:
i. Variation in volume during different hours of the day
ii. Avg. vol. during different days of the week
iii. Avg. vol. per day during different seasons of the year

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iv. Variation in traffic vol on different lanes

v. Directional distribution of traffic during different time periods
vi. Annual average daily traffic (AADT)

Traffic speed studies

The actual speed of different vehicles over a particular route depend on several factor. The
speed of each vehicle may fluctuate widely depending on several factors such as
i. Geometric features of the road
ii. Traffic regulations and control on different stretches of the route
iii. Traffic volume on different stretches
iv. Purpose of the trip
v. Time of travel
vi. Climatic and environmental factors
vii. Type of vehicle, load and its condition
viii. The characteristics of the driver
Spot speed: is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified cross section or location. The
spot speed of a vehicle fluctuates from place to place all along the route, depending on various
factors indicated above.
Average speed: is the avg. of spot speed of all the vehicle passing a given point on the highway.
Running speed: is the avg speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of road, while
the vehicle is in motion. Running time may be obtained by subtracting the stopped delay from
the total travel or journey time.
Travel speed: the overall speed is the effective speed of travel and is obtained by dividing the
route length by the total travel time, including the stopping delays.
Spot speed studies
Spot speed is referred to as the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a point or cross section; there
are two distinctly different methods of determination of spot speeds. In the first methods, the
time, t (sec) taken by the vehicle to travel a short distance, d (m) is determined. Therefore the
speed, v=(d/t) m/s. In the second method, the instantaneous speed is measured by a pre-
calibrated ‘radar’ equipment which display or records the speed in desired units, such as kmph.
Space mean speed represent the avg speed of vehicles in certain road length at any time.
3.6 𝑑𝑛
𝑉𝑠 =
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑡1

Vs = Space mean speed, kmph

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d= length of road or the distance considered, m

n= number of individual vehicle observation
𝑡𝑖 = 𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑, 𝑚
Time mean speed represents the speed distribution of vehicles at a point on the roadway and it
is the avg. of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑛

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
n= number of vehicles observed
Factors affecting spot speed
The spot speeds are affected by physical features of the road like pavement width, horizontal
curve, sight distance, gradient, summit and valley curves, pavement unevenness, intersections
and road side developments. Other factors affecting spot speeds are environmental conditions,
enforcements, traffic conditions, characteristics of the driver and vehicle and the motive of
travel.
Speed and delay studies
The speed and delay studies give the particular of running speeds or the fluctuations in
speeds, the locations and duration of delays or stoppages and the overall travel speed between
two desired locations along a road. They also give the information such as the type of delay,
location, causes, duration and frequency of such delays. The results of the speed and delay
studies are useful in identifying the locations of congestion, the causes and inn arriving at a
suitable improvement measures to reduce the delay or increase the travel speed. The studies
are also utilized to find the travel time before and after the proposed improvement and in
‘benefit-cost analysis’. In general the efficiency of the roadway and the level of service is
judged from the overall travel speed and the type of delays.
Methods of conducting speed and delay studies
i. Floating car or riding check method
ii. License plate or vehicle number method
iii. Interview technique
iv. Elevated observations
v. Photographic techniques
Origin and Destination studies
O & D studies give information on the actual location or zone of origin of travel of
vehicles or individual passenger on the actual location or zone or origin of travel of vehicles or
individual passenger trips and their destination. These studies provide details such as direction
of travel, selection of routes, trip length and the frequency and number of such trips. The study

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area may cover the entire country or a selected region within the country or state or within a
city or any identified area. The O & D studies provide the basic data for determining the desired
direction of vehicular flow or passenger trips in terms of the ‘desire lines’. Desire lines are
straight lines joining the points of origin and destination of each trip.
Accident studies and analysis
The problem of accident is very acute in road transportation due to: complex flow pattern of
vehicular traffic, presence of mixed type of vehicle and the pedestrians on the road. Traffic
accident may involve property damages, personal injuries and also deaths. One of the main
objectives of traffic engineering is to provide safe traffic movements.
Objectives:
i. To study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at potential
locations.
ii. To evaluate existing design, regulation and control measures
iii. To support proposed changes in design, regulation and control measures in the selected
zone.
iv. To carry out ‘before and after studies’ after implementing changes and to demonstrate
the improvement in the accident problem.
v. To make computations of financial loss due to accidents and
vi. To provide economic justification for the improvement measures suggested by the
traffic engineer.
Parking studies
The study is directed to understand the present parking practice prevalent in the area under
consideration and the general problems in parking. In case of road –side parking or kerb parking
it is also necessary to study the parking pattern, interference to smooth flow of traffic caused
during parking and un-parking operation and the accidents involved during parking operations.
In the case of off-street parking, the minimum, maximum and average values of walking
distance to reach difference destinations after parking the vehicles are to be worked out.

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