Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

Module – 01
Irrigation
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Definition. Benefits
4.3 Surface irrigation
4.4 Sub-surface irrigation
4.5 Sprinkler irrigation
4.6 Flow irrigation
4.7 Lift irrigation
4.8 Bandara irrigation
4.9 Duty, delta and base period
4.10 Factors affecting duty of water crops
4.11 Crop seasons in India
4.12 Irrigation efficiency
4.13 Frequency of irrigation
4.14 Recommended questions
4.15 Outcomes
4.16 Further Reading

4.0 Introduction
Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to the soil for
raising crops. It is a science of planning and designing an efficient low cost irrigation system
to suite the natural conditions. It is the engineering of controlling and harnessing the various
natural sources of water by the construction of dams and reservoirs, canals and head works
finally distributing the water to the agricultural fields. Irrigation engineering includes the
study and design of works connected with river control, drainage of water logged areas and
generations of hydroelectric power.

4.1 Objectives
 Demonstrate different methods of irrigation, methods of application of water and
irrigation procedure.

Necessity of Irrigation
India is basically an agricultural country and its resources depend on the agricultural
output. Prosperity of our country depends mainly upon proper development of agriculture.
Even after 70 years of Independence, we have not succeeded in solving our food problems.
The main reason for this miserable state of affair is that we still continue to remain at the
mercy of rain and practice old age methods of cultivation.
Plants usually derive water from nature through rainfall. However, the total rainfall in
a particular area may be either insufficient or ill timed. In order to get the maximum yield, it

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 1

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

is necessary to have a systematic irrigation system for supplying optimum quantity of water
at correct timing.

Importance of irrigation can be summarized under the following four aspects:

1. Area of less rainfall: Artificial supply of water is necessary when the total rainfall is less
than the water requirement of crops in such cases, irrigation works may be constructed at a
place where more water is available and conveyed to water deficit areas.
Eg: The Rajasthan canal supplies water from the river Yamuna to the arid regions of
Rajasthan where annual rainfall is less than 100 to 200 mm.

2. Non-Uniform rainfall: The rainfall in a particular area may not be uniform over the entire
crop period. Rainfall may be there during the early period of crops and may become scanty or
unavailable at the end resulting in lesser yield or total loss of the crop. Collection of water
during periods of excess rainfall and supplying the stored water during periods of scarcity
may prove beneficial to the farmers. Most irrigation projects in India are based on this aspect.

3. Commercial crops with additional water: The rainfall in a particular area may be
sufficient to raise the usual crops but insufficient for raising commercial and cash crops such
as sugarcane and cotton. In such situations, utilizing stored water by irrigation facilities is
advantageous.

4. Controlled Water Supply: Dams are normally meant for storing water during excess flow
periods. But in situations of heavy rainfall, flooding can be controlled by arresting the flow in
the river and excess water can be released during low flow conditions.

4.2 Definition: Irrigation is technique of supplying water to crops by artificial methods

throughout the crop period for its complete growth.

4.2.1 Benefits of Irrigation:

There are many direct and indirect benefits or advantages of irrigation which can be listed as
follows.
 Increase in food production: Crops need optimum quantity of water at required
intervals assured and timely supply of water helps in achieving good yield and also
superior crops can be grown and thus, the value of the crops increases.
 Protection from famine: Irrigation works can be constructed during famine (drought).
This helps in employment generation and people also get protection from famine. After
completion of such works, continuous water supply may be available for crops and
people.
 Cultivation of Cash crops: With the availability of continuous water supply, cash crops
such as sugarcane, indigo, tobacco, cotton etc. can be grown.
 Increase in prosperity of people: Due to assured water supply people can get good
yield and returned for their crops. Land value increases and this raises the standard of
living of the people and hence prosperity takes place.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 2

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

 Generation of hydroelectric power: Major River valley projects are designed to

provide power generation facilities also apart from irrigation needs.
 Domestic and Industrial water supply: Water stored in reservoirs can also be used to
serve other purposes like domestic water supply to towns and cities and also for
industrial use. Canals can also be effectively used to serve these purposes.
 Inland Navigation: In some cases, the canals are very large enough to be used as
channels for inland navigation as water ways are the cheapest means of transportation.
 Improvement in communication: Main canals in large irrigation projects are provided
with inspection roads all along the sides. These roads can be asphalted and used as a
means of communication.
 Canal plantation: Due to continuous flow of water adjoining areas of a canal are always
saturated with water. In such places, trees can be planted which increases the timber
wealth of the country.
 Improvement in ground water storage: Due to constant percolation and seepage of
irrigation water, ground water table rises. The ground water may percolate and may be
beneficial to other areas.
 Aid in civilization: Due to introduction of river valley projects, tribal people can adopt
agriculture as their profession which helps in improving the standards of living.
 General development of a country: By assured water supply, farmers can expect good
yield. By exporting surplus goods, Government can get revenue. The government can
then come forward to improve communications facilities such as roads and railways and
also social development by providing schools, hospitals etc.

4.2.2 Ill-Effects of Irrigation

If water is used in a controlled and careful manner, there would be no ill effects of
irrigation. Excess and unscientific use of irrigation of water, givers raise to the following ill
effects.
 Water logging: Excess water applied to the fields allows water to percolate below and
ground water table rise. The ground water table may rise saturating the root zone of the
crop and cutting of air supply to the roots of the crops. Such a phenomenon is called
water logging. Under such conditions fertility of land reduced and also reduction of crop
yield.
 Breeding placed for mosquitoes: Excess application of water for irrigation leads to
water logging and formation of stagnant water fouls, which become breeding places for
mosquitoes, thus helping spreading of malaria.
 Unhealthy Climate: Due to intense irrigation the climate becomes damp during summer
due to humidity, the climate is sultry and in winter it becomes excessively cold. The
resistance of the body to diseases is reduced. In addition to the above, careless use of
water leads to wastage of useful irrigation water for which any government will have
incurred huge amounts.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 3

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

System of Irrigation:

Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by three basic methods, viz.
a. Surface irrigation methods
b. Subsurface irrigation methods
c. Sprinkler irrigation
Good irrigation methods result in increased yield, conservation of soil productivity and
economic utilization of water. Over irrigation results in soil erosion, water logging, salt
accumulation, nutrient leeching etc. The overall objective of an irrigation method is to see
that the required amount of moisture is available in the root zone of the crops. The objectives
or reasons for adopting any irrigation method for applying water to fields are as follows.
 For light irrigation uniform water distribution with a small depth of application, as
small as cm should be possible
 For heavy irrigation uniform water depth application of 15 to 20 cm should be possible.
 Large concentrated flow should be possible for reducing conveyance losses and labour
costs.
 Mechanical farming should be facilitated.

4.3 Surface irrigation method: In this method the irrigation water is applied by spreading
water as a sheet or as a small stream on the land to be irrigated. Various surface irrigation
methods that are practiced are listed as follows.

4.3.1 Flooding
4.3.1.1 Wild flooding: In this method water is applied by spreading water over the land to be
irrigated without any preparation. There is no restriction for the movement of water. It
follows the natural slope of the land. The water may be applied to the land directly from a
natural stream during season of high flow as in inundation irrigation. This method is suitable
for flat and smooth land but involves wastage of water and hence it can be practiced where
water is abundant and inexpensive.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 4

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

4.3.1.2 Controlled flooding: In this method water is applied by spreading it over the land to
be irrigated with proper control over the flow of water and as well as the quantity of water to
be applied. In such methods prior land preparation is essential.

Various controlled flooding methods are as follows.

i) Free flooding: This method is also known as irrigation by plots. Here the field is divided
into a number of small sized plots which are practically level. Water is admitted at the higher
end of the plots and the water supply is cut off as soon as the water reaches the lower end of
the plots.

ii) Border strip method: In this method the land to be irrigated is divided into a series of
long narrow strips separated from each other by levees (Earthen bunds) or borders. The width
of the strips varies between 10 to 20 m and the length of the strip varies between 60 to 300 m
depending upon the nature of the soil and rate of water supply.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 5

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

The strip of the land has no cross slope and has uniform gentle slope in the longitudinal
direction. This method is suitable for forage crops requiring least labour. Mechanized farming
can be adopted in this method.

iii) Checks or Levees: In this method a comparatively large stream of water discharged into
a relatively level plot surrounded by check or levees or low rise bunds. The checks are
usually 30 cm high. The checks may be temporary for a single crop season or semi permanent
for repeated used as in case of paddy fields. The size of the plots depends upon the discharge
of water and porosity of the soil. The usual size of the plot varies between 0.04 hectares to
0.05 hectares.

iv) Basin flooding: This method of irrigation is adopted for irrigating orchards (enclosures of
fruit trees). For each tree, a separate basin which is circular usually is made. However, in
some cases basins are made large to include two or more trees in each basin. Water is
supplied through a separate field channel, but in some cases the basins are inter connected.

v) Zigzag flooding: This is a special method of flooding where the water takes a circuitous
route before reaching the dead end of each plot. Each plot is subdivided with help of low
bunds. This method is adopted in loose soils to prevent erosion at the higher ends.

4.3.2 Furrow method:

In this method water is applied to the land to be irrigated by a series of long narrow field
channels called furrows. A furrow is a narrow ditch 75 to 125 mm deep excavated between
rows of plants to carry irrigation water. The spacing of furrows depends upon the spacing of
Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 6
Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

the plants. The length of a furrow is usually 200metres. In this method only one fifth to one
half of the surface is wetted. The evaporation losses are very much reduced.

4.3.3 Contour farming:

Contour farming is practiced in hilly regions where, the land to be irrigated has a steep slope.
Here the land is divided into a series of strips usually known as terraces or benches which are
aligned to follow the contour of the sloping area. This method also helps in controlling soil
erosion.

4.4 Sub Surface Irrigation:

This method consists of supplying water directly to the route zone through ditches at a slow
rate which are 0.5 m to 1 m deep and 25 to 50 cm wide. The ditches are spaced 50 to 100 m
apart. Water seeps into the ground and is available to the crop in the form of a capillary
fringe. Proper drainage of excess water is permitted either naturally or providing suitable
drainage works, thereby preventing water logging in fields. The favourable conditions to
practice subsurface conditions are,
 Availability of imperious subsoil at a reasonable depth (2 to 3m).
 Water table is present at shallow depth.
 Availability of moderate slope.
 Availability of good quality irrigation water.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 7

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

With the above favourable conditions and necessary precautions, it is possible to achieve
higher yields at low cost.

4.5 Sprinkler Irrigation: This method consists of applying water in the form of a fine spray
as similar to rain fall. Stationary overhead perforated pipes or fixed nozzle pipes installations
were earlier used. However, with the introduction of light weight pipes and quick couplers,
portable sprinkler systems with rotating nozzle have been developed and hence these have
become popular. A pump usually lifts water from the source and supplies it through the
distribution system and then through the sprinkler nozzle or sprinkler head mounted on the
riser pipes. About, 80 % irrigation efficiency is possible with sprinkler irrigation, particularly
in semi-arid and humid regions. The efficiency of this system decreases by 5 % for every 7.5
km/hour of increase in wind velocity.
Irrigation efficiency (𝜂) is given as,

𝜂= ( )
ws
∗100 %
wp

𝑤𝑠 - Represents amount of irrigation water stored in root zone

Where

𝑤𝑝 - Amount of water pumped or supplied into the system.

Sprinkler irrigation method is adopted in regions where, surface irrigation methods cannot be
used due to the following reasons.
 The soil is too pervious or impervious.
 The nature of the soil is too erosive.
 The topography is not uniform or very steep.
 The land is not suitable for surface irrigation method.

Advantages:
 Soil erosion is well controlled by adjusting the discharge through the nozzle.
 Uniform water application is possible.
 In case of seedlings and young plants, light irrigation is possible easily.
 Much land preparation is not essential and hence labour cost is reduced.
 More land for cropping is available since borders and ditches are not required.
 Small amounts of irrigation water in water scarcity regions can be effectively utilized.

Disadvantages:
 Wind will distort the sprinkling pattern.
 Constant water supply under pressure is required for economic use of equipment.
 Irrigation water must be free from silt, sand and impurities.
 Initial investment is high.
 Energy requirement for pumping water is high.
 Heavy soil with poor infiltration (clayey soil) cannot be irrigated efficiently.

Drip or trickle irrigation:

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 8

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

This is the latest irrigation method, which is becoming popular in water scarcity areas and
water with salt problems. In this method, small diameter plastic or PVC pipes with drip
nozzles commonly called emitters or drippers are adopted to deliver water to the land surface
near the base of the plant. Water can be applied at a rate varying between 2 to 10 litres per
hour to keep the soil moisture within the desired range for plant growth.
The main components of a drip irrigation system are a pumping unit, main pipelines, sub
main pipe lines, lateral pipelines, emitters, pressure gauges etc.,

Advantages of this method are,

 Excellent control over water application and efficiency as high as up to 95% can be
achieved.
 Evaporation losses from land surface are minimum.
 Losses due to deep percolation can be avoided.
 Saline waters can be applied effectively.
 Water soluble fertilizers can be applied through drip irrigation.

The draw backs of this system are,

 It involves large investment.
 Frequent blocking of nozzles takes place.
 Tilling operation may be obstructed.

4.6 Flow irrigation

Inundation Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which large quantity of water

flowing in a river is allowed to flood or inundate the fields to be cultivated. The land becomes
thoroughly saturated. Excess water is drained off and the land is prepared for cultivation.
Moisture stored in the soil is sufficient to bring the crop to maturity. Inundation irrigation is
commonly practiced in delta region of rivers. Canals may be also employed to inundate the
fields when water is available in plenty.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 9

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

Perennial Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is supplied as

per the crop requirements at regular intervals throughout the crop period. The source of
irrigation water may be a perennial river, stored water in reservoirs or ground water drawn
from open wells or bore wells. This is the most commonly adopted irrigation system.

Direct Irrigation: It is a type of flow irrigation in which water from rivers and streams are
conveyed directly to agricultural fields through a network of canals, without making any
attempt to store water this is practiced in areas where the rivers and streams are perennial.
Small diversion dams or barrages may be constructed areas the rivers to raise the water level
and then divert the water into canals.

Storage Irrigation: Dams are constructed across rivers which are non- perennial. The
discharge in such rivers may be very high during rainy season and may become less during
dry stream. By constructing dams across such rivers water can be stored as reservoir during
excess flow and can be utilized or diverted to agriculture fields through canals as and when
required. Such a system is known as storage irrigation.

4.7 Lift irrigation

It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is available at a level lower than that of
the land to be irrigated and hence water is lifted by pumps or other mechanism (Hydraulic
ram and siphon action) and then conveyed to agriculture fields by gravity flow. Irrigation
through wells is an example of lift irrigation. Water from canals or any other source can also
be lifted when the level of water is lower than that of the area to be irrigated.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 10

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

4.8 Bandhara irrigation

It is a special irrigation scheme adopted across small perennial rivers. This system lies
somewhere between inundation type and permanent type of irrigation. A Bandhara is a low
masonry weir (obstruction) of height 1.2m to 4.5m constructed across the stream to divert
water into a small canal. The canal usually takes off from one side and the flow into the canal
is controlled by a head regulator.
The length of the main canal is usually restricted to about 8km. A series of Bandharas may be
constructed one below the other on the same stream so that water spilling over from one
Bandhara is checked by another Bandhara. The irrigation capacity of each Bandhara is may
be about 400 hectares. Bandharas are adopted across small streams having isolated
catchments which are considered to be non feasible or uneconomical to be included under a
large irrigation scheme.

This method of irrigation is followed in Central Maharashtra and is commonly known there
as the ‘Phad’ system.

Advantages of Bandharas:
 Small quantity of flow in streams can be fully utilized or otherwise might have gone
as a waste.
 As the length of the canal is short, seepage and evaporation losses are less.
 Intensive irrigation with high duty may be achieved and the area to be irrigated is
close to the source
 The initial investment and maintenance cost of the system is low.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 11

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

Disadvantages of Bandharas:
 The supply of water is unreliable when the flow in streams becomes lesser.
 Excess water available cannot be utilized as area for cultivation below each Bandhara
is fixed.
 In dry seasons, people living on the downstream side of Bandharas may be deprived
of water for domestic made also.

Water Requirements of Crops

Soil groups in India
The Indian soils may be divided into four major groups’ viz., (i) Alluvial soils, (ii) Black
soils, (iii) Red soils, and (iv) Laterite soils. In addition to these four groups there exist another
group of soils which includes forest soils, desert soils, and saline and alkali soils.

Alluvial soil
Alluvial soils are formed by successive deposition of silt transported by rivers during floods,
in the flood plains and along the coastal belts. The silt is formed from the weathering of the
rocks by river water in the hilly terrain through which it flows. These soils form the largest
and the most important group of soil in India. The alluvial soils occur in the Indo-Gangetic
plains and Brahmaputra plains in north India and also in the plains of various rivers in other
parts of the country. These are in general deep soils that is having more than 1 metre depth
above a hard stratum, but the properties of these soils occurring in different parts of the
country vary mainly because the parent material from which they have been derived are
different. These soils vary from clayey loam to sandy loam. The values of pH for these soils
usual range between 7.0 and 9.0, and hence these soils may be neutral or alkaline in
character. The water holding capacity of these soils is fairly good and they give good
response to irrigation.

Black Soil
Black soils have evolved from the weathering of rocks such as basalts, traps, granites and
gneisses. These soils occur chiefly in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Karnataka. The colour of these soils ranges from dark brown to
black. Further irrespective of the nature of the parent rock from which black soils have
developed, they do not differ many in general physical and chemical properties. These soils
are highly argillaceous and very fine grained. Thus these are heavy textured soils and their
clay content varies from 40 to 60 percent. The values of pH for these soils vary from 8.0 to
9.0 or higher in different states, and hence these soils are alkaline in character. A special
feature of the black soils is that they are plastic and sticky when wet, a very hard when dry.
These soils possess a high water holding capacity but poor drainage. Black soils ai sub-
divided as (i) shallow black soils which have a depth of 0.3 metre or less, (ii) medium black
soil which is 0.3 metre to 1.0 metre in depth, and (iii) deep soils which are over 1 metre deep.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 12

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

Deep black soils are also referred to as black cotton soils since cotton is the most important
crop in these soils.

Red Soil
Red soils are formed by the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks comprising
gneisses and schists. These soils mostly occur in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. They also occur in Bihar, West Bengal and
some parts of Uttar Pradesh. These soils are in general light textured loams, but the properties
of these soils vary from place to place. These are in general deep soils with values of pH
ranging between 5.0 and 8.0, and hence in most of the cases these soils are acidic in
character. The red soils have low water holding capacity. These soils react well to the
application of irrigation water and on account of low water holding capacity they are well
drained.

Laterite Soil
Laterite soils are derived from the weathering of the laterite rocks. These soils occur mostly
in Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, the Eastern Ghat region, Orissa, Maharashtra, and
Malabar and in some parts of Assam. These soils are reddish or yellowish-red in colour. The
laterite soils have values of pH between 5.0 and 6.0 and hence these soils are acidic in
character. These soils have low clay content and hence possess good drainage characteristics.

Forest Soil
Forest soils are formed by the deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.

Desert Soil
These soils are found in the arid areas in the north-western region in the states of Rajasthan,
Haryana and Punjab and are lying between the Indus river on the west and the range of
Aravali Hills on the east. These soils are blown in from the coastal region and Indus valley,
and are also derived from disintegration of rocks in the adjacent areas. These are light
textured sandy soils of depth extending beyond 0.5 metre and react well to the application of
irrigation water. However, these soils have fairly high values of pH, and some of these soils
contain a high percentage of soluble salts.

Saline and Alkali Soil

These are the soils which have appreciable concentration of soluble salts and exchangeable
sodium content. These salts usually appear in the form of a white efflorescent crust on the
surface of the soil. These soils are formed due to inadequate drainage of the irrigated lands,
and hence these are found among the groups of alluvial, black and red soils. These soils are
not suitable for cultivation, unless these are reclaimed by adopting suitable methods.

4.9 Duty, delta and base period

Duty of Water: Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 13

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

It is usually defined as the area of land in hectares which can be irrigated to grow a crop of
one cumec of water is continuously supplied for the entire period of the crop.
Example: If 5100 hectares of land can be irrigated for growing a crop with a available
discharge of 3 cumec continuously for the entire crop period, then the duty of water for this
crop = 5100/3 = 1700 hectares/cumec.
Different crops require different amounts of water before their harvesting and hence duty of
water varies with the crops. Duty of water is said to be high, if the area of land irrigated per
cumec is large.

Delta: It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire crop period and is
denoted as ‘Δ’
Example: A crop require 12 watering at an interval of 10 days and depth of water required in
each watering is 10cms, the delta for the crop is 12x10cms=120cms=1.2m
If the crop is grown in an area of ‘A’ hectares, then the total quantity of water required is =
1.2 x A hectares-meter in a period of 120 days.

Base period: It refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time when irrigation water
is first applied for preparation of the ground for planting the crop to its last watering before
harvesting.

Crop Period: It is the time in days that a crop takes from the instant of its sowing to that of
its harvesting.

Gross command area: It is the total area laying between the drainage boundaries which can
be commanded or irrigated by a canal system.

Culturable command area: Gross command area may also contain villages, ponds, barrel
lands, alkaline lands etc., and such areas are turned as unculturable area. The remaining area
on which crops can be grown satisfactory is known as culturable command area.

4.9.1 Relationship between Duty and Delta:

Let D = Duty of water in hectares/cumec
Δ = Total depth of water required during base period in ‘m’
B = Base period in days
i. If we take a field of area D hectares, water supplied to the field corresponding to the water
depth ∆ metres will be = ∆ x D hectares-metres = D x ∆ x104 cubic-metres. .... (1)
ii. Again for the same field of D hectares, one cumec of water is required to flow during the
entire base period. Hence, water supplied to this field. = (1) x (B x 24 x 60 x 60) m3.... (2)
Equating Equations (1) and (2), we get D x ∆ x 104 = B x 24 x 60 x 60

8.64∗B
Δ=
D
1 hectare = 104 sq metres
Cumec-day = 8.64 hectare-metres

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 14

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

Consider a field of ‘D’ hectare to be irrigated and Δ is the corresponding depth of water.
The total volume of water required to be supplied for the field of ‘D’ hectares, if cumec is to
be supplied during the entire base period ‘B’.

Problems 1:
Find the delta for a crop if the duty for a base period of 110 days is 1400 hectares/cumec.
Solution:
Δ = 8.64𝐵/𝐷
Δ = 8.64𝑥 110/1400 = 0.68m = 68cm
Problems 2:
A crop requires a total depth of 9.2cm of water for a base period of 120 days. Find the duty of
water.

𝐷 = 8.64𝐵/Δ
Solution:

𝐷 = 8.64 𝑥 120/0.092 = 1300 hectare/ cumec

4.10 Factors affecting duty of water crops

Methods and systems of irrigation: Perennial system of irrigation has more duty of water
than inundation irrigation system the loss of water by deep percolation is minimum in the
first case. In flow irrigation by channels the duty is less as conveyance losses are more. In lift
irrigation the lands to be irrigated are very near to the source of water than any surface
irrigation method.
Type of Crop: Different crops require varying quantities of water and therefore duty of water
varies from crop to crop. Crops requiring large quantity of water have lower duty than crops
requiring lesser quantity of water.
Climate conditions of the area: The climatic condition such as wind, temperature, humidity
and rainfall affect the duty of water. At high temperature losses due to evaporation and
transpiration are more and hence duty decreases. At higher wind velocity, rate of evaporation
and transpiration are more thereby, duty decreased. But in humid conditions evaporations and
transpiration losses are minimum, there by duty increases.
Canal conditions: In earthen canals, seepage losses are high resulting low duty. If canal is
lined, losses are minimum and hence duty increases. If the length of the canal is very large
before it reaches the irrigation fields (as in hilly areas) the duty of water decreases.
Quality of Water: If water contains harmful salts and alkali contents, then more water is to
be applied liberally to leach out these salts and in turn duty of water decreases.
Characteristics of soil and subsoil in field and canals: If the soil and subsoil of the field
and canals are made of coarse-grained soils the seepage and percolation losses are more and
hence the duty of water decreases.
Topography of land: If the area to be irrigated is level, uniform water application is possible
which will result in economic views and hence duty of water increases.
Method of Cultivation: If the land is properly tilled up to the required depth and soil is made
loose before irrigation, water retaining capacity of soil increases. This reduces the number of
watering or frequency of watering and hence duty increases.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 15

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

4.11 Crop seasons of India:

Sowing of crops in irrigation of crops in India is usually done in 2 seasons, known as Crop
seasons. They are
1. Kharif season
2. Rabi season
Kharif season begins with the onset of south west monsoons sowing of crops in Kharif season
is done during June-July and these crops are harvested in October-November.
In Rabi season the crops are sown during September-October and harvested during march-
April.
Sugarcane has a delta of about 90cms but has a period of 1 year or more. It is as such termed
as a perennial crop.

Example:
1. The gross commanded area for a distributory is 20000 hectares, 75% of which can be
irrigated. The intensity of irrigation for Rabi season is 40% that for Kharif season is 10%. If
kor period is 4 weeks for rabi and 2.5 weeks for rice, determine the outlet discharge. Outlet
factors for rabi and rice may be assumed as 1800 hectares/ cumec and 775 hectares/ cumec.
Also calculate delta for each crop.
Solution:
Gross commanded area = 20000 hectares
Culturable commanded area = 0.75 x 20000 = 15000 hectares.
Area under irrigation in Rabi season at 40% intensity = 15000 x 0.4 = 6000 hectares
Area under irrigation in Kharif season at 10% intensity = 15000 x 0.1 = 1500 hectares.
Outlet Discharge for Rabi = 6000/1800 = 3.33 cumec
Outlet Discharge for Kharif = 1500/775 = 1.94 cumec
From the equation
Similarly, for rabi D = 8.64𝐵/ Δ = 8.64(4𝑥7)/1800 = 0.134𝑚 = 134𝑚𝑚
Similarly for rice D = 8.64𝐵/ Δ = 8.64(2.5𝑥7)/775 = 0.195𝑚 = 195𝑚𝑚

2. A water course has a culturable command area of 1200 hectares. The intensity of irrigation
for crop A is 40 % and for B is 35%, both the crops being rabi crops. Crop A has a kor period
of 20 days and crop B has kor period is 15 days. Calculate the discharge of the water course if
the kor depth for crop A is 10cm and for it is 16cm.
Solutions:
(A) For Crop A
Area under irrigation =1200 x 0.4 = 480 hectares
Kor period = B = 20days
Kor depth = D = 10cm = 0.1m
Duty = Δ = 8.64𝐵/𝐷 = 8.64 x 20/0.1 = 1728 hectares/cumec
Hence discharge required = Area under irrigation/ outlet factor = 480/1728 = 0.278 cumec

(B) For Crop B

Area under irrigation =1200 x 0.35 = 420 hectares

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 16

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

Kor period = B = 15 days

Kor Depth = D = 16cm = 0.16m
Duty = Δ = 8.64𝐵/𝐷 = 8.64 x15/0.16 = 810 hectares/cumec
Hence discharge required = Area under irrigation/ outlet factor = 420/810 = 0.519 cumec
Thus, the design discharge of water course = 0.278 +0.519 = 0.8 cumec

3. A water course commands an irrigated area of 1000 hectares. The intensity of irrigation for
rice in this area is 70 %. The transplantation of rice crop takes 15days and during the
transplantation period the total depth of water required by the crop on the field is 500mm.
During the transplantation period, the useful rain falling on the field is 120mm. Find the duty
of irrigation water for the crop on the field during transplantation, at the head of the field is
and also at the head of the water course assuming losses of water to be 20% in the water
course. Also calculate the discharge required in the water course.
Solutions:
Area under irrigation =1000 x 0.7 = 700 hectares
Depth of water required on the field during transplantation = 500mm
Useful rainfall during this period= 120mm
Depth of water required to be supplied by the water course= 500 - 120 = 380mm = 0.38m
Duty = Δ = 8.64𝐵/𝐷
Duty of water on the field is = Duty = Δ = 8.64𝑥 15/0.38 = 341 hectares/ cumec
Since the losses of water in the water course are 20%, a discharge of 1 cumec at the head of
the water course will be reduced to 0.8cumec at the head of the field and hence will irrigate. =
341x 0.8 = 272.8 hectares.
Duty of water at the head of the water course = 272.8 hectares.
Discharge at the head of water course = 700 / 272.8 = 2.57 cumecs

4.12 Irrigation efficiency

Efficient use of irrigation water is an obligation of each user as well as of the planners even
under the best method of irrigation, not all the water applied during irrigation & is stored in
the root zone. In general, efficiency is the ratio of water output to the water input and is
expressed as percentage. The objective of efficiency concepts is to show when improvements
can be made which will result in more efficient irrigation. The following are the various types
of irrigation efficiencies: (i) Water conveyance efficiency, (ii) Water application efficiency,
(iii) Water use efficiency, (iv) Water storage efficiency, (v) Water distribution efficiency and.

4.12.1 Water Conveyance Efficiency (Ec): Water conveyance efficiency may be defined as
the percentage ratio of the amount of water delivered to fields or farms to the amount of
water diverted from sources. It is expressed as:
Wf
Ec = ∗100
Wr

Ec = Water conveyance efficiency in percent

Wf = Amount of water delivered to the farm or irrigation plot
Wr = Amount of water diverted from sources
Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 17
Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

4.12.2 Water Application Efficiency (Ea): The water application efficiency is the percentage
ratio of the amount of water stored in the crop root zone to the amount of water delivered to
the field. It is expressed as:
Ws
E a= ∗100
Wf

Ea = Water application efficiency in percent

Ws= Amount of water stored in the crop root zone soil
Wf= Amount of water delivered to the farm.
The common sources of loss of irrigation water during water application are
(i) Surface run off Rf from the farm and
(ii) Deep percolation Df below the farm root-zone soil. Hence
Wf = Ws + Rf + Df
In a well-designed surface irrigation system, the water application efficiency should be at
least 60%. In the sprinkler irrigation system this efficiency is about 76%.

4.12.3 Water Use Efficiency (Eu): Water use efficiency is determined to evaluate the benefit
of applied water through crop production. It is very important in crop production and
irrigation water management. It is described in the following two ways.
1.12.3.1 Field water use efficiency: This may be defined as the ratio of amount of economic
crop yield to the amount of water required for crop growing. It is expressed as:
Y
Eu =
WR

Eu = Field water use efficiency expressed in kilogram of economic yield per hectare-cm or
hectare-mm of water
Y = Economic crop yield in kilogram per hectare
WR = Water requirement of the crop in hectare-cm or hectare-mm

4.12.3.2 Crop water use efficiency: This may be defined as the ratio of amount of economic
yield of a crop to the amount of water consumptively used by the crop. It is expressed as:
Y
ECU (¿ WUE)=
CU ∨ET

ECU = Crop water use efficiency expressed in kilogram of economic yield per hectare-cm or
hectare-mm of water
WUE = Water use efficiency of crop in kilogram of economic yield per hectare-cm or
hectare-mm of water
Y = Economic crop yield in kilogram per hectare
CU = Consumptive use of water in hectare-cm or hectare-mm
ET = Evapotranspiration in hectare-cm or hectare-mm

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 18

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

4.12.4 Water Storage Efficiency (Es): Water storage efficiency refers to the percentage
ration of the amount of water stored in effective root zone soil to the amount of water needed
to make up the soil water depleted in crop root zone prior to irrigation. It is expressed as:
Ws
E s= ∗100
We

Es = Water storage efficiency in percent

Ws = Amount of water actually stored in root zone soil from the water applied
We = Amount of water needed to meet the soil water depleted in the crop root zone soil prior
to irrigation = (field capacity - Available moisture).

4.12.5 Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed): Water distribution efficiency measure the extent
to which water is uniformly distributed and stored in the effective root zone soil along the
irrigation run. It is expressed as:
Ed =100 1−
d( )
y

Ed = Water distribution efficiency in percent

y = Average numerical deviation in depth of water stored in root zone soil along the irrigation
run from the average depth of water stored during irrigation.
d = Average depth of water stored during irrigation.

4.13 Frequency of irrigation:

The interval that can be safely allowed between two successive irrigations is known as
frequency of irrigation.

Allowable soil moisture depletion

Irrigation interval =
Daily water use

The amount of irrigation water applied should be such that the moisture content is raised to
the field capacity. The moisture content in soil reduces due to consumptive use by plants.
However, the moisture content should not be allowed to fall below lower limit of readily
available moisture. When the moisture content reaches the lower limit of readily available
moisture, water should be supplied by irrigation method to rise it to the field capacity or
optimum moisture content.

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 19

Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Structures BCV602

The minimum depth of water to be applied during irrigation to maintain field capacity is
given by,
Ds
D w = ∗d
w

The frequency of irrigation is given by,

Fw= Dw/Cu (days)

Where Cu represents the consumptive use of water by crops expressed as depth of water in
cm/day

4.14 Recommended Questions

1. Define irrigation? What is the necessity of irrigation?
2. Discuss in brief the benefit and ill effects of irrigation.
3. With a neat sketch explain Bhandhara irrigation scheme.
4. Explain irrigation efficiencies.
5. Define duty? What are the factors affecting duty of water? Explain.
6. Explain consumptive use of water. List the factors affecting consumptive use of
water.
7. Explain irrigation requirements of crops.
8. Explain the following:
(a) Base period
(b) Crop period
(c) Time factor
(d) Gross command area
(e) Culturable command area

4.15 Outcomes
1. Find the benefits and ill-effects of irrigation.
2. Find the quantity of irrigation water and frequency of irrigation for various crops

4.16 Further Reading

1. https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/pdf/circ1139.pdf
2. http://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e06.htm
3. http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=124852
4. http://www.fao.org/3/a-s8376e.pdf

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 20