River Engineering

Elwha River, US
 Exercise 3: Local river widening

Top
view

de0
Side
view

Let us consider a reach unaffected

by measures and spatial variations
in geometry.

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 3: Local river widening

Top
view

1/ 3
 cf q 2 
de   
 b
i g 
de=de0
Side
de<de0 de=de0 view

Now RWS decides to widen the river over

a certain reach. Please sketch the normal
flow depth de over the entire reach.

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 3: Local river widening

Top
view

1/ 3
 cf q 2 
de   
 b
i g 
de=de0
Side
de<de0 de=de0 view

Now RWS decides to widen the river over

a certain reach. Please sketch the normal
flow depth de over the entire reach.

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Reasons for flow not to be normal

• spatial variations in width

• spatial variations in friction

• natural temporal variation in flow rate (flood events)

• temporal changes in boundary conditions

Flood in Dutch Rhine, 1996

 Not all channels are at equilibrium

Not all channels are at equilibrium. This is because of variation over time
of the boundary conditions (sea level, tides, water discharge) and local
measures in the river.

And therefore the calculation of bed shear stress as b = gdib is not

always accurate, nor the calculation of flow depth as the normal flow
depth. In such cases it is necessary to compute the disequilibrium (e.g.
gradually varied) flow and calculate the bed shear stress from the relation

 b   cf u 2

But how do we determine this

gradual streamwise variation
of the flow depth??

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Course topics

1. The river system

2. Steady flow I: Normal flow
3. Steady flow II: Backwater curves
4. Friction and turbulence
5. Nonsteady flow: flood waves
6. Bedforms and bed load transport
7. Suspended load transport
8. Initial morphodynamic response
9. Equilibrium river profile under steady flow
10. Equilibrium river profile under nonsteady flow
11. Sediment sorting
 Today:
Topic 3. Steady flow II: Backwater curves

1. Steady gradually-varied flow: backwater equation

2. Alternative derivation of backwater equation (from SWE)

3. Types of backwater curves

4. How to solve a backwater curve

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Often steady gradually-varying flow
rather than normal flow

Quasi-uniform flow: gradual variation local variation

eg. weir (fast)
Gradually (over large distances) varying flow:
- different from rapidly changing flow
around structures
Q
Small accelerations/decelerations:
- hydrostatic pressure
- flow almost uniform

Local disturbance leads to:

- gradual adaptation to uniform flow

Applications:
Effect of measures and structures on flow in
wide area:
- safety and functioning of measures and
structures

Flood in Dutch Rhine, 1996

 Equations for flow

3D momentum conservation equations

based on Newton’s 2nd law

Navier-Stokes equations
After averaging over
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations characteristic period

Shallow Water equations After averaging over

vertical direction
St Venant or 1D Shallow Water equations After averaging over
lateral direction

Backwater or Belanger equation After reduction to

steady conditions
Normal flow equation After reduction to
or Chezy equation uniform conditions
CTB2110 Fluid Mechanics (2nd year course)

Intermezzo: The Energy Equation

H 1
H 4

A d2 d4
d1 D
B a C
z0
1 2 3 4

Eulerian energy balance

– Over short reaches and in situations without energy loss:
energy head averaged over cross-section, <H>, is constant:

 H U2
0 where H  h 
s 2g
– Easy to account for increase/decrease in energy head due
to pump or turbine
CTB2110 Fluid Mechanics (2nd year course)

Intermezzo: Piezometric head h

Piezometric head h  elevation to which to a water particle at

elevation z can rise due to the local pressure

If the pressure is hydrostatic (i.e. no flow

elevation pressure head or in conditions with parallel streamlines),
the piezometric head is constant, and
equal to the water surface elevation.

Note that piezometric head is not the same

p' p  patm
hz z parameter as flow depth!
g g
p 'A
z g
piezometric head patm z  z0

A hA
zA
z0
 Backwater equation - derivation
The energy equation:
long profile
d H def iw
  iw
z
2
ds U 2g
Q H
Gradient specific energy head: E
dE d  H  zb 
d h
   iw  i b ib
ds ds zb zb
z0
If Q constant:
s
Fr Froude number
dE d  Q 2  dd 2Q 2 dA iw friction slope
 d  2 
 
ds ds  2gA  ds 2gA3 ds ib bed slope
h piezometric head
u2/(2g) velocity head
If B constant, dA ds  B dd ds : <H> energy head
E specific energy head
dE dd u2 dd dd i b  iw
  B  
ds ds gBd ds ds 1  Fr 2 u2
E  H  zb  d 
Backwater equation 2g

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Backwater equation  Belanger equation

dd i b  iw
Backwater curve equation: 
ds 1  Fr 2
Critical depth d g : depth for which
where (assuming a wide channel): the flow at a given dicharge is critical
iw  cf Fr 2  dd i b  cf u 2 / gd q2
1/ 3
 q2 
  u  gd  2  gd
2
 dg   
Fr  u / gd 
2 2
ds 1  u 2 / gd d g 

By rewriting we find: Normal flow depth de : depth for which

dd d 3  de3 Belanger equation the flow at a given dicharge is uniform
 ib 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
ds d  d g3  cf q 2  c 
 de      f  dg
 ib g   ib 
dd
Pay attention : lim  
ddg ds

For d  dg assumption of gradually varying flow no longer holds.

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
CTB2110 Fluid Mechanics (2nd year course)

Intermezzo: Critical depth dg

Fx as a function of d for a given q

Fx
Transport of momentum:
 1 2 q2 
Fx   gd  U d    2 gd  
1 2 2
supercritical: 2
 d 
Fr  1

Find minimum:
Fp   gd
1
2
2
dFx
subcritical:  0  gd  q 2 d 2  0  Fr  1
Fr  1 dd 2
c 2
U

Fmin Critical depth d g :

13
q2  q2 
q2 gd g  2  d g   
Fmv  dg g 
d

13
 q2  d
dg   
g 
 Exercise 4: Backwater equation
Given:
A river that has a width B=50 m,
friction coefficient cf=0.004, bed slope
ib=1.10-4 and discharge Q=80 m3/s. In
A the flow depth equals dA=4,50 m.

Q
dA

Compute:
• the critical depth (dg)
• the normal flow depth (de)
• the gradient of the flow depth in A
(dd/ds)A

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 4: Backwater equation
Given: 1. Critical depth d g
A river that has a width B=50 m,
u 2  gd g  q2
friction coefficient cf=0.004, bed slope   q  gd g  d g 
2 3 3

ib=1.10-4 and discharge Q=80 m3/s. In u  q / d g  g

A the flow depth equals dA=4,50 m. Q
q   1.60 m 2 / s
B
1/ 3
 1.60 2 m 4 / s 2 
dg   2
  0.64 m
Q  9 .81 m / s 
dA 2. Normal flow depth de
cf q 2
A  cf u Bx   gBxdei b  d 
2 3
e
ib g
1/ 3
 4  103 1.60 2 m 4 / s 2 
Compute: de   4
  2.19 m
• the critical depth (dg)  1  10 9 .81 m / s 2

• the normal flow depth (de) 3. Gradient of flow depth in A
• the gradient of the flow depth in A
dd d A3  de3 4 4.50  2.19
3 3
(dd/ds)A  ib 3  1  10  8.9  10 5
ds A d A  dg 3
4.50  0.64
3 3

(nondimensional)
 Today:
Topic 3. Steady Flow II: Backwater curves

1. Steady gradually-varied flow: backwater equation

2. Alternative derivation of backwater equation (from SWE)

3. Types of backwater curves

4. How to solve a backwater curve

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 1D Shallow Water equations (SWE)
Conservation of water mass

Q = udB = volume water discharge [L3/T]

Q = mass transport = udB [M/T]

/t(mass in control volume) = net mass inflow rate

m  dBx udB
 Q x  Q x x    udB x   udB x x    x
t t x

Q x Reducing under

assumption of
constant width B:
d
Q  x  x  d ud
 0
B t x
 SWE: Conservation of
x water mass
 1D Shallow Water equations (SWE)
Conservation of streamwise momentum

/t(momentum in control volume) = net momentum inflow rate + sum of forces

sum of forces = downstream gravitational force – resistive force + pressure

force at x – pressure force at x + x

F x

d
F  x  x 
B

x
 dBxu 1 1 z
  u 2dB   u 2dB   gd 2B   gd 2B   gdBx b  cf  u 2 xB
t x x x 2 x 2 x x x
mu Qu x Qu x x
t

ud u 2d d z
   gd  gd b  cf u 2 SWE: Conservation of
t x x x streamwise momentum
 Alternative derivation of backwater equation

Reduce equation of water mass d ud q

conservation and integrate:
  0  ud  qw  const  u  w
t x d

ud d u du q dd
Chain rule: u d 0    w2
x x x dx d dx

Reduce equation of streamwise ud u 2d d zb

   gd  gd  cf u 2
momentum conservation: t x x x

2nd Term with chain rule and du 2d dud du

water conservation:
u  ud
dx dx dx

So that momentum du dd dzb u2

u  g g  cf
conservation reduces to: dx dx dx d
 Alternative derivation of backwater equation

du dd dzb u2
Reduce u  g g  cf
dx dx dx d
qw du q dd
with u ,   w2
d dx d dx

dd i b  iw
to get the backwater equation: 
dx 1  Fr 2
z q 2
u 2
where ib   b , Fr 2  w3  , iw  cf Fr 2
x gd gd

Fr Froude number
iw friction slope

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Today:
Topic 3. Steady Flow: Backwater curves

1. Steady gradually-varied flow: backwater equation

2. Alternative derivation of backwater equation (from SWE)

3. Types of backwater curves

4. How to solve a backwater curve

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Types of backwater curves – effect bed slope
dd d 3  de3 dd
 ib 3 ,  f  d,q, s 
ds d  dg 3
ds

de > dg de < dg

d M1 d S1
de dg
M2 S2
dg de
M3 S3

s s

mild bed slope: steep bed slope :

1/ 3 1/ 3
 cf q 2   q2 
1/ 3 1/ 3
c q 
2
q  2
de  d g   f      cf  i b de  d g        cf  i b
 ib g  g   ib g  g 
normal flow is subcritical normal flow is supercritical
 Mild and steep bed slopes – examples

Left-hand image:
Afferdensche waard (Waal) during a flood  mild slope
normal flow is subcritical
Types backwater curves:
Right-hand image: M(ild) dg<de
Spillway Para dam US  steep slope S(teep) dg>de
normal flow is supercritical C(ritical) dg=de
H(orizontal) ib=0
A(dverse) ib<0

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Boundary conditions

subcritical
Backwater equation:
- 1st order nonlinear differential equation

q de
For instance
dd d 3  de3 dd
 ib 3 ,  f  d ,q, s  dg
ds d  d g3 ds
M-type bed slope

Boundary conditions:
- discharge (known)
- flow depth at a location
supercritical
Subcritical flow: q
- Boundary condition determines upstream reach
dg
Supercritical flow:
- Boundary condition determines downstream reach de
S-type bed slope

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 5: Local deepening

A river flows into a large lake. At a large distance from the river mouth
the river has been deepened over a considerable reach. See sketch.
Given: cf=0.005, ib=2.10-4, q=5 m2/s, flow depth at the river mouth
d0=0,8 de.

Questions:
• compute and sketch the longitudinal variation of dg
• compute and sketch the longitudinal variation of de
• sketch the backwater curve(s) in the river

q
Side
view

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 5: Local deepening

A river flows into a large lake. At a large distance from the river mouth
the river has been deepened over a considerable reach. See sketch.
Given: cf=0.005, ib=2.10-4, q=5 m2/s, flow depth at the river mouth
d0=0,8 de.

Questions:
• compute and sketch the longitudinal variation of dg
• compute and sketch the longitudinal variation of de
• sketch the backwater curve(s) in the river

M2
q de
M1
Side
view

dg d0

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 6: Local widening

Room for the River:

Side channel Afferdensche waard

Please make a sketch of the critical and normal depth,

as well as the backwater profile.

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 6: Local widening

Room for the River:

Side channel Afferdensche waard sketch backwater curve

Effect: local increase of A and Q

decrease of q  decrease of de and dg
de

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Today:
Topic 3. Steady Flow II: Backwater curves

1. Steady gradually-varied flow: backwater equation

2. Alternative derivation of backwater equation (from SWE)

3. Types of backwater curves

4. How to solve a backwater curve

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 How to solve the backwater equation?

General form equation: 1D grid:

dd
 f  d ,q,cf , i b ,...
ds
 1st order nonlinear ordinary DE
i 1 i i 1 i  2

s
s
Solution techniques:

• Bresse method (tables)

di 1  di
s
 
 f di* 1 ,q,cf , i b ,...
– accurate, too complicated
2

• 1 Order approximation
st di* 1 : estimate of flow depth in reach [i ; i  1]
2

– insight, checks, not accurate

• Empirical fit to Bresse
– easy, accurate,i insight
• 1D numerical model
– fast, accurate
• 2D numerical model
– detailed, accurate
time-consuming and expensive
Stadswerven, Dordrecht
 1st Order Approximation

de
1st Order approximation d 0
q
d  s   de  d  s  , where d  de dg L
 d 3  de3  3de2 d ,
s s0
d d
Elaboration yields d  Adaptation length L:
ds L Characteristic length scale of adaptation
of the flow towards normal flow

 s  s0 
General solution: d  s   d0 exp  
 L 

where length scale L:

1  Fre2 d
L de 
small Fr
 L e
3i b 3i b
adaptation length
 Small deviations from normal flow depth
1st Order Approximation

 s  s0 
d  s   d0 exp  
 L 
d
L e
3i b
Note: x is negative!

 s  s0 
d  s   de   d0  de  exp  
 L 

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Bresse: Analytical solution and empirical fit

Analytical solution Bresse (1860), too complicated

 s s0  Assumptions:
  • Subcritical flow
d  s   de   d 0  de  2  L1/ 2 
• Rectangular uniform channel
4/3
de  d 0 
L1/ 2  0.24  
i b  de 
Empirical fit to Bresse

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Comparison of methods

numerical
Qpeak  2000m 3s 1
Qbase  300m 3s 1
B  100m
C  50m1/ 2s 1
i b  1.0  104
d0  6m

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Comparison of methods

numerical
1st order
Qpeak  2000m 3s 1 empirical fit
Qbase  300m 3s 1
B  100m
C  50m1/ 2s 1
i b  1.0  104
d0  6m

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 7: Local widening

Top
view

C, x=-100km M,x=0
B, x=-70km A, x=-40km

Q  2000m 3s 1
B  150m Given:
BAB  250m Flow depth in the river mouth equals the normal
flow depth.
C  50m1/ 2s 1
1. Shape of water surface elevation profile?
i b  1.0  104
2. Determine the water surface elevation at A, B
and C.

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Top
view

C, x=-100km M,x=0
B, x=-70km A, x=-40km

g 3 
C  50m1/ 2s 1  cf   3 .9  10 
C2  i b  cf  mild slope
i b  1.0  104 


dC M2 M1
dB
dA
dM

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Exercise 7: Local widening

Top
view

C, x=-100km M,x=0
B, x=-70km A, x=-40km

Q  2000m 3s 1
B  150m
1/ 3
BAB  250m  cf q 2 
de   
Given:  ib g 
C  50m1/ 2s 1 Flow depth in the river mouth  x  x0 
 
i b  1.0  10 4 equals the normal flow depth. d  x   de   d 0  de  2  L1/ 2 

4/3
Determine the water surface d d 
elevation at A, B and C. L1/ 2  0.24 e  0 
i b  de 

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Top
view

C, x=-100km M,x=0
B, x=-70km A, x=-40km

Q  2000m 3s 1 Q  2000m 3s 1 Q  2000m 3s 1

B  150m B  250m B  150m
cf  3.9  103 cf  3.9  103 cf  3.9  103
i b  1.0  104 i b  1.0  104 i b  1.0  104

1/ 3
 cf Q 2 
de   2 
 ib B g 
de  8.93m de  6.35m de  8.93m

L1/ 2 : start downstream!

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Top
view

C, x=-100km M,x=0
B, x=-70km A, x=-40km

de  8.93m

dC de  8.93m
dB de  6.35m
d d 
4/3 d A  8.93m
L1/ 2  0.24 e  0 
i b  de 
 x  x0 
 
d  x   de   d 0  de  2  L1/ 2 
dM  8.93m

4/3  30103 
6.35  8.93   3 

L1/ 2,B A  0.24  24.0km  dB  6.35  8.93  6.35 2  2410 
 7.43m
104  6.35 
4/3  30103 
8.93  7.43   3

 L1/ 2,BC  0.24  16.7km  dC  8.93   7.43  8.93 2  16.710 
 8.50m
104  8.93 

Normal flow Compound channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution
 Summary
Topic 3. Steady Flow II: Backwater curves

1. Adaptation lengths are of the order O(1-100km)

2. The water level approaches the normal depth asymptotically

in upstream direction (if channel slope is mild).

3. Changes in width (roughness, bed level, …) affect the

Afferdensche waard (Waal)
upstream water level, not the downstream during a flood
one (if channel slope is mild).

4. Discontinuities in width (…) lead to

“discontinuities” in water level slopes
and not in steps in the water level itself.

Normal flow Compound

Compund channel
channel Backwater equation Alternative derivation Backwater types Solution