Table of Contents

Types of networks:......................................................................................................................................2
Surveying/Engineering GPS Control Network:.........................................................................................2
Photogrammetric Control Network:........................................................................................................2
Dual-Purpose Geodetic/Photogrammetric Control Network:..................................................................2
Local and National control network:...........................................................................................................3
Traverse survey:..........................................................................................................................................3
Correct Co-ordinates and height for station:...............................................................................................4
Topographic Surveys:................................................................................................................................10
Purpose of surveys................................................................................................................................10
Map scales and contour intervals:.........................................................................................................10
Accuracy and degree of detail:..............................................................................................................10
Datum:...................................................................................................................................................10
Vertical control:.....................................................................................................................................11
Reference datum...................................................................................................................................11
Global Positioning System.........................................................................................................................11
Common Coding System:...........................................................................................................................11
Data exchange process:.............................................................................................................................12
Effective communication:..........................................................................................................................12
Sustainable Topographic Surveys:.............................................................................................................12
Total Station:.............................................................................................................................................14
Settings..................................................................................................................................................14
Leveling:....................................................................................................................................................15
Fix points:..................................................................................................................................................15
Total Stations:........................................................................................................................................16
Accuracy of a Total Station:...................................................................................................................17
Accuracy & Precision.................................................................................................................................17
Total station can be used.......................................................................................................................17
Accessories for Total Station:................................................................................................................18
Functions Performed By Total Stations..................................................................................................18
Surveying Errors........................................................................................................................................19
Types of Surveying Errors......................................................................................................................19
References.................................................................................................................................................21

Types of networks:
For a control network that serves as the basis of a GIS, the old adage about a chain and its weakest link
is very appropriate: The GIS itself can only be as accurate as its control network. No amount of software
and hardware enhancement can compensate for control that is not accurate enough for the required
uses (Stanoikovich, 2015).

There are three types of control networks: surveying/engineering, photogrammetric, and dual-purpose.

Surveying/Engineering GPS Control Network:

This network consists of a series of stations that are usually laid out in a grid-type pattern (however, a
rectangular grid is not necessary). Many city and county agencies choose this method, using
sectionalized land corners as the station grid. This method has been used by many counties throughout
the U.S. and has been proven as a strong reference base to support a GIS. Franklin County, Ohio, is one
of the best examples of this type of network in the state of Ohio.

Another network that falls in this category is one that consists of stations placed either in municipal
parks and recreation areas or on the grounds of community school board property. This type of geodetic
station layout has been used quite effectively by the City of Cincinnati, Ohio. This method has several
advantages, one of which is the unlikelihood of disturbance to the station due to construction. Another
is that the areas Wool pert CIS Establishing a Geodetic Control Network January 1992 1992 PLSO
Conference 63 are easily accessible and—depending on the neighborhood—are usually safe to occupy
even during nighttime observation sessions. This network is considerably less expensive to set up than
the first type of network, but the GPS portion of the project is equivalent (MyNAP, 2001).

Photogrammetric Control Network:

When GPS control is needed to support a digital mapping project, orthophotography, or both, control
location is determined by the needs of the photogrammetric. Most photogrammetric firms that perform
fully analytic triangulation use a perimeter control pattern. This approach allows the photogrammetric
to control the mapping project from high-altitude photography, which minimizes the amount of
horizontal and vertical control needed. This yields an acceptable fully analytic triangulation result
without deteriorating the accuracy of the project. Some of the points are positioned along the sides of
the project (parallel to the flight line of the aircraft). The majority of the stations, however, are placed
along the sides of the project that contain the beginning and end of the flight lines. This layout offers the
lowest-cost alternative for obtaining photogrammetric control. However, it does not meet the
requirements of a strong geodetic control foundation to support and maintain a GIS in the years ahead.
Another drawback to this network is that the accuracy needed to support the mapping portion of the
GIS is not sufficient to support the surveying/engineering demands of a GIS. For these reasons we will
discuss the third—and perhaps the most versatile—type of control network (Petro, 2018).

Dual-Purpose Geodetic/Photogrammetric Control Network:

This type of control network supports a variety of users. One of its greatest assets is that it meets both
the photogrammetric needs of a GIS and the higher-accuracy control needs of the surveying/engineering
community. This is especially important because the dual-purpose type of network can be significantly
less expensive than the surveying/engineering type, and costs can often be distributed among the
participants in a GIS project. Accuracy requirements for this type of network should not be less than 1
part per 100,000 (this accuracy can be achieved easily using GPS techniques). The network pattern is laid
out in much the same manner as the photogrammetric control network. However, in the dual-purpose
network, inner control is added as well as possible station pairs or station azimuths. If lower-altitude
photography is needed for urban/suburban areas, additional control should be laid out in these areas.
This will meet the needs of the photogrammetric while adding to the density of the control pattern. If
only one scale of photography is designated, it is still advantageous to place inner network control near
areas of expansion and growth as well as small rural communities while still maintaining some type of
rectangular grid pattern (Bossler, 2014).

Local and National control network:

 Active stations – PositioNZ, Geo Net, Private
 Used for datum connections to international reference frame, national and regional
deformation monitoring, hazard monitoring and general positioning services.
 Passive control – 100K + marks –still being developed
 Uses include
 local deformation monitoring, national height network, local transformation, cadastral
horizontal and vertical networks, digital cadaster improvement, basic geospatial
network (Ritchie, 2014)

Traverse survey:
Two cases have to be distinguished with this type of traverse. In figure 5.1, a traverse has been run from
station X (of known position) to stations 1, 2, 3 and another known point Y. Traverse X123Y is, therefore,
closed at Y. This type of traverse is called a link, connecting or closed-route transverse. In figure 5.2, a
traverse starts at station X and returns to the same point X via stations 1, 2 and 3. Station X can be of
known position or can have an assumed position. In this case the traverse is called a polygon, loop or
closed-ring traverse since it closes back on itself. In both types of closed traverse there is an external
check on the observations since the traverses start and famish on known or assumed points (Parker,
2018).

Area

ABC =1/2 ac sin

Traverse field work consists of the following steps:

 Select station positions as close as possible to the objects to be located.

 Mark the stations with stakes with tacks or with stone or concrete monuments set flush with the
ground with a precise point marked on the top by a chiseled cross, drilled hole, or bronze tablet.
 Make angle and distance measurements.
 Place signals at each station such as a range pole to be used for taping and angle measurement.
  Almost all surveying requires some calculations to reduce measurements into a more useful
form for determining distance, earthwork volumes, land areas, etc.
 A traverse is developed by measuring the distance and angles between points that found the
boundary of a site.
 A simple method that is useful for rough area estimates is a graphical method.
 In this method, the traverse is plotted to scale on graph paper, and the number of squares inside
the traverse are counted (CECW-EP, 2018).

Correct Co-ordinates and height for station:

 If the angles do not close by a reasonable amount, mistakes in measuring have been made
 If an error of 1’ is made, the surveyor may correct one angle by 1’
 If an error of 2’ is made, the surveyor may correct two angles by 1’ each
 If an error of 3’ is made in a 12 sided traverse, the surveyor may correct each angle by 3’/12 or
15”
 The closure of a traverse is checked by computing the latitudes and departures of each of it
sides

 The latitude of a line is its projection on the north–south meridian

 The departure of a line is its projection on the east– west line
 A northeasterly bearing has: + latitude and + departure
Consider the following statement:

 “If start at one corner of a closed traverse and walk its lines until you return to your starting
point, you will have walked as far north as you walked south and as Far East as you have walked
west”
 Therefore  latitudes = 0 and  departures = 0
 When latitudes are added together, the resulting error is called the error in latitudes (EL)
 The error resulting from adding departures together is called the error in departures (ED)
 If the measured bearings and distances are plotted on a sheet of paper, the figure will not close
because of EL and ED
Balancing Latitudes and Departures:

 Balancing the latitudes and departures of a traverse attempts to obtain more probable values
for the locations of the corners of the traverse.
 A popular method for balancing errors is called the compass or the Bowditch rule
 The “Bowditch rule” as devised by Nathaniel Bowditch, surveyor, navigator and mathematician,
as a proposed solution to the problem of compass traverse adjustment, which was posed in the
American journal The Analyst in 1807.

The compass method assumes:

 Angles and distances have same error

 Errors are accidental

The rule states:

 “The error in latitude (departure) of a line is to the total error in latitude (departure) as the
length of the line is the perimeter of the traverse”
Traverse surveys are made for many purposes to include:
 To determine the positions of exiting boundary markers.
 To establish the positions of boundary lines.
 To determine the area encompassed within a boundary.
 To determine the positions of arbitrary points from which data may be obtained for preparing
various types of maps (i.e., establish control for map making).
 To establish ground control for photographic mapping.
 To establish control for gathering data regarding earthwork quantities in railroad highway,
utility, and other construction work.
 To establish control for locating railroads, highways, and other construction work.
A natural resource professional may need to run a boundary survey for a recreation site, research plot,
forest stand, or wildlife habitat area. The shape of the area may be a polygon with 3 or more sides. The
boundary may be located in the field as it is surveyed. Then the polygon is drawn on a map sheet with
the area in acres being determined for planning purposes. Open traverses may be run to establish
preliminary trail and road locations.
An open traverse cannot be checked for accuracy of field measurements as errors or mistakes are not
revealed. A closed traverse immediately affords a check on the accuracy of the measured angles. The
position closure gives an indication of the accuracy in measuring distances as well as azimuths (Fowler,
2017).
Topographic Surveys:
Topographic surveys have various definitions by different agencies and publications. These may include
everything from photogrammetric mapping to hydrographic surveys. The reconnaissance topographic
surveys described below relate to smaller scale preliminary mapping performed in advance of
engineering and design, and are often called preliminary surveys. Following are the important
considerations in connection with reconnaissance topographic surveys (CECW-CE, 2007):

Purpose of surveys
The reconnaissance survey is the basis for a general study or a decision as to the construction suitability
of areas. It may also be used for preliminary site layouts. Reconnaissance surveys are useful in showing
the general location of roads, building areas, and utilities; and to establish an acceptable site layout
which must be approved by authorized officers before detailed layout plans can be made. Such surveys
also enable the proper selection of those areas, relatively limited in extent, which should be covered by
the more time-consuming and costly detailed topographic surveys. In some instances the US Geological
Survey (USGS) topographic quadrangle sheets may be enlarged and used for this purpose. The success of
such use will be dependent upon the contour interval, whether the USGS maps are of recent date, the
character of the terrain, and the nature of the project.

Map scales and contour intervals:

Dependent upon the size and shape of the area and upon the nature of the terrain, i.e., density of
culture and steepness of slope, reconnaissance surveys may be at scales varying from 1 inch = 400 ft to 1
inch = 1,000 ft. In cases where the project is of limited size, a scale of 1 inch = 200 ft may be used.
Contour intervals of either five feet or ten feet may be used. The five-foot interval is the more
serviceable and should be used except where steepness of slope makes the ten-foot interval advisable.
When areas contain both flat and very steep slopes a ten-foot interval may be adopted as the contour
interval of the map. On the flat areas, one-half interval contour (e.g., five foot) may be shown,
discontinuing them wherever the slopes become steep or uniform. Contours having different intervals
should not be shown by the same symbol on the same map. In extremely flat areas, a one- or two-foot
contour interval may be required to adequately represent the terrain.

Accuracy and degree of detail:

Extreme accuracy of position is not necessary and minutiae of detail are not desirable. The map should
show all pertinent physical features such as roads, railroads, streams, cleared and wooded areas,
houses, bridges, cemeteries, orchards, lakes, ponds, and fence lines. Elevations should be shown by
contours and spot elevations at road intersections, bridges, water surfaces, tops of summits and
bottoms of depressions.

Datum:
When practical and feasible, it is desirable for these surveys to be referenced to an established NSRS
datum, rather than some arbitrary grid system.

Horizontal control:
There should be established a system of monumental horizontal control originating from and closing
upon existing NSRS control points. Since this control should also serve the needs of subsequent site
layouts and utility maps, the selection of its position and frequency must give due weight to these
needs. In areas where there is to be intensive development, the lines of control circuits should ideally
not be more than 2,000 to 2,500 feet apart in one direction, but may be of any convenient dimension in
the other direction. Control points should generally not be more than 800 to 1000 feet apart along the
line of the circuit and should be inevasible. In order to serve property survey needs, the outside control
circuits should have control points within 300 or 400 feet of probable property boundary corners.
Where topography is to be taken by plane table, a sheet layout should first be made and the control
circuits selected near two sheet borders so that the line may be planted on both sheets.

Vertical control:
Vertical control should consist of levels run in circuits originating from and closing upon Federal
Government benchmarks. The closure error of these circuits should be predicated on the character and
scope of construction involved. The elevation of each traverse station monument should be determined.
Other permanent benchmarks as deemed necessary should be set.

Reference datum
When practical and feasible, it is desirable for these surveys to be referenced to an established NSRS
datum, rather than some arbitrary grid or vertical reference system.

Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) employs trilateration to calculate the coordinates of positions at or
near the Earth's surface. Trilateration refers to the trigonometric law by which the interior angles of a
triangle can be determined if the lengths of all three triangle sides are known. GPS extends this principle
to three dimensions.
A GPS receiver can fix its latitude and longitude by calculating its distance from three or more Earth-
orbiting satellites, whose positions in space and time are known. If four or more satellites are within the
receiver's "horizon," the receiver can also calculate its elevation and even its velocity. The U.S.
Department of Defense created the Global Positioning System as an aid to navigation. Since it was
declared fully operational in 1994, GPS positioning has been used for everything from tracking delivery
vehicles, to tracking the minute movements of the tectonic plates that make up the Earth's crust, to
tracking the movements of human beings. In addition to the so-called user segment made up of the GPS
receivers and people who use them to measure positions, the system consists of two other components:
a space segment and a control segment. It took about $10 billion to build over 16 years (BIM, 2018).
Russia maintains a similar positioning satellite system called GLONASS. Member nations of the European
Union are in the process of deploying a comparable system of their own, called Galileo. The first
experimental GIOVE-A satellite began transmitting Galileo signals in January 2006. The goal of the
Galileo project is a constellation of 30 navigation satellites by 2020. If the engineers and politicians
succeed in making Galileo, GLONASS, and the U.S. Global Positioning System interoperable, as currently
seems likely, the result will be a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) that provides more than
twice the signal-in-space resource that is available with GPS alone. The Chinese began work on their
own system, called Beidou, in 2000. At the end of 2011, they had ten satellites in orbit, serving just
China, with the goal being a global system of 35 satellites by 2020 (Penn, 2016).

Common Coding System:

The United Nations Common Coding System (UNCCS) is a generic, 6-digit coding system designed to
facilitate electronic commerce, simplify procurement, and provide opportunities for cost-reduction for
purchasers and suppliers. It is the only system developed specifically for the needs of purchasers and
suppliers, and is one of the few coding systems that covers both goods and services. In order to supply
to the UN system, businesses and governments must use UNCCS as their coding system. While other
coding systems do not "speak" to each other because of different structures, UNCCS ensures worldwide
acceptance by correlating with major international classification systems. Correlation tables are
available (against payment) (Paul, 2018).

Data exchange process:

Data exchange is the process of taking data structured under a source schema and transforming it into
a target schema, so that the target data is an accurate representation of the source data. Data exchange
allows data to be shared between different computer programs.
It is similar to the related concept of data integration except that data is actually restructured (with
possible loss of content) in data exchange. There may be no way to transform an instance given all of
the constraints. Conversely, there may be numerous ways to transform the instance (possibly infinitely
many), in which case a "best" choice of solutions has to be identified and justified (SAP, 2019).

Effective communication:
Audience.
Who needs to be involved to achieve the desired outcome? What action needs to be taken by that
individual or group, or the entire organization? If you consider the critical people and what they need to
think, feel or do to achieve the outcome, you’ll have a clear focus for your communication planning.
Messages.
To achieve the desired outcome, you need messages that will inspire the defined audience to take the
necessary action. What information might motivate them to act? Do they need to know more about a
problem, a competitive challenge or an opportunity? This information becomes the content for your
core messages.
Tactics.
How should your target audience be reached with your messages? The best tactics will depend on the
type, size and reach of the audience and the way they prefer to get their information. Important
communications should be delivered through multiple channels.
Measurement.
What does success look like? The measurement you choose should link back to your desired outcome. It
also may include measures to check communication effectiveness, such as media metrics, site visits, or
numbers of people reached through meetings or other communication tactics (GROSSMAN, 2020).

Sustainable Topographic Surveys:

Topography is the study of the shape and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area refers to
the surface shapes and features on the ground and their arrangement. Traditional definitions require a
topographic map to show both natural and man-made features.
A topographic survey gathers data about the natural and man-made features of the land, as well as its
terrain. Permanent features such as buildings, fences, trees and streams accurately define the ground
and its boundaries. Land contours and spot levels show the elevation of the terrain. Topographic maps
are used by architects, engineers, building contractors and others to accurately visualize their sites and
help bring forward development.
Depending on the purpose of the survey and the desired output, there are a few types of topographical
surveys to choose from, including a general land survey, boundary survey, and survey for construction
projects. Also, depending on the scale of the map that is required and location of the site, for instance
whether it’s an urban or rural area, a survey can be classified by accuracy level.
A typical topographical survey process includes:
  Gathering information, i.e. the geographical area to be included, the level of detail, accuracy and
data output
 Planning the time schedule and pricing
 Gathering survey data on site
 Processing data and preparing the final survey output
 Internal quality assurance by a senior member of the staff
 Delivery of the final survey output to the client
The duration of a topographic survey process is dependent on the size of the area to be covered and the
complexity of the terrain being surveyed. Once we have calculated the time it will take, a programmer of
works is agreed with the client. This could include additional resources to meet a particular project
programmer milestone or other deadline.
Normally, a topographic survey is used as a basis for design decisions. An architect or consulting
engineer will need an accurate digital plan of their site area to produce good design and construction
drawings. The survey and data can also be used for other purposes, including new housing
developments, new road layouts, land registry submissions or volumetric calculations.
Robotic total station instruments are generally employed to detail features on-site. All survey points are
measured by the instrument with an onboard feature code list. For example, the surveyor can string
survey points to create an outline of a building with a specific code. GPS and laser scanning equipment
can also be used, subject to the site specification and terrain.
A topographic survey can be presented in multiple formats; the output is subject to the client’s need.
For example, if clients are submitting a survey for Land Registry purposes, then specific scales and
outputs are required for compliance. However, the standard output is AutoCAD dwg, and 3D data can
also be presented in Revit.
Architects require accurate digital data of their client’s site to properly design their commissions, with
the level of detail or specification tailored to the purpose of the survey.
A thorough survey of all the features is critical for planning, design and construction. Any features that
are not surveyed can cause costly delays at any stage of the development.
Costs are based on the time we need to spend on the project. The time is calculated on the extent of the
site area, terrain and visibility. The specification will also itemize the features we need to survey, which
is also considered in our calculation.
We have a wide range of customers who use our services, ranging from architects, engineers and
contractors, to housebuilders and private individuals. We have a strong reputation in the industry for
providing accurate data on time and on budget. Clients trust us to deliver (MacIntyre, 2019).
Measurements for topographic surveys are done either with a surveying-quality GPS unit, or with an
electronic EDM instrument. The results of the topographic survey are presented as contour lines on a
site map, and can be enhanced by computer software to provide interactive views. Partner’s CAD
specialists are able to input this data to model how the topography may change through planned
improvements.
Clients can use topographic surveys to determine and plan features such as drainage ditches, grading, or
other features, using the natural landscape as the basis for such improvements. Engaging a professional
surveyor to conduct a topographic survey prior to real estate transaction or the commencement or a
construction project will ensure that the land’s features will be suitable for its intended use. In addition,
a topographic survey can provide valuable insight in to how a site’s previous or current use how affected
the land, enabling better planning for future use (Lewis, 2019).
Total Station:
Make sure the batteries are charged, one is installed in the door on the left side. The battery
compartment will hold different size batteries, type GEB 211 Li Ion 7.4V. Probably should make sure a
flash drive is on the right side.

 Compartment for USB memory stick & USB cable ports

 Bluetooth antenna
 Alignment sight
 Detachable carrying handle
 Telescope with integrated EDM (electronic distance meter)
 Vertical control knob g) On/Off key h) Switch key – we probably don’t need to use this
• Top: laser pointer toggle
• Bottom: switch between Measure/record, All in 1, and Measure
 Horizontal control knob
 Optional second keyboard (not on our unit)
 Telescope focusing ring
 Eyepiece; focusing gratitude
 Battery holder
 Serial interface
 Foot screw
 Display
 Keyboard

Settings
Page key: Change stab between CONFIG, TRANSIT, PROG and DATA

Navigation key

Moves focus onscreen

Starts edit mode for fields

Control the input bar

Escape key

Leaves the current menu

Light

Function keys (work with choices shown onscreen)

Keypad

DM key

(Short): access EDM settings

(Long): toggle between red-dot (reflector less shooting) and prism

LED flashes once if EDM setting is changed, or when measurements taken:

White: EDM prism mode

Red: EDM red dot mode (reflector less)

Press the EDM key short to access this (not in TRANSIT, PROG or DATA mode) When the instrument is
turned on, it will blink either white for prism mode or red for red dot (reflect off anything) mode. These
can be changed by pressing this key.

Leveling:
Set up the tripod, either over a known point, or anywhere

 If you are starting from scratch and don’t care about getting things into standard coordinates, it
doesn’t matter.
 If you want to tie to benchmarks, they will just need to be visible.
 If you can set up on a benchmark, this is the most accurate method:
 Setup the tripod itself over the point, getting it somewhat close to level.
 Use the plummet (weight on a string) to position the tripod over the point. The plummet
string can go through the 5/8" screw.

 Carefully attach the total station on the 5/8” screw mount.

 Close the case to keep out moisture and stuff.
 Rotate the instruments that two leveling screws are facing you and one at the back, with the
control panel thus parallel to those two front screws, as shown in the picture
 Rotate the instruments that two leveling screws are facing you and one at the back, with the
control panel thus parallel to those two front screws, as shown in the picture
 Roughly level the instrument using the circular level
 For side-to-side leveling, turn both leveling screws on the parallel in opposite directions,
by turning them both in or both out.
 For front-to-back leveling, turn the single screw at the back.
 Turn on the instrument with the red button on the right. Note the color of the EDM light: for
prism use it should be white.
 If you are mounting over a benchmark, you will need to make sure you in the right place, by
checking the downward-looking red laser pointer, which turns on when you select Level in the
interface. You may be able to move the instrument around on the tripod surface by loosening
the screw a bit and repositioning it over the benchmark. You may also have to move the tripod,
and redo the rough leveling.
 You’ll get to a leveling window, and you can follow its directions with the leveling screws. When
all three points are checked, it’s leveled.

Fix points:
To use any total station, you need it to know where it is and which direction it's looking. Section 4
describes how we do this, but what it needs are known coordinates of benchmarks, stakes or other fixed
points we can setup on or sight to. We need to get these fix points into the instrument in some way,
which could be either by entering the data manually or importing them from a file we've created
previously. This section will mainly assume you're entering these manually from at least 2 known points
you've captured previously either with GPS or a previous survey. Note: to use GPS, you should get these
as accurate as possible, using a high-accuracy instrument with at least decimeter accuracy and post-
processing or RTK, and get the points as far apart as possible. Ensure that your points are in a Cartesian
coordinate system like UTM or state plane, not GCS (Price, 2015).
The Total station is designed for measuring of slant distances, horizontal and vertical angles and
elevations in topographic and geodetic works, tachometric surveys, as well as for solution of application
geodetic tasks. The measurement results can be recorded into the internal memory and transferred to a
personal computer interface.

Total Stations:
The basic properties are unsurpassed range, speed and accuracy of measurements. Total stations are
developed in view of the maximal convenience of work of the user. High-efficiency electronic
tachometers are intended for the decision
it has the broad audience for sole of industrial problems.

Angles and distances are measured from the total station to points under survey, and the coordinates
(X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the total station position
are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation.

Data can be downloaded from the total station to a computer and application software used to compute
results and generate a map of the surveyed area.

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is also used by

archaeologists to record excavations as well as by police, crime scene investigators, private accident
Reconstructionist and insurance companies to take measurements of scenes. The total station is an
electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic distance meter (EDM), plus internal data
storage and/or external data collector.

The purpose of any survey is to prepare maps, control points formed a basic requirement for the
preparation of these maps.

There are several numbers of methods like traverse, triangulation etc., to provide these control points.

Whatever the method the provision of control points, includes the measurement of two entities
(Distance and Angle).

Again, distance can be measured by using various instruments like chain, tape.

Linear Tap.

Gunter’s chain (20m and 30m).

Steel band (20m and 30m).

Inver tap.

Hunter Short Base (80m).

Electronic Distance Measurement Instruments, Total station and GPS.

Angle can be measured by using a THEODOLITE.

Once distance and angular measurement is over computation is performed to provide the control
points. A combination of all the three results in a powerful instrument called TOTAL STATION. Hence,
the TOTAL STATION is an instrument which consists of the following:

i) Distance measuring instrument (EDM).

ii) An angle measuring instrument (Theodolite).
iii) A simple microprocessor.

Accuracy of a Total Station:

Accuracy depending upon the instrument and varies from instrument to instrument
1. The angular accuracy varies from1″ to 20 ″.
2. Distance accuracy depends upon two factors.
Instrumental error which ranges from
+ / – 10mm to + / – 2mm.
b) Error due to the length of measurement.
It can be from + / – 10mm to + / – 2mm per kilometer.
1 prism, 2.5–2.7 km2 prisms
5-7 km3 prisms
10-12 kmNIKONOne second+ / – 2mm/km or 2ppmTriple the number of prisms double the
distance.LEICAOne second SOKKIAOne second.

Accuracy & Precision

• Precision is the reproducibility of the measurement.

• Accuracy is how close the measured position is to the actual location

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal,

generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument’s optical path, and reflected by a prism
reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and
interpreted by the onboard computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and
receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for
each frequency. Most total stations use purpose-built glass Porto prism reflectors for the EDM signal,
and can measure distances to a few kilometers. Reflector less total stations can measure distances to
any object that is reasonably light in color, to a few hundred meters.

Principle:
Given the co-ordinate of the instrument position and bearing of a backward station the co-ordinates of
any other point can be computed.
Total station can be used
 When two points are given.
 When only one co-ordinate is given. In this case the coordinate of the back station is determined
by any suitable method.
 When no co-ordinates were given in which case arbitrary system of coordinates can be used.
 These devices, also called electronic Tachometers, can automatically measure horizontal and
vertical angles as well as slope distances from a single set up. From these data they can
instantaneously compute horizontal and vertical distance components, elevations, and
coordinates, and display the results on LCD. They can also store the data, either on board or in
 external data collectors. If the coordinates of the occupied station and a reference azimuth are
input to the system, the coordinates of the sighted point are immediately obtained. This
information can be directly stored in an automatic data collector, thereby eliminating manual
recording. These instruments are of tremendous value in all types of surveying. Total Stations
offer many advantages for almost all types of surveying. They are used for topographic,
Hydrographic, cadastral, project and construction surveys.

Accessories for Total Station:

With approximately more than 40 different models are available to choose, they are currently
the dominant instrument in surveying.

The EDM instrument component installed in a Total Station is relatively small but still has
distance ranges adequate for most work. Lengths up to about 2 km can be measured with a
single prism, and up to about 6 to 7 km with triple prism.
The angle resolution of available Total Stations varies from as low as a half-second for precise
instruments suitable for control surveys, up to 20″ for instruments made specifically for
construction stakeout.
Functions Performed By Total Stations
Total Stations, with their microprocessors, can perform a variety of functions and
computations, depending on how they are programmed. The capabilities vary with different
instruments, but some standard computations include (Singh, 2019):

 Averaging multiple angle and distance measurements.

 Correcting electronically measured distances from prism constant, atmospheric pressure, and

temperature.

 Making curvature and refraction corrections to elevations determine by trigonometric levelling.

 Reducing slope distances to their horizontal and vertical components.

 Calculating point elevations from the vertical distance components (supplemented with

keyboard input of instrument and reflector heights).

 Computing coordinates of survey points from horizontal angle and horizontal distance.

 Averages multiple angle measurements.

 Averages multiple distance measurements.

 Computes horizontal and vertical distances.

 Corrections for temp, pressure and humidity.

 Computes inverses, polar, and resections.

 Computes X, Y and Z coordinate

Surveying Errors
Errors in surveying may arise from three main sources:

1. Instrumental:
Surveying error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the instrument with
which measurement is being taken. For example, a tape may be too long or an angle
measuring instrument may be out of adjustment. Such errors are known as instrumental
errors.
Personal:
Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human sight in observing and of touch in
manipulating instruments. For example, an error may be there in taking the level reading or
reading and angle on the circle of a theodolite. Such errors are known as personal errors.
Natural:
Error in surveying may also be due to variations in natural phenomena such as temperature,
humidity, gravity, wind, refraction and magnetic declination. If they are not properly
observed while taking measurements, the results will be incorrect. For example, a tape may
be 20 meters at 200C but its length will change if the field temperature is different.

Types of Surveying Errors

Ordinary errors in surveying met with in all classes of survey work may be classified as
(SHANMUKHA, 2016):

1. Mistakes
2. Accidental errors
3. Systematic or cumulative errors
4. Compensating errors
Mistakes:
Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and poor judgment
or confusion in the mind of the observer. They do not follow any mathematical rule (law of
probability) and may be large or small, positive or negative. They cannot be measured.
However, they can be detected by repeating the whole operation. If a mistake is undetected, it
produces a serious effect upon the final result. Hence, every value to be recorded in the field
must be checked by some independent field observation. The following are the examples of
mistakes:
1. Erroneous recording, e.g. writing 69 in place of 96
2. Counting 8 for 3
3. Forgetting once chain length
 4. Making mistakes in using a calculator
Accidental Errors:
Surveying errors can occur due to unavoidable circumstances like variations in atmospheric
conditions which are entirely beyond the control of the observer. Errors in surveying due to
imperfection in measuring instruments and even imperfection of eyesight fall in this category.
They may be positive and may change sign. They cannot be accounted for.
Systematic or Cumulative Errors:
A systematic or cumulative error is an error that, under the same conditions, will always be of
the same size and sign. A systematic error always follows some definite mathematical or
physical law and correction can be determined and applied. Such errors are of constant
character and are regarded as positive or negative according as they make the result great or
small. Their effect is, therefore, cumulative. For example, if a tape is P cm short and if it is
stretched N times, the total error in the measurement of the length will be P´N cm
The systematic errors may arise due to (i) variations of temperature, humidity, pressure,
current velocity, curvature, refraction, etc. and (ii) faulty setting or improper leveling of any
instrument and personal vision of an individual. The following are the examples:
1. Faulty alignment of a line
2. An instrument is not leveled properly
3. An instrument is not adjusted properly
If undetected, systematic errors are very serious. Therefore, (1) all surveying equipment must
be designed and used so that, whenever possible, systematic errors will be automatically
eliminated, and (2) all systematic errors that cannot be surely eliminated by this means must be
evaluated and their relationship to the conditions that cause them must be determined.
Compensating Errors:
This type or surveying error tends to occur in both directions, i.e. the error may sometimes tend
to be positive and sometimes negative thereby compensating each other. They tend sometimes
in on direction and sometimes in the other, i.e. they are equally likely to make the apparent
result large or small. The following are a few examples:
1. The discrepancy between chain and tape measurements when both are used
simultaneously
2. Inaccuracy in marking chain lengths on the ground
3. Inaccurate centering
4. Inaccurate bisection of an object
They obey the laws of chance and therefore, must be handled according to the mathematical
laws of probability (Zeiske, 2019).
The Client, Employer or Promoter is the person, company or government department who requires the
particular scheme (the Works) to be undertaken and finances the project. Often, the Employer has no
engineering knowledge and therefore commissions an Engineer (possibly a firm of Consulting Engineers
or the City Engineer of a Local Authority) to provide the professional expertise. A formal contract is
normally established between these two parties. It is the responsibility of the Engineer to investigate the
feasibility of the proposed project, to undertake site investigation and prepare various solutions for the
Employer's consideration. Ultimately, the Engineer undertakes the necessary calculations and prepares
the drawings, specifications and quantities for the chosen scheme. The Engineer also investigates the
likely costs and programmer for the project. The calculations and drawings give the form and nature of
construction of the Works. The quantities are used as a means of estimating the value of the project, for
inviting competitive tenders for the project and, ultimately, as a basis for payment as the job is
executed. The specifications describe the minimum acceptable standards of materials and workmanship
included in the project. The programmer identifies the overall time for completion of the project.

Evaluation:
The obtained results from this thesis will hopefully improve the knowledge about accuracy, precision
and time consumption of the three methods used (TS, GPS and TLS). One can differentiate which
instrument should be used for which specific application depending on the presented results. For
further improvement of accuracy, the following recommendations are forwarded:
 Total station (Leica 1201) should be calibrated at some regular intervals. Since there was
problem in the level bubbles; one on the tribrach and the other on the total station couldn’t be
leveled at the same time. So, once calibrated the instrument, it will improve the level of
accuracy.
 It can be achieved better accuracy by calibrating those instruments before the measurement
campaign. Applications which require high precision so as to serve as reference value, such as
control point establishments, I recommend to use total station instead of GPS.
 It was very difficult to manage the field measurement alone, specially establishing the reference
network has been a big problem. There will be a possibility of occurring gross errors and
therefore, I recommend working in group
Today total station (TS), GPS and terrestrial laser scaner (TLS) are used for many tasks within different
applications, for example, geodesy, engineering, architectural and mining surveys and documentation of
cultural heritage with different accuracy level depending on the needed requirements. The purpose of
this thesis work was to evaluate and compare accuracy, precision and time expenditure of three
surveying methods (TS, GPS and TLS). The comparison was made between TS versus GPS RTK on the
reference network and TS versus TLS on the façade of L building, KTH campus, Stockholm, Sweden. To
accomplish the objectives of the thesis, three major tasks have been performed. 1. A network of 14
control points was established with high precision (l mm) with total station and served as a reference or
established value. 2. On the same network, RTK method was performed to compare the result with that
of total station. 3. Finally, by scaning the targets on the façade of the L building and measuring the same
target points with the total station, comparison has been made between the extracted coordinates of
the façade and the coordinates measured by the total station. In every task of the measurement, time
expended was recorded and compared (see Table 5.13 and Table 5.13) separately for TS versus GPS and
TS versus TLS methods respectively. Then, in order to evaluate the precision and accuracy of the RTK on
the reference network and TLS and TS on the façade measurements were taken five times. Based on the
results obtained, precision of the reference network determined with 1 mm standard deviation both for
horizontal and vertical coordinates for all points. This result has been achieved because of the round
measurements and two face measurements with the total station. On the same control points of the
network, RTK method was performed and according to the result obtained, the standard deviations are
less than 8 mm in horizontal and they reach 1.5 cm in vertical coordinate, which indicates that the
repeated measurements were quite close to each other. The accuracy of the RTK measurements on the
network, which is expressed by RMS, are less than 9 mm in horizontal and they reach 2.2 cm in vertical
coordinates. Precision of the TS measurement on the façade of L building has been determined with
maximum standard deviation of 8 mm (point BW10) in horizontal and 4 mm (point WM3) in vertical
coordinates. On the same points of the façade, coordinates extracted from the TLS measurement has
been determined with maximum standard deviation of 1.6 cm (point WM3) and 1.2 cm (point BW11) in
horizontal and vertical coordinates respectively. But the remaining points were below this level. Then
the accuracy of the TLS measurements was determined with maximum RMS of 4 mm (point WM3) in
horizontal and 7 mm (BW11) in vertical coordinates. -51- Finally, the time expenditure summarized as
more time (82 min) was consumed for TS measurement in the former method, but almost similar time
(38 min for TS and 32 min for TLS) was consumed in the latter case. In order to evaluate the quality of
the measurement, absolute value of each coordinate difference between each method should not be
exceed, which limits the errors not to be beyond certain limit by multiplying their sigma differences with
constant k (2.776). Based on this quality control measure, more than 95% of the total result has
achieved the requirement. This can be interpreted as values which lied within the allowable limit
(interval limit), considered as accepted values. But values out of the interval limit considered as risk
values, which might contain gross errors. There was one point which was out of the interval limit and
was rejected. Therefore, it can be concluded that there were no gross errors in the measurement;
because the measurements were made precisely and accurately. For instance: when measuring using
total station, two face measurements was taken to eliminate some errors such as collimation axis errors,
tilting axis errors, etc. When using GPS RTK method, small tripod was used to erect the rover vertical.
Initially, I expected to achieve accuracy in mm level. But, due to some errors (like centering error,
instrumental error, satellite signal obstruction), some results have been deviated in to cm level (Chekole,
2014).

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