A

LECTURE NOTE
ON
DEVELOPMENT AND ASSEMBLY drawing

FOR
NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND II) IN MARINE
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Compiled by
Ibrahim, I.H

PROGRAMME: NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN MARINE ENGINEERING (ND)

COURSE TITTLE: DEVELOPMENT AND ASSEMBLY DRAWING

DURATION: 45 HOURS LECTURES AND 15 HOURS PRACTICALS

GOAL: At the end of this course, the cadets must have acquired the
knowledge and fundamental skill in development, assembly and
Engineering drawing/design in machine components for practical
manufacturing.

General Objectives:

On completion of this course the cadets will be able to:

i. Understand the Classification of drawings

ii. Understand the use of Assembly Drawings
iii. Understand the developments of the curves of intersection and
interpenetrations of common solids and develop views of
Interpretations of surfaces.
iv. Understand the use of Assembly Drawing and
Production/Working Drawings.
v. Understand the application of sectioning to drawings.

Chapter one
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAWINGS
1.1 Machine Drawing

It is pertaining to machine parts or components. It is presented through a number

of orthographic views, so that the size and shape of the component is fully
understood. Part drawings and assembly drawings belong to this classification. An
example of a machine drawing is given in Fig. 1.1.

X–X
X
3 HOLES, DIA 6
EQUI-SP
3
50

M30 × 2.5
75

20

25
6
0

3

20
32
40
X

Fig. 1.1 Machine drawing

1.2 Production Drawing

A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, should furnish all the
dimensions, limits and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, honing,
lapping, surface finish, etc., to guide the craftsman on the shop floor in producing
the component. The title should also mention the material used for the product,
number of parts required for the assembled unit, etc. Since a craftsman will
ordinarily make one component at a time, it is advisable to prepare the production
drawing of each component on a separate sheet. However, in some cases the
drawings of related components may be given on the same sheet. Figure 1.2
represents an example of a production drawing.
 X–X
3 HOLES, DIA 6
EQUI-SP // 0.05 A

12.5
X
 0.02 A
0.12 A C 3
0.0
50 8 B B
C
M30 × 2.5

0.1 B

–0.00
+0.15
3.2

20
25

+0.1
0 –0



7
5

 5
±

5
.

6
6.3 3

1.6
+0.12

20–0.00
0.2
– 0.02 32
X A +0.00

40–0.12

Fig. 1.2 Production drawing

1.3 Part Drawing

Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a component to facilitate its

manufacture. All the principles of orthographic projection and the technique of
graphic representation must be followed to communicate the details in a part
drawing. A part drawing with production a detail is rightly called as a production
drawing or working drawing.

1.4 Assembly Drawing

A drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working
locations is an assembly drawing (Fig. 1.3). There are several types of such
drawings.

1.4.1 Design Assembly Drawing

When a machine is designed, an assembly drawing or a design layout is first
drawn to clearly visualise the performance, shape and clearances of various parts
comprising the machine.
1.4.2 Detailed Assembly Drawing

It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a relatively smaller number

of simple parts. All the dimensions and information necessary for the construction
of such parts and for the assembly of the parts are given directly on the assembly
drawing. Separate views of specific parts in enlargements, showing the fitting of
parts together, may also be drawn in addition to the regular assembly drawing.

1.4.3 Sub-assembly Drawing

Many assemblies such as an automobile, lathe, etc., are assembled with many pre-
assembled components as well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are
known as sub-assemblies.
A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts,
that form a part in a more complicated machine. Examples of such drawings are:
lathe tail-stock, diesel engine fuel pump, carburettor, etc.
4 X–X X

 80 M30  2
3

35

60
12

80
1
5
0

 120

KEY WAY, 20

85  64

X
 Parts List
Part No. Name Material Qty
1 Crank Forged Steel 1
2 Crank Pin 45C 1
3 Nut MS 1
4 Washer MS 1

Fig. 1.3 Assembly drawing

1.4.4 Installation Assembly Drawing

On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few important parts and overall
dimensions of the assembled unit are indicated. This drawing provides useful
information for assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all parts of a
machine in their correct working position.

1.4.5 Assembly Drawings for Catalogues

Special assembly drawings are prepared for company catalogues. These drawings
show only the pertinent details and dimensions that would interest the potential
buyer. Figure 1.4 shows a typical catalogue drawing, showing the overall and
principal dimensions.
1.4.6 Assembly Drawings for Instruction Manuals

These drawings in the form of assembly drawings, are to be used when a machine,
shipped away in assembled condition, is knocked down in order to check all the
parts before reassembly and installation elsewhere. These drawings have each
component numbered on the job. Figure 1.5 shows a typical example of such a
drawing
 810 545
450 245 100

390

805

595
40
205

205

290
4
5

2
9
0


300 140 290

640

Fig. 1.4 Catalogue drawing

1.4.7 Exploded Assembly Drawing

In some cases, exploded pictorial views are supplied to meet instruction manual
requirements. These drawings generally find a place in the parts list section of a
company instruction manual. Figure 1.6 shows drawings of this type which may
be easily understood even by those with less experience in the reading of
drawings; because in these exploded views, the parts are positioned in the
sequence of assembly, but separated from each other.
1.4.8 Schematic Assembly Drawing

It is very difficult to understand the operating principles of complicated

machinery, merely from the assembly drawings. Schematic representation of the
unit facilitates easy understanding of its operating principle. It is a simplified
illustration of the machine or of a system, replacing all the elements, by their
respective conventional representations. Figure 1.7 shows the schematic
representation of a gearing diagram.
1.4.9 Machine Shop Drawing

Rough castings and forgings are sent to the machine shop for finishing operation
(Fig. 1.8). Since the machinist is not interested in the dimensions and information
of the previous stages, a machine shop drawing frequently gives only the
information necessary for machining. Based on the same principle, one may have
forge shop drawing, pattern shop drawing, sheet metal drawing, etc.
 12
BHARATH
1

5
6

2 7
9 13
10
14
3
11
4 8 15

16
17

18

Speed change lever (1) Depth adjusting Selector switch (10) Forward/reverse switch
knob (2) (11) Pilot lamp (12)
Mech. feed engagement lever (3) Hand feed lever Feed disengagement push button (13) Start push button
(4) (14)
Feed change knob (5) Switch for Emergency stop (15) Elevating handle
tapping (6) Gear shifting lever (7) (16) Clamping handle (17) Supply
Main switch (8) inlet (18)
Lamp switch (9)

Fig. 1.5 Assembly drawing for instruction manuals

 Introduction 7

5
2

10

11

12

Fig. 1.6 Exploded assembly drawing

 10 9 8 7 6

5 1 2 3 4
 10 Shaft 1
Change-over
9 lever 2
8 Disk clutch 2
7 Worm wheel 2
6 Worm 2
5 Shoe brake 2
Herringbone
4 gear 3
3 Bearing 6
2 Elastic coupling 2
1 Electric motor 2
No. Name Qty

Fig. 1.7 Schematic assembly

drawing

85
(, )
5 20

6×6 NECK Casting size

CORED
HOLE,
DIA 38
100

 0 –0.10

–0.00
140

+0.00

+0.10
7

4
1

M76

4 HOLES DIA12, DIA16 C’BORE

10 DEEP EQUI-SP

A R5
0.1 A B

Fig. 1.8 Machine shop drawing

1.4.10 Patent Drawing

When new machines or devices are invented, patent drawings come into existence,
to illustrate and explain the invention. These are pictorial drawings and must be
self-explanatory. It is essential that the patent drawings are mechanically correct
and include complete illustrations of every detail of the invention. However, they
are not useful for production purposes. The salient features on the drawing are
numbered for identification and complete description.

2.0 The use of Assembly Drawings

2.1 Define Assembly drawing

Assembly drawings show how individual parts fit together to make a machine.

An assembly drawing is a drawing of an entire machine or system with all of its

components located and identified. We need to know how to put the machine
together.

2.1.1 Codes and Standards

Codes and standards are made to organize and unify the engineering work.

Imagine; what if there was no standard for bolts?

 A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and

construction of something.

 A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended

to achieve uniformity, efficiency and specific quality.

Examples of the organizations that establish standards and design codes: ISO,
AISI, SAE, ASTM, ASME, ANSI, DIN. BSI

There are many different standards related to technical drawings.

The ISO standards for technical drawings are found in a two volumes handbook:

 ISO Standards Handbook: Technical drawings, Volume 1: Technical drawings

in general

 ISO Standards Handbook: Technical drawings, Volume 2: Mechanical

engineering drawings; Construction drawings; Drawing equipment.

2.2 Standards used for Assembly drawings

2.2.1 Drawing Sheet Layout

Standard layouts of drawing sheets are specified by the various standards
organizations.

The figure shows the layout of a typical sheet, showing the drawing frame, a
typical title block, parts list (bill of materials) and revision table.

Fig. 2.1 showing standard tittle block for assembly drawing sheet layout
2.2.2. Sheet Frames
 It is standard practice for a drawing frame to be printed on each sheet,
defining a margin around the outside of drawing area. The margins of the drawing
frames are standardized for each size of paper.

Fig. 2.2 showing drawing for different standard on sheet size

2.2.3 Title Block

The title block is normally placed in the bottom right of the drawing frame, and it
should contain the following information:

 the name of the company or organization

 the title of the drawing

 the drawing number, which is generally a unique filing identifier

 the scale

 the drawing size

 the angle of projection used, either first or third, generally shown symbolically
 the signature or initials of the draftsman, checker, approving officer, and
issuing officer, with the respective dates

 the material of the part

 the revision number

 the sheet number for multi-sheet drawings

 Other information as required (tolerances, surface finish, etc.)

In addition to the information above, for drawings produced using CAD software,
it is highly recommended to have the following information in the title block:

 the name of the CAD software used and its version

 the name of the drawing file

 the name of the source part or assembly file

 the units of the dimensions (if the drawing is mistakenly printed on a different
paper size, the scale becomes meaningless)

2.3 Detailed and assembly drawing from physically observed tail stock of a
lathe machine
Fig. 2.3a – b showing detailed assembly drawing of tail stock

2.3.1 Detailed and assembly drawing from physically observed simple clutch

Fig. 2.4a showing clutch

Fig. 2.4 b showing roller assembly

2.3.2 Detailed and assembly drawing from physically observed gear pump.

Fig. 2.5 showing assembly of gear pump

2.3.2.1 Detailed drawings of machine parts using cross referencing to show
details

Fig. 1.5 showing different engine assembly drawing

Exercise
 CHAPTER Three

3.0 The developments of curves of intersection and interpenetrations of common solids and
develop views of Interpretations of surfaces.

3.1 Define developments

A development is the unfold/unrolled flat/plane figure of a 3-Dobject. Called also a

pattern, the plane may show the true size of each area of the object. When the pattern
is cut, it can be rolled or folded back into the original object. The process of unfolding
the three-dimensional solid is called development. There are two basic ways of
fashioning a piece of material into a given shape. Either you start with a solid lump
and take pieces off until the required shape is obtained or you have that material in
sheet form and bend it to the required shape. The shapes of most engineering
components are whole, or parts of. Prisms, pyramids, cylinders or cones and so this
chapter deals with the development of the shapes. Many articles such as cans, pipes,
elbows, boxes, ducting, hoppers, etc. are manufactured from thin sheet materials.
Generally a template is produced from an orthographic drawing when small quantities
are required (larger quantities may justify the use of press tools), and the template will
include allowances for bending and seams, bearing in mind the thickness of material
used. Where a component has its surfaces on flat planes of projection, and all the sides
and corners shown are true lengths, the pattern is obtained by parallel-line or straight-
line development. A simple application is given in Fig. 2.1 for an open box.

Allowance for corner lap

Fig. 2.1 showing development of a box

3.1.1 Methods of development of surfaces

The methods of development of surfaces are:

Parallel line development

Radial line development
Triangulation development
Approximate development
 Parallel line development uses parallel lines to construct the expanded pattern of
each three-dimensional shape. The method divides the surface into a series of
parallel lines to determine the shape of a pattern. Example: Prism, Cylinder.
 Radial line development uses lines radiating from a central point to construct the
expanded pattern of each three-dimensional shape. Example: Cone, Pyramid.
 Triangulation developments are made from polyhedrons, single-curved
surfaces, and wrapped surfaces. Example: Tetrahedron and other polyhedrons

 In approximate development, the shape obtained is only approximate. After

joining, the part is stretched or distorted to obtain the final shape. Example:
Sphere.

Fig. 2.2 showing sphere

Exercise
 3.2 Develop patterns of regular solid, such as cylinder, frustum of a pyramid and
cone.

Fig. 3.2 showing solid shapes

3.2.1 Develop patterns of regular solid, such as cylinder

If you punted the curved surface of a cylinder and, one flat surface and then rolled it
once, the pattern that would be the development of the curved surface of the cylinder.
The oblique face has been divided into twelve equal pans and numbered. You can see
where each number will touch the flat surface as the cylinder is rolled.

To develop a cylinder with an oblique top (Fig 2.3)

A plan and elevation of the cylinder is drawn. The plan is divided into 12 equal
sectors which are numbered. These numbers are also marked on the elevation
The circumference of the cylinder is calculated and is marked out alongside the
elevation. This circumference no is divided into 12 equal parts and these parts are
numbered 1 to 12 to correspond with the twelve equal sectors.
 General Procedure to develop a cylinder

 Draw the elevation of the cylinder

 Divide the circumference of the circle into 12 equal parts and project each
point to the elevation
 Use these divisions and step out as shown
 Project from elevation to the corresponding point in the pattern
 Use French curve to join the fair curve.

Fig. 3.3a
showing

development of a cylinder

Fig. 3.3b showing development of a cylinder

3.2.2 Develop patterns of regular solid, such as frustum of a pyramid

If a pyramid is tipped over so that it lies on one of its sides end is then rolled so that
each of its sides touches in turn, the development is traced out. The development is
formed within a circle whose radius is equal to the true length of one of the comers
of the pyramid.

We call the polygonal bottom side of the pyramid the base of the pyramid, and we call
the other triangular sides the faces of the pyramid. Lastly, we call the point at which
the triangular faces meet at the top of the pyramid the apex.
Fig. 3.4 showing development pattern of a pyramid

Procedure on how a pyramid can be developed

 Draw the elevation and plan

 Draw horizontal lines from the edges on the section to touch side AB. With
centre A and each point on AB as radius draw arcs.

 Step the base edges along the arc from B. Draw chords and connect the
point to

 The intersection of arcs and radiating lines from A mark the top shape

 Add the true shape of the section (not shown for clarity) and the base.

a b
 c d

e
Fig. 3. 5 a-e showing develop pattern of pyramid

3.2.3 Develop patterns of regular solid, such as cone.

The procedure to draw the development of a cone

With apex A as the centre and radius of the slant height AB draw an arc
Divide the circumference of the base into the number of equal parts 1 – 12
Step off units 1 – 12 along the arc. Join 12 to the apex.
 a b

Fig. 3.6 a – b showing pattern development of a cone

Exercise

Study the figure below and produce

3.3 Draw the lines of intersections of the following regular solid and plane in both first
and third angles

In first angle projection, the object is imagined to be positioned in the first

quadrant. The view from the front of the object is obtained by looking at the object
from the right side of the quadrant and tracing in correct sequence, the points of
intersection between the projection plane and the rays of sight extended. The object is
between the observer and the plane of projection (vertical plane). Here, the object is
imagined to be transparent and the projection lines are extended from various points of
the object to intersect the projection plane. Hence, in first angle projection, any view is
so placed that it represents the side of the object away from it.

i. a cylinder meeting a square pyramid at right angle.

a b

Fig. 3.7 a-b showing development pattern of a cylinder meeting a square pyramid

ii. a cylinder meeting a cone, the cone at an angle.

Fig.3.8 showing cylinder joining cone at an angle

Iii A cylinder meeting a cone, the cone enveloping the cylinder.

a b
Fig. 3.9 a- b showing a-b cylinder meeting a cone

iv. a square prism meeting a triangular or rectangular plane at an angle.

Fig.3.9 showing square prism meeting a triangular plane

vi. a cylinder and a cone. The cylinder enveloping the cone.

a b
Fig. 3.10 a-b showing cylinder and a cone
 3.4 produce curves of interpenetrations of various intersecting surfaces.

When two solids Interpenetrate, a line of intersection is formed. H is sometimes

necessary to know the exact shape of this line, usually so that an accurate development of
either or both of the solids can be drawn, It shows the lines of intersection formed when
some of the simpler geometric solids interpenetrate (examples during class period)

3.5 Develop the surfaces of intersecting parts. E.g. Cone/cone, cone/cylinder,

cone/pyramid.

Two dissimilar square prism meeting at an angle

The F.E. shows where corners 1 end 3 meet the larger prism. The plan shows
where corners 2 and 4 meet the larger pdsm and this is projected down to the F.E.

3RD ANGLE PROJECTION 2 , 1ST ANGLE PROJECTION

1ST ANGLE PROJECTION 3RD ANGLE PROJECTION

3.6 Draw pipe works, ducts, etc. using parallel, radial and triangulation methods in
pattern developments
Exercise
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRODUCTION DRAWING AND PRACTICE

4.1 Production drawings

Production drawings (sometimes called working drawings) are complete sets of
drawings that detail the manufacturing and assembly of products (as distinct from
engineering drawings prepared by and/or for production engineers whose task is to
decide how best to manufacture the products).

4.2 CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR MACHINE COMPONENTS DRAWING

Machine Components

When the drawing of a component in its true projection involves a lot of time, its convention
may be used to represent the actual component. Figure 2.27 shows typical examples of
conventional representation of various machine components used in engineering drawing.
 Type Convention Material

Steel, Cast Iron, Copper and its

Alloys, Aluminium and its Alloys,
etc.
Metals

Lead, Zinc, Tin, White-metal, etc.

Glass Glass

Porcelain, Stoneware, Marble,

Slate, etc.

Packing and
Asbestos, Fibre, Felt, Synthetic
Insulating
material
resin products, Paper, Cork,
Linoleum, Rubber, Leather, Wax,
Insulating and Filling materials, etc.

Liquids Water, Oil, Petrol, Kerosene, etc.

Wood Wood, Plywood, etc.

A mixture of Cement, Sand and

Concrete Gravel

Fig. 4.1 showing Conventional representation of materials

 4.3 DETAILED AND ENGINE COMPONENTS
DRAWINGS

4.3.1 Connecting rod is used in centre crank engines. The bearing bush 4 which is in one
piece is fitted at the small end of the connecting rod 1. The small end of the rod is connected
to the piston. The main bearing bush, which is split into two halves, is placed at the big end of
the connecting rod. The big end of the rod is connected to the crank pin of the centre crank.
First, the split bearing brasses 3 are placed the crank pin, and then the big end of the
connecting rod and the cap 2 are clamped onto these, by means of two bolts 5 and nuts 6.

Fig. 4.2
 4.3.2 Screw jacks are used for raising heavy loads through very small heights. In this, the screw 3
works in the nut 2 which is press fitted into the main body 1. The tommy bar 7 is inserted into a
hole through the enlarged head of the screw and when this is turned, the screw will move up or
down, thereby raising or lowering the load.

fig.4.3
Figures 4.4a and 4.4b show a pulley and a shaft, and illustrate some
aspects of general dimensioning and tolerancing.

Figure 31.3 shows a partly dimensioned elevation and plan view of a

proposed gear-box cover, with a wide application of theoretically
exact boxed dimensioning and the associated positional tolerances.
To emphasize this style of dimensioning, other dimensions relating to
the form of the cover have been omitted.

Completed drawings are usually presented on company standard

sheets. Sizes, areas and designations. The layout of a typical sheet
contains information required for identification, administration and
interpretation and a company could design several types of standard
sheets, particularly appropriate to their products.
Fig. 4.5 showing display of production drawing
Fig. 4.6 showing automotive systems
CHAPTER FIVE

Sectioning drawings
 5.1 PURPOSE OF SECTIONING

 On many occasions, the interior of an object is

complicated or the component parts of a machine
are drawn assembled.

 The interior features are represented by hidden lines

in usual orthographic views, which results in
confusion and difficulty in understanding the
drawing (Fig. 5.1a).
 In order to show such features clearly, one or
more views are drawn as if a portion had been cut
away to reveal the interior (Fig. 5.1b).

 This procedure is called sectioning and the view showing

the cut away picture is called section view.

Fig.
5.1
 5.2 DEFINITIONS

A section is an imaginary cut taken through an object to reveal the shape or interior construction. Fig. 5.2a shows the
imaginary cutting plane in perspective view.

The imaginary cutting plane is projected on a standard view so that the sectional view with orthographic
representation is obtained as shown in Fig. 5.2c.

A sectional view must show which portions of the object are solid material and which are spaces. This is done by
section lining (cross-hatching) the solid parts with uniformly spaced thin lines generally at 45º.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.2
 5.3 CUTTING PLANES

Various cutting planes can be selected for obtaining clear sectional views.

The plane may cut straight across (Fig. 5.3a) or be offset (changing direction forward and backward) to
pass through features (Fig. 5.3b, 5.3c and 5.3d).


The plane may also be taken parallel to the frontal plane (Fig5. 4a), parallel to the profile and/or horizontal
plane (Fig. 5.4b and 5.4c), or at an angle.

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4
5.4 TYPES OF SECTIONS

Depending on the number of cutting planes, sectional views can be simple with one cutting plane (Fig. 5.5) or
complex with two or more cutting planes (Fig.5.6).

If the cutting plane-line cuts entirely across the object, it is called a full section.

If the cutting plane cuts halfway through the object, it is a half section.

In addition to these, there are broken-out sections, rotated sections, removed sections, auxiliary
sections, and assembly sections.

Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6

 5.5 FULL SECTION

When cutting plane passes fully through an object, it is called full section (Fig. 5.7).

Figure 5.7
 The cutting plane may be offset in any portion in order to show some detail or to miss some part, as seen in
Fig. 5.8.


Note that the change in plane direction is not shown on the sectional view (i.e. no edge is present on
the object at this position since the cut is purely imaginary).

Figure 5.8
Fig. 5.9 and 5. 10 are examples of full sections with offset cutting planes.

Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10

5.7 HALF SECTION

A half section is made by cutting halfway through an object (Fig. 5.11).


Thus, one half is drawn in section and the other half is an outside view.

Usually, hidden lines are not used (inside details are visible on the section view).

Figure 5.11
 In some cases, hidden detail on the unsectioned part may be shown for clarity or for dimensioning purposes
(Fig. 5.12).

Half sections can be used to have advantage with symmetrical parts (Fig. 5.13) as well as with assemblies
(Fig. 5.12).

Figure 5.12 Figure 5. 13

5.8 BROKEN-OUT SECTION
t
This
type of
section shows
only an
interior
portion
of the
object in
section.


Cutting
plane passes
partially
through the
object.
The
area
immediately
in front of
Figure 5.14

5.9
ROTATED SECTION

Some parts of an object have to

be rotated to show the section.

The cutting plane is passed
perpendicular to the axis of the part to
be cut.


The cut portion is revolved
90ºand drawn in this position (i.e.
turning the section until it is
parallel with the plane of
projection).
 
The resulting view is a rotated
section.

Figure 5.16

5.10
REMOVED SECTION

This type of section is a

revolved section drawn outside of the
normal view.
 
They are used if there is
restricted space for section or
dimensioning prevents the use of an
ordinary rotated
section.


Several sections may be
required when shape of the part is not
uniform.


These sections are
represented by a series of cutting
planes and identifying letters
(e.g. Section A-A, B-B, C-C
and so on).
Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19
 Figure 5.20

Figure 5.21

5.11
ASSEMBLY SECTION
 Assembly sections
consist of a combination of parts.


The purpose of an
assembly section is to reveal the
interior of a machine or
structure so that the separate
parts can be clearly
shown and identified. However,
the separate parts do not need to
be completely described.


Small amount of
clearances between mating or
moving parts on assembly
drawing is not shown. Even the
clearance
between a bolt and its hole
(which may be as much as 1
mm) is rarely shown.


On assembly
drawing, only such hidden
details (as needed for part
identification or dimensioning)
are drawn.
Figure 5.22
5.12 HIDDEN EDGES AND SURFACES IN SECTION

Sections are primarily used to replace hidden lines with visible lines. As a rule, hidden lines and surfaces
should be omitted in sectional views.


Sectional view in Fig.5.23a is incorrect. Because, hidden lines do not clarify the drawing. Thus,
preferred sectional view should be as in Fig. 5.23b.


In some cases, hidden edges and surfaces can be shown for describing the object or to omit a view. Fig. 5. 24b
must be used for complete representation of the object.

Figure 5.23 Figure 5.24

5.13 VISIBLE EDGES IN SECTION

A section-lined area is always completely bounded by a visible outline, never by a hidden line or edge.

Therefore, all visible edges and contours behind the cutting plane must be shown in sectional view (Fig.5. 25b).

Otherwise, a section will appear to be made up of disconnected and unrelated parts (as in the case of Fig. 5.25a).

Figure 5.25
 5.14 SECTION LINING (CROSS-HATCHING)

Section lining of a cut surface is indicated by fine lines, which are drawn as continuous lines usually at an
angle of 45ºwith uniform distance (about 2 mm). For smaller or larger areas, distance between lines can be
from 1 mm to 4 mm.

Section lining or cross-hatching lines should not be parallel or perpendicular to any main visible line

bounding the sectioned area.

Figure 5.26

Figure 5.27
 5.14.1 CROSS-HATCHING OF ADJACENT PARTS

Section lines on two adjacent pieces should slope at 45ºin opposite directions. If a third or fourth piece adjoins
the other pieces (as in Fig. 28), they ordinarily are cross-hatched at 30ºand 60º.


An alternate use would be to vary the spacing without changing the angle.

Figure 5.28
5.15 CUTTING PLANE LINES

The cutting plane line is an imaginary

p
l
a
n
e

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

a
n

object at the place where a section is to

b
e

m
a
d
e
.


This imaginary line is identified
w
it
h
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
l
e
tt
e
r
s
a
l
o
n
g
w
it
h
arrows to show the direction in
w
h
i
c
h
t
h
e
s
e
c
ti
o
n
a
l
v
i
e
w

is
t
a
k
e
n
.


The beginning and end styles of
c
u
tt
i
n
g
p
l
a
n
e
li
n
e
s
a
r
e
m
a
d
e
b
o
l
d
.
T
h
is
is also done at the portions where
t
h
e
c
u
tt
i
n
g
p
l
a
n
e
is
o
ff
s
e
t
(
F
i
g
.
5
.
2
9
).

Figure 5.29

5.16

CONVECTIONAL BREAKS
In order to shorten certain views of
l
o
n
g

parts, conventional breaks are

recommended.


Parts considered as broken must have
t
h
e

same section throughout, or if tapered

t
h
e
y

must have a uniform taper.

 
The breaks used on cylindrical shafts
o
r

tubes are often referred to as “S-

breaks”andare usually drawn entirely

o
r

partly freehand.

Figure 5.30
5.16.1 VARIOUS CONVECTION IN SECTIONING

Fig. 5.31 showing convection in sectioning