CHAPTER 2: TECHNICAL DRAWING

Unit of learning code: CON/CU/PL/CC/02/5/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Prepare and apply technical
drawing
2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning
This unit covers the competencies required to prepare and apply technical drawing. It involves
competencies in selecting, using and maintaining drawing equipment and materials. It also
involves developing plane geometry drawings, solid geometry drawings, pictorial and
orthographic drawings

2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Select, use and maintain drawing equipment and materials
2. Develop plane geometry drawings
3. Develop solid geometry drawings
4. Develop pictorial and orthographic drawings
5. Apply Computer Aided Design

2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Select, use and maintain drawing equipment and
materials

2.2.1.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working
drawings and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section will
give an understanding of the different types of working drawings, building symbols and
different representations of drawings.
2.2.1.2. Performance Standard
The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be
considered competent
1. Drawing equipment are identified and gathered according to task requirements
2. Drawing materials are identified and gathered according to task requirements
3. Drawing equipment are used and maintained as per manufacturer’s instructions
4. Drawing materials are used as per workplace procedures

2.2.1.3. Information Sheet

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 Specific materials and drawing instruments are required in order to undertake technical drawing.
As technical drawing is now a universal language it is governed by rules regarding methods of
drawing and the symbols used.

Terms and concepts

a) Technical Drawing
According to Autodesk a technical drawing, also known as an engineering drawing, is a
detailed, precise diagram or plan that conveys information about how an object functions or
is constructed. Engineers, electricians, and contractors all use these drawings as guides
when constructing or repairing objects and buildings
b) Importance of Technical Drawing
Technical drawings bridge the communication between designers, the people who come up
with ideas, and producers, the people who put those ideas into practice. They are designed
as a universal language to be understood by engineers, contractors, and architects.
c) Types of Technical Drawings:
i. Mechanical Engineering Drawing
It is pertaining to machine parts or components. It is presented through a number of
orthographic views, so that the size and shape of the component is fully understood.
Part drawings and assembly drawings belong to this classification.
Mechanical drawings rely on precise mathematical equations to accurately depict the
mechanism and it component parts.
ii. Electrical Drawing
Electrical drawings are technical documents that depict and notate designs for electrical
systems. They convey relevant information about lighting, wiring, and power sources,
as well as information about voltage and capacity. Technicians rely on electrical
drawings during a building’s construction or when repairing a building’s electrical
system.
iii. Architectural Drawing
Architectural drawings are detailed, precise depictions of every aspect of the
construction being proposed. Architects use the drawings to visualize ideas and
concepts, turn a design idea into a coherent plan for a building, and decide the type of
supplies and labor that is needed for the project.
Classification of drawings
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 a) Part drawing
Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a component to facilitate its
manufacture. All the principles of orthographic projection and the technique of
graphic representation must be followed to communicate the details in a part
drawing. A part drawing with production details is rightly called as a production
drawing or working drawing.
b) Assembly drawing
A drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations
is an assembly drawing. There are several types of assembly drawing namely;
i. Design Assembly Drawing
When a machine is designed, an assembly drawing or a design layout is first
drawn to clearly visualize the performance, shape and clearances of various
parts comprising the machine.
ii. Detailed Assembly drawing
It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a relatively smaller
number of simple parts. All the dimensions and information necessary for the
construction of such parts and for the assembly of the parts are given directly on
the assembly drawing. Separate views of specific parts in enlargements,
showing the fitting of parts together, may also be drawn in addition to the
regular assembly drawing.
iii. Sub-assembly drawing
A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts, that
form a part in a more complicated machine.
iv. Installation assembly drawing
On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few important parts and overall
dimensions of the assembled unit are indicated. This drawing provides useful
information for assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all parts of a
machine in their correct working position.
v. Assembly drawing for instruction manuals
These drawings in the form of assembly drawings, are to be used when a
machine, shipped away in assembled condition, is knocked down in order to
check all the parts before reassembly and installation elsewhere. These drawings
have each component numbered on the job.
vi. Exploded assembly drawing

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 In some cases, exploded pictorial views are supplied to meet instruction manual
requirements. These drawings generally find a place in the parts list section of a
company instruction manual.

d) Drawing Office
A drawing office is a room or set of rooms where designs and drawings are done and
Drawing materials are stored.
A typical layout consists of drawing instruments and equipment, storage for these items,
office for the drawing staff, drawing tables spread out in a spacious area for users.
e) Drafting/Draughting
This the ability to compose drawings that communicate how an object functions or is
constructed
f) Draughtsman
This is the person who interprets and draws to scale the engineer’s design.
g) Drawing Instruments and Equipment
Engineering drawing involves sketching with drawing instruments and the ability to:
i.To produce clean accurate lines of the desired thickness.
ii.To print clear alphabetical letters and numerals in dimensions or written
Communications.
iii.To understand and apply the necessary drawing conventions as used in engineering drawing.
iv.Think in three dimensions
v. Master the techniques of projecting drawing views from one another.
vi.To practice the skills developed to enable production of professional drawings
h) Drawing equipment
Some of the drawing instruments and equipment are:
i. Tee or T-square
A Tee or T-square is a wooden or plastic ruler having a short, sometimes sliding
Perpendicular cross piece at the end.
It is used to draw parallel lines. It is also used with other drawing instruments for
Drawing lines at different angles.

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Figure 2: T-Square
ii. Set squares
These are thin flat pieces of plastic, metallic or wooden shaped in right angled
triangles. They are available in various sizes such as 30°-60°, 45° and the
adjustable set square which can be adjusted to accommodate different angles.

Figure 3 Set Squares

iii. Protractors
It is a thin flat piece of plastics, metallic or wooden semi-circular instrument with
a straight edge. The semi-circular part is graduated to measure angles while the
straight edge is graduated to take straight measurements. Protractors are used to mark
out angles on drawing.

Figure 4 Protractors
iv. Compasses
It is an instrument with two arms joined together at the top; one has a sharp point that
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 acts the pivot while other arm has a provision for holding a pencil or a marker.
It is used for drawing circles and arcs and for taking

Figure 5 Compasses
v. Triangular Scale
Drafters use two types of triangular scales in combination with the T-square to draw
lines at various angles. These acts as guides for horizontal, vertical, and diagonal lines.
They are also used to map out scales.

Figure 6 Triangular scales

vi. Drawing board

This is a flat smooth rectangular surface made of either wood, plastic, or metal.
It is used for drawing purposes. Drawing board is either fixed or portable.

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 Figure 7 Drawing Boards
vii. Clips and marking tapes
A clip is a small metal or plastic object used for holding a drawing paper onto the
drawing board.
A masking tape is a long narrow strip of material with a sticky substance on one
side that is used to attach the drawing paper onto the drawing board

Figure 8 Clips

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 Figure 9 Masking Tape

viii. Pencils and pencil sharpeners

A pencil is a narrow cylindrical device for writing, drawing, or marking. It consists
of a thin rod of graphite, coloured works or similar substance encased (covered)
in wood or held in mechanical holder. This is one of the most important tools in
drawing. It comes in various grades. The grade of pencil to be used depends on the
quality of paper to be used. You must take into consideration also the type of line work
required.
Pencils can be categorized in three classes, namely:
a) The soft range pencils such as 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B. The 7B being the
softest. These pencils are mostly used in artwork.
b) The medium range pencils such as B, HB, BH, 2H, 3H; these are used for
general drawing and sketching.
 HB grade is recommended for lettering and dimensioning.
 H Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines
 2H Hard grade for construction lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines, Extension
lines, Centre lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines.

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 Figure 10 Wooden pencils-has graphite lead

Figure 11 Mechanical/Clutch pencils-uses replace lead

The choice of which pencil to use is determined by the type of line desired.
c) The hard range pencils such as 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, 9H. The 9H being
hardest.
These pencils are used for accurate layout work.
Sharpening of pencils
This can be done using a razor blade, a mechanical sharpener, or a knife. The procedure
involves:
a) Cutting the wood at about 20mm of the front part of the pencil.
b) Shaping the internal lead into a conical shape using a sandpaper pad or a fine file
while revolving the pencil, or shaping the lead to a flat or chisel edge by rubbing
on two opposite’s side of the lead. A long, tapering point produces clean sharp
lines while a dull point produces poor line works.

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 Figure 12 Sharpening a Pencil Procedure
The sharpening of the pencil should be done away from the drawing paper and board.
The pencils used should be of reasonable length and of the expected hardness to get the
desired line result.
ix. Geometrical sets
This consists of compasses, dividers, erasers, protractors, sharpener and other
Accessories.
Divider
A tool with two metal legs used to lay-out an arc circle or step off division on a line. Is
like the compass in construction. As the name implies, divider is used for dividing
distances into several equal parts by the trial-and-error method.

Figure 13 Dividers

Steps in Using a Divider

a) Align each arm of the dividers so that one point is laying on the start point of
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 the measurement you want to transfer and the other divider point is laying on
the endpoint of that same measurement.
b) Lift the dividers off the measurement you intend to transfer, being careful not
to change their alignment.
c) Place the dividers over the location you'd like to transfer the measurement to,
and make a pencil mark to indicate where each of the dividers' pointers sits.
This duplicates the measurement.
Erasers
These are used to rub off the pencil works that need correction or removing untidy
patches from drawing paper. Erasers are used to remove pencil works though care
must be taken to avoid damaging the drawing.

Figure 14 Erasers
Eraser shields
These can be made of metallic or plastic materials and are used for protecting line
works that should not be erased. The shields have opening of various shapes that are
placed on the area required to be rubbed and then the eraser is insert through these
openings, shielding the blocked areas.

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 Figure 15 Eraser Shield

x. Drawing template curves

Drawing templates and lettering guides are precision drafting templates covering a wide
variety of applications. They are used in architecture, interior design, landscaping,
engineering, and map making are included;
a) Lettering guides conforming to ISO 3098 standards.
b) Line guides for establishing a set of hand lettering parameters.
c) French curves and flexible curves which enable varieties of curved shapes to be
drawn with minimal effort.

Figure 16 French Curves

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 Figure 17 Circle template

xi. Draughting equipment

“A draughting machine is a tool used in technical drawing, consisting of a pair of
scales mounted to form a right angle on an articulated protractor head that allows an
angular rotation. Draughting tools are instruments that can be used for measurement
and layout of drawings or to improve consistency and the speed for creating standard
drawing elements”.
Drafting machines combine the functions of the T-square, triangles, scales, and
protractor. Allowing you to draw more quickly and with less work.

Figure 18 Draughting Equipment

xii. Computer-aided design (CAD)

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 “Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or workstations) to aid in the
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. ... The term CADD (for
computer aided design and drafting) is also used.”
xiii. Engineering drawing software’s
These are various software’s used by engineers, architects, draughtsman, and
construction managers among others to replace manual drafting. They help users to
create designs in either two dimensions (2D) or three dimensions (3D) enabling the user
to visualize the object in different perspectives. CAD enables the development,
modification, and optimization of the design process
i) Drawing materials
i. Drawing paper
Paper layout on the drawing board. Paper layout is the process of defining the
workspace and orientation of the drawing paper. The following steps are involved in
paper layout:
1. Paper sizing
Drawing papers used in technical drawing are rectangular in shape.
The papers are serialized according to the sizes.
The table below shows the different paper sizes.

Figure 19 Paper sizes

2. Setting of the drawing papers
The drawing paper is placed on the drawing paper according to the desired
orientation. A T-square is then held firmly on the drawing board with the horizontal
edge aligned to lower edge of the paper.
The paper is finally fixed in position with either clips or masking tape.
3. Drawing of boundary lines.
Boundary line is a line that defines the working space of the drawing paper. It is
always equidistant from all the edges of the paper and at least 10 mm from edge.
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 The figure below shows the drawing paper boundary.

Figure 20 Drawing Paper Layout

4. Drawing the title block
A title block is a designated area where the parameters for defining the drawing
are stated. These parameters include details such as; name of the person
drawing, scale and the institution. It is usually drawn at the bottom of the right-
hand corner within the working area of the drawing paper.
The figure below is a sample of title block.

Figure 21 Sample title block

ii. Pencils-covered above
iii. Erasers- covered above
iv. Masking Tapes- covered above
v. Paper Clips- covered above
j) Use, care and maintenance of drawing equipment’s
Draughting tools, materials, and equipment are delicate and need good care for their
applications to remain at its best. Keeping your drafting tools clean, well maintained, and

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properly stored will result in better performance and longer service life. Below are some tips to
properly use and take care of them.

a) The performance of simple cleaning, maintenance, and storage procedures help a lot in
keeping the efficiency of every drafting instrument. The early detection and reparation
of any signs of deterioration will enable the drafter to save time and resources in the
future.
b) Perform safety procedures in maintaining drawing tools, drawing instruments,
equipment, and other related accessories.
c) Follow procedures in cleaning, tightening and simple repair of drawing tools, drawing
instruments, equipment, and accessories.
d) Identify common malfunction (unplanned or unusual events) when using tools, drawing
instruments, equipment, and accessories. Always ensure you inspect tools before use,
this is to check if they are in working condition.
e) After using a tool, clean it thoroughly with a damp cloth. Wipe it dry with another
piece of cloth before keeping it.
f) The following are common good practices in handling and caring for your drafting tools
and equipment.
i. Pencils
 Use soft cloth or tissue to clean the pencil to get rid of particles that may ruin
your work.
 Sharpen your wooden pencil with a quality sharpener.
 Keep your pencils in a secure case or tie them together with rubber band to avoid
breakage when transporting them.
 Never sharpen the pencil over the drawing or close to any of your equipment.
 Keep the pencil lead sharp and pointed when drawing.
 Avoid using solvents or other strong chemicals when cleaning your mechanical
pencil. Such chemicals may corrode the material your pen is made of.
 Use only the lead designed for your mechanical pencil to avoid mechanical jam
and clogging.
 Load your mechanical pencil with the recommended amount of lead.
 Observe correct refilling procedure.
ii. T-square, triangles, and French curves
 Do not use the T-square for any rough purposes.

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  Never cut paper along its working edge, since the plastics can easily be damaged.
Even light nick can ruin the T-square.
 When not in use, the T-square, triangles, or French curves is preferably hung by
inserting the hole to a nail on a surface i.e a wall.
 Apply oil on all the movable parts of the measuring tools such as zigzag rules,
calipers, dividers, and compasses to avoid rusting.
 Avoid unnecessary sliding of T-square or triangles protect the drawing. Pick up
the triangle by its tip and tilt the T-square blade upward slightly before moving.
iii. Ruler or scale
 Scales should not be pricked with needle points of either the divider or compass
when measurements are taken.
 Do not use scale as a ruler.
iv. Dividers and compasses
 Do not oil the joints of the legs of the dividers.
 Do not use the divider as substitute for clips in fastening the drawing
paper on the drawing board or tabletop.
 The needle points must be sharp and of equal length.
v. Drawing paper
 It should be stored in rolled form.
 It should not be crumpled or wet or kept in a moist or cold place.
vi. Masking tape, eraser and erasing shield
 Should be kept together with other supplies to avoid losing it.
vii. Drawing board or drawing tape
 It should always be in good (drawing) working condition.
 It must always be clean on or before using.
 Do not leave any kind of marks on your board to retain its smoothness.
g) Avoid dropping your tools and equipment by keeping them far from the edges of the
board.
h) Report defective measuring tools and any hazard to instructor immediately
i) Never use measuring tools in cutting paper.
j) Ensure measuring tools are protected and stored well
k) Have a separate container for marking tools.
l) Keep your drawing sheets in a plastic tube to protect them from a dust and dirt.

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 m) Never borrow drafting tools and materials if you do not know how to use and store
them.

Check out the lesson online on introduction to technical drawing for further explanation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YE0oZZO7vbk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Q6QwvtjVm8
http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/9/k_to_12_mechanical_drafting_learning_module
.pdf

2.2.1.4. Learning Activities

Below is a wash hand basin drawn in isometric view? As a trainee you are required to;
i. Identify and gather drawing equipment’s according to the below task
ii. Identify and gather drawing materials according to the task

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2.2.1.5. Self-Assessment
Exercise 1
Select the drafting material and tool/drawing applicable to a specific job.
1. A drafting tool used for drawing horizontal lines
a) Compass
b) Triangle
c) T-square
d) Triangular Scales
2. Drafting material used for fastening the drawing paper on the drawing table
a) Compass
b) Divider

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 c) Masking Tape
d) Triangle
3. The main function of this tool is to reproduce the measurements of an object to any
size.
a) Compass
b) Protractor
c) Triangle
d) Triangular Scales
4. This drafting tool is used to protect the rest of the drawing when removing
unnecessary lines.
a) Erasing Shield
b) Eraser
c) Masking Tape
d) Pencil Sharpener
5. This drafting tool is used when drawing vertical lines.
a) Compass
b) Triangle
c) Triangular Scales
d) Ruler

2.2.1.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’
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2.2.1.7. References
1. Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.
2. Maguire, C. H. (2004). Manual of Engineering drawing. Oxford: Elsevier Newnes.
3. Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lk-FBgadTyA
5. K.L Narayana, P.Kannaiah and K.venkata Reddy .(Third edition) Machine Drawing
:New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.

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Model answers.
1. A drafting tool used for drawing horizontal lines
C. T-square
2. Drafting material used for fastening the drawing paper on the drawing table
C.Masking Tape
3. The main function of this tool is to reproduce the measurements of an object to any
size.
D.Triangular Scales

4. This drafting tool is used to protect the rest of the drawing when removing
unnecessary lines
D. Erasing Shield

5. This drafting tool is used when drawing vertical lines.

B. Triangle

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2.2.2 Learning outcome 2:Develop plane geometry drawings

2.2.2.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working
drawings and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section
will give an understanding of the different types of working drawings, building
symbols and different representations of drawings.

2.2.2.2. Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be
considered competent:
1. Freehand sketching of different types of geometric forms and diagrams is conducted.
2. Different types of lines used in drawing and their meanings are identified according
to standard.
3. Drawing conventions.
4. Different types of geometric forms are constructed according to standard
conventions.
5. Different types of angles are constructed, measured, and bisected according to
principles of trigonometry.

2.2.2.3. Information Sheet

a) Terms and concepts
i. Freehand Sketching
Sketching or freehand is a first step to the preparation of a scale-drawing, i.e., a
drawing drawn with the aid of instruments. A designer records his ideas initially in
the form of sketches which are later converted into drawings. Similarly, views of
actual objects are in the first instance, sketched freehand.

Scale-drawings are then prepared from these sketches. Ideas and objects
can be described in words, but the description is made more expressive with the
aid of sketches. Thus sketching is of great importance in engineering practice.

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 Sketching is always done freehand. It is in fact a freehand drawing made in
Correct proportions, but not to scale. A sketch should be so prepared as to give
to others a clear idea, complete information, and true impression of the object to
be constructed. It should never be drawn too small. The size of a sketch should
be such that all the features of the object, together with their dimensions, explanatory
notes etc. are clearly incorporated in it. Proficiency in sketching can be achieved
with constant practice only.

ii. Axonometric
Method of projection in which an object is drawn with its horizontal and
Vertical axes to scale but with its curved lines and diagonals distorted
iii. Detailed drawing
Drawing of a detail part usually in orthographic projection
iv. Detail dimension
Measurements of the detail part or parts of the object
v. Dimensioning
Process of placing measurements in a drawing in the metric or English
System
vi. Isometric axes
Light lines used as bases in constructing an isometric view of an object
vii. Isometric drawing
Pictorial drawing showing the three views of the object tilted 30
degrees in front of the observer.
viii. Multi-view drawing
Drawing that shows more than one view of an object
ix. Notation
All lettering and other dimension found in a drawing or working sketch
x. Oblique drawing
Kind of pictorial drawing of an object one surface of which is shown
parallel to the frontal plane and the other is inclined to it.
xi. Orthographic projection
Presentation of an object in two or more views by projecting the
outline of the object to the plane of projection perpendicular to each other
xii. Overall dimension
The total width, height, and depth of the object
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xiii. Perspective drawing
A drawing which shows an object as it appears to our eyes
xiv. Pictorial view
The presentation of an object where it is viewed showing the three faces of
an object
xv. Working plan
A freehand drawing showing all the information needed to construct an
object.
xvi. Types of drawings
There are various drawings used in the construction sector, some of these are list
below:
Production drawing:
A production drawing is legal document of a manufacturer. It is used by the
technicians on the shopfloor for manufacturing the parts. It should provide
information about part number, dimensions, tolerance, surface finish, material and
stock size, manufacturing process, special finishing process if required, and no. off
required for each assembly. It is further sub-classified as:
 Part drawing or detailed drawing
 Assembly drawing.

Exploded Assembly Drawing

It represents the details of machine in a pictorial form as it is assembled. It helps the
plumber to dismantling machine for repairing purpose.

Schematic assembly drawing

This type of assembly drawing is used for explaining working principle of any
machine

Drawing for instructional manual

This is assembly drawing without dimensions. Each part of machine is numbered so
that it can be easily dismantled or assembled if required. This is also used for
explaining working principle of each part.

Drawing for installation

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 This is assembly drawing with overall dimensions. It is used for the preparation of
foundation for installing machine.

b) Types of lines in drawings

There are many lines used in technical drawing, the table below illustrates some of
them;
i. Visible line – a thick line that represents the visible edges or outline of the object;
also known as the object line
ii. Hidden line – a medium thick line composed of short dashes about 2-3 millimeters
long with space between dashes about 1-2 millimeters wide; it represents the surface
or edges that cannot be seen
iii. Center line – a thin line consisting of two long dashes and short dash drawn
alternately with a gap of at least 2 millimeters in between; it represents the axis or
center of symmetrical shapes like a ball, washer, rectangular block, cube.
iv. Section line – a thin lines to show the surface that has been cut; they are spaced
evenly at 45 degrees with the horizontal to make shaded effect
v. Extension line – a thin line that extends from the object to show dimension limits
vi. Dimension line – a thin line with an arrowhead in one end used to indicate the
Measurements of the object
vii. Long-break line – a medium thick line consisting of broken and straight lines drawn
alternately. This is also known as the limiting line. This limits the length of an
elongated object without changing the size of its view.
viii. Short-break line – thick line drawn in freehand to show details that a part has been
cut off or broken out.
ix. Leader line – a short inclined thin line with an arrowhead at the end and short
horizontal line on the other end.
x. Phantom line – a thin line that shows position(s) of part of an object that moves
drawn by two short dashes and one long dash.
xi. Cutting-plane line –thick lines used to indicate an imaginary cut through an object
along the line. Made up of two long dashes broken in one end with an arrowhead and
two short dashes drawn in between the long dashes.

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 Figure 22 Types of lines and their applications
c) Freehand sketching
A freehand sketch is a drawing in which all proportions and lengths are judged by eyes
and all lines are drawn without the use of drawing instruments. Comparing with
mechanical drawing, the use of freehand sketching in engineering
Communication provides the following advantages:
i. A better means of visualizing problems
ii. Organizing ideas more quickly
iii. Avoiding wasting of time on formal drawing methods
The following requirements are necessary for sketching materials in plumbing,
Sketching tools:
A sketch communicates information and does not have to be an exact drawing. Many
designs were visualized
on just a piece of paper or whatever is available. The tools that are used in freehand
sketching are:
i. Sketching paper cross-section paper or grid paper, help secure good proportions
and serve as guides in sketching lines

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 ii. Pencil medium lead (B) or soft lead (HB) type
iii. Eraser soft type
Above the three things are essential for sketching. Sometimes, cross-sectioned graph
paper ruled with light lines is also used instead of a plain paper. These lines and squares
help in drawing straight lines and maintaining proportions.
As such papers may not always be readily available, it is advisable to learn sketching
without their aid.
Freehand drawing is known as sketching. This technique is necessary in any area of
drafting and an important skill for everyone. Skills in freehand drawing can be achieved
through constant training and correct practice.

Use of pencils
Although freehand lines will never be perfectly straight and absolutely uniform along
their lengths, effort should be made to sketch distinct, black and uniform lines. Hints of
using pencils that help sketching to be made to approach exacting uniformity are as
follows:

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Line Sketching
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it needs only patience and continuous
Practice. Practice on a drawing paper the construction of following line without use of
instruments. When drawing straight lines, as on the left, rest the weight of your hand on
the backs of your fingers. When drawing curved lines, as on the right, rest the weight on
that part of your hand between the knuckle of your little finger and your wrist. This
provides a pivot about which to swing your pencil. Always keep your hand on the inside
of the curve, even if it means moving the paper around.

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 Figure 23 Freehand sketching technique (Source: H Morling)

Basic Line Sketching

Figure 24 Exercise 1 on drawing various lines in freehand

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Figure 25 Exercise 2 on freehand sketching

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Figure 26 Exercise 3

Figure 27 Exercise 4

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Pictorial Sketching
Freehand pictorial sketching looks very much like isometric drawing. Circles appear
as ellipses and lines are drawn at approximately 30 °. Circles have been sketched
onto an isometric cube in figure below. You can see how these same ellipses appear on
sketches of a round bar material.

Figure 28 Pictorial exercises

When sketching, you may find it an advantage to draw a faint ‘box’ first and draw in the
ellipses afterwards. With practice you should find that you can draw quite a good ellipse
if you mark out its centre lines and the major and minor axes. Although drawing is a
continuous process, the work can be divided into three basic stages.
Stage 1: Construction
This should be done with a hard pencil (3H), used lightly, and the strokes with the pencil
should be rapid. Slow movements produce wavy, uncertain lines. Since these
constructed lines are very faint, errors can easily be erased.
Stage 2: Lining in
Carefully line in with a soft pencil (HB), following the construction lines drawn in stage
1. The completion of stage 2 should give a drawing that shows all the details and you
may decide, particularly in an examination, not to proceed to stage 3

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 Figure 29 3 stages of freehand sketching
Stage 3: Shading
Shading brings a drawing to life. It is not necessary on most sketches, and in some
cases it may tend to hide details that need to be seen. If the drawings are to be displayed,
however, some shading should certainly be done.
Shading is done with a soft pencil (HB). It is very easy to overshade, so be careful. For
the smooth merging of shading, the dry tip of a finger can be gently rubbed

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over the area.

Figure 30 Divider Exercise

Figure 31 Bearing exercise

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 Figure 32 Gear Exercise

Sketching in Orthographic Projection

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 More detail can be seen on an orthographic drawing than on an isometric, mainly
because more than one view is drawn. For this reason it is often advantageous for a
draughts person to make an orthographic sketch. This will be undertaken below
Circles are difficult to draw freehand but you can use your hand as a compass. Hold
your pencil upright and, using your little finger as a compass ‘point’, revolve the paper
keeping your hand quite still.
d) Construction, measurement, and bisection of angles
The following constructions are important in preparation of drawing various
objects:
i. Construction of a parallel line parallel to another using compasses and T-
square

Figure 33 Construction of parallel lines

 Construct the given line,
 using compasses set to wanted distance apart,
 make two arcs at different point on the lines
 Join the want line by T-square at the top of the two arcs
ii. Bisection of a given line

Figure 34 Bisection of a line

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  Draw the given line using a T-square
 At each end of the line open the compasses approximately more than half and strike
two arcs that meet as shown
 Join the meeting arc points as shown
 Where the line is cut by the bisector is the middle point.
iii. To erect a perpendicular from a point on a line.

Figure 35 Construction of a perpendicular line

 Construct the given line using a T-square

 Using compasses with some distance from the line strike 2 arc on the line as
shown
 Using the compasses at the 2 arc, strike arc to meet as shown
 Using T-square and a set square perpendicularly construct a line through the arc
meeting point.
iv. To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line.

Figure 36 Electing a perpendicular line

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  Construct the line using a T-square
 With the compass at the given point extend it to cut the line at 2 points as shown
 At the 2 points open compasses to strike 2 arcs that meet above and below the
line
 Join the meeting points of the arcs as shown.

v. To bisect an angle.

Figure 37 Bisecting an Angle

 Construct the angle as shown
 With a compass mark an arc from the apex of the angle as shown
 Using the points of the arc at both sides of the angle strike arc to meet as
shown
 Draw the bisector from apex to arc meeting point
vi. To bisect the angle formed by two converging lines.

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 Figure 38 bisecting 2 converging angles
 Construct parallel lines to the two converging line as shown
 Bisect the angle as shown above
vii. To construct 60 °
 Construct a horizontal line as shown below using T-square
 Using compass strike an arc from a marked point on the line
 From the arc meeting point on the line strike an arc to cut the initial arc as
shown.
 Draw a line from the marked point on line through the arcs meeting point to
get 600 angle as shown

Figure 39 Constructing an angle of 600

viii. To construct an angle of 300

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 Figure 40 Construct an angle of 300
 This is done by constructing an angle of 600 and bisecting as shown
ix. To construct 90 °
 Construct a horizontal line as shown below
 With a compass mark a point on the line and draw a semi-circle on the line
 Mark from one end of semi-circle with same radius an arc which shows 60 0,
then another arc of 600 as shown
 Bisect the second 600 to get 300 as shown below

Figure 41 constructing an angle of 900

x. To construct 45 °

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 Figure 42 constructing an angle of 450
 Construct an angle of 900 and bisect as shown
xi. To divide a line into several equal parts (e.g. six).

Figure 43 divide a line into equal parts

 Construct the line using a T-square
 Construct another line at an angle from the start of the line downwards
 Divide the inclined line to same number of lines as the wanted number using a
compass
 Join the end point of inclined line to initial line
 Construct parallel lines from the marked inclined line to the original. This marks
the wanted divisions
xii. To divide a line proportionally (e.g. 1:2:4).

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 Figure 44 dividing a line proportionally
 Construct the given line using T-square
 Draw an inclined line and mark out the same number of equal arcs as the
total wanted part i.e. 1+2+3=6 parts
 Join the end of the marked inclined line to the horizontal line and at the ratio
point of point 1 and 2 construct parallel line to mark the ratio on the
horizontal line.
Numbers and Alphabets
In professional drawing, numbers and alphabets are used to present certain information.
They are written or drawn following some rules to ensure maximum legibility. Numbers
and alphabets can be presented either as vertical or slanting. Alphabets can either be
in upper case or in lower case.
The following are illustrations of presentation of numbers and letters of the alphabets.

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 Figure 45 Alphabets and numbers
Lettering in drawing
Lettering plays major role in engineering. It indicates details like dimensioning, naming of the
drawing, etc.The use of instruments for lettering is not advisable, as it will consume more time.
Free hand sketching is used instead
Rules and Features:
- Lettering in drawing must be of standard height. The standard heights of letters used are
3.5mm, 5mm, 7mm and 10mm.
Features:
The essential features of lettering used in engineering drawing are:
• Legibility
• Uniformity
• Similarity
Single stroke letters are the simplest form of letters and are generally used in engineering
drawing.

Vertical Lettering:
Vertical lettering is upright, i.e. 90 ( to the horizontal.
Both uppercase or large and lowercase or small letters are used.
Inclined Lettering:
Inclined lettering has letters inclined at 75° to the horizontal and as for vertical lettering both
uppercase and lowercase letters are used.

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The following are some of the rules to be observed in writing numbers and alphabets:
a) Avoid unnecessary details in writing numbers and alphabets.
b) Ensure that numbers and alphabets are properly spaced.
c) Ensure that the numbers and alphabets ft into the printing guidelines.
d) Use the right eraser or rubber when erasing.
e) Use the same alphabet style and casing on the same drawing.
f) Never use vertical and sloping numbers on the same drawing.
Dimensioning
In addition to providing complete shape description, must also furnish information
regarding the size description. These are provided through the distances between the
surfaces, location of holes, nature of surface finish, type of material, etc. The expression
of these features on a drawing, using lines, symbols, figures and notes is called
dimensioning.

Principles of dimensioning some of the basic principles of dimensioning are given below.
1. All dimensional information necessary to describe a component clearly and
completely shall be written directly on a drawing.
2. Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a drawing, i.e., dimension marked in
one view need not be repeated in another view.
3. Dimension should be placed on the view where the shape is best seen .
4. As far as possible, dimensions should be expressed in one unit only preferably in
millimeters, without showing the unit symbol (mm).
5. As far as possible dimensions should be placed outside the view .
6. Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines

e) Construction of geometric forms e.g. squares, circles

Two dimensional representations
These are representations which describe the length and area of an object. They are
created from orthographic projections. Examples of some of the two dimensional
representation are:
a) Square. b) Triangle. c) Parallelogram. d) Circle.
The construction of some of the two –dimensional figures are illustrated below

The Quadrilateral
Definitions
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The quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.

Types of quadrilaterals
i. A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and one of its angles (and
hence the other three) a right angle.
ii. A rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and one of its
angles (and hence the other three) a right angle.
iii. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel.
iv. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
v. A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
vi. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.

Square
A square is a figure with four straight equal sides and four angles of 90°. The following is a
procedure for constructing a square:
Procedure:
i. Draw a line AB to a given length and extend it past the point A and B,

ii. Construct perpendicular lines from points A and B.

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iii. Using a pair of compasses mark lengths equal to length AB on the perpendicular lines
from A and B and mark the new points C and D.
iv. Join points C to D.

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To construct a square given the diagonal
i. Draw the diagonal AC.
ii. Bisect AC.
iii. With centre O and radius OA (OC), draw a circle to cut the bisecting line in B
and D.
ABCD is the required square.

Figure 46 Construction of a square given diagonal

To construct a rectangle given the length of the diagonal and one of the sides
i.Draw the diagonal BD.
ii.Bisect BD.
iii.With centre O and radius OB (OD), draw a circle.
iv.With centre B and radius equal to the length of the known side, draw an arc to cut
the circle in C.
v.Repeat step 4 with centre D to cut at A.
ABCD is the required rectangle

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 Figure 47 Construction of a rectangle

To construct a parallelogram given two sides and an angle

i. Draw AD equal to the length of one of the sides.
ii. From A construct the known angle.
iii. Mark off AB equal in length to the other known side.
iv. With compass point at B, draw an arc equal in radius to AD.
v. With compass point at D, draw an arc equal in radius to AB.
ABCD is the required parallelogram.

Figure 48 Construction of a parallelogram

Circle

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A circle is a path of points equidistant from a fixed point. A circle is the locus of a point
which moves so that it is always a fixed distance from another stationary point. A circle
is constructed as illustrated below:
Procedure
i. Mark a point ‘C’, the centre of the circle by bisecting the given diameter.
ii. Open the compass to radius =AC=CB.
iii. Fix the pinned of the pair of compasses at the point ‘C’
iv. Rotate the penciled end of the pair of compasses through an angle of 360°, about
point C

Figure 49 Construction of a circle

Figure 50 Parts of a circle

Construction of a triangle
Definitions
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 The triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides.
Types of triangles
i. A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
ii. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides, and hence two angles, equal.
iii. An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides, and hence all the angles,
equal.
iv. A right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite
the right angle is called the ‘hypotenuse’.

Construction of an equilateral triangle

The following is a procedure for constructing an equilateral triangle.
i. Draw a line AB of a given length.

ii. With a pair of compasses mark an arc of length equal to AB, from point A and B
to meet at point C.
iii. Join points A to C and B to C.

Figure 51 Construction of an Isosceles triangle

Construction of an isosceles triangle
The following is a procedure for constructing an isosceles triangle.
i. Draw a line AB.

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 ii. From point A, draw a line inclined at a specified angle.
iii. From point B, draw a line BC inclined at an angle equal to that of AC.

Construction of a right-angled triangle.

The following is the procedure for construction a right-angled triangle:
i. Draw a line AB

ii. From A, draw a perpendicular line AC of a specified length.

iii. Join B to C

Figure 52 Construction of a right-angled triangle

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To construct an isosceles triangle given the perimeter and the altitude;
i. Draw line AB equal to half the perimeter.
ii. From B erect a perpendicular and make BC equal to the altitude.
iii. Join AC and bisect it to cut AB in D.
iv. Produce DB so that BE = BD. CDE is the required triangle.

Figure 53 Construction of an Isosceles tringle given perimeter

To construct a triangle, given the base angles and the altitude
i. Draw a line AB.
ii. Construct CD parallel to AB so that the distance between them is equal to the altitude.
iii. From any point E, on CD, draw C Ê F and D Ê G so that they cut AB in F and G,
respectively.

Figure 54 Construction of a tringle given angles and height

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 Polygons
Definitions
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides. Polygons that
are frequently referred to have names. Some of these are listed below.
A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.
A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
An octagon is a plane figure bounded by eight sides.
A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides.
A regular polygon is one that has all its sides equal and therefore all its exterior angles
equal and all its interior angles equal.
It is possible to construct a circle within a regular polygon so that all the sides of the
polygon are tangential to that circle. The diameter of that circle is called the
‘diameter of the polygon’. If the polygon has an even number of sides, the diameter is
the distance between two diametrically opposed faces. This dimension is often called the
‘across-flats’ dimension.
The diagonal of a polygon is the distance from one corner to the corner furthest away
from it. If the polygon has an even number of sides, then this distance is the dimension
between two diametrically opposed corners.
Constructions
i. To construct a regular hexagon given the length of the sides
a) Draw a circle, radius equal to the length of the side.
b) From any point on the circumference, step the radius around the circle six times.
If your construction is accurate, you will finish at the same place that you started.
c) Connect the six points to form a regular hexagon.

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 Figure 55 General Construction of a regular polygon given the side

ii. To construct a regular hexagon given the diameter

This construction, using compasses and straight edge only, is quite feasible but
Is relatively unimportant. What is important is to recognize that a hexagon can be
Constructed, given the diameter or across-flats dimension, by drawing tangents to the
Circle with a 60° set square. This is very important when drawing hexagonal-headed
Nuts and bolts.

Figure 56 Construction of a hexagon

iii. To construct a regular octagon given the diameter, i.e. within a given square
a. Construct a square PQRS, length of side equal to the diameter.

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 b. Draw the diagonals SQ and PR to intersect in T.
c. With centres P, Q, R and S draw four arcs, radius PT ( QT RT ST) to cut the
square in A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

Figure 57 Inserting Octagon in a square

ABCDEFGH is the required octagon
The following methods can be used to construct any polygon
To construct any given polygon, given the length of a side.
Procedure
i.Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the sides.
ii.Bisect GA.
iii.From A construct an angle of 45 ° to intersect the bisector at point 4.
iv.From G construct an angle of 60 ° to intersect the bisector at point 6.
v.Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 5.
vi.Point 4 is the centre of a circle containing a square. Point 5 is the centre of a circle
containing a pentagon. Point 6 is the centre of a circle containing a hexagon. By
marking off points at similar distances the centres of circles containing any regular
polygon can be obtained.

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 Figure 58 General construction of a polygon given a side
vii.Mark off point 7 so that 6 to 7 = 5 to 6 (= 4 to 5).
viii.With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 to A (= 7 to G).
ix.Step off the sides of the figure from A to B, B to C, etc.
ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.
To construct a regular polygon given a diagonal, i.e. within a given circle
i. Draw the given circle and insert a diameter AM.
ii. Divide the diameter into the same number of divisions as the polygon has sides.
iii. With centre M draw an arc, radius MA. With centre A draw another arc of the
same radius to intersect the first arc in N.
iv. Draw N2 and produce to intersect the circle in B (for any polygon).
v. AB is the first side of the polygon. Step out the other sides BC, CD, etc.

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 Figure 59 Construction of a polygon given diagonal
ABCDE is the required polygon.
f) Standards drawing conventions
Conventions are a widely used practices or procedure in engineering drawing, they are a
set of rules for drawing. Because drawings contain a lot of information, they can easily
become cluttered and not easily understood by all working with them. One way to keep
them tidy and consistent is to use standards and conventions.

Some of the conventions are:

i. Scaling
Sometimes we need to scale down some larger parts in order to see the whole
object on a single sheet and for detailed parts we may need to scale them up in
size in order to see the finer details.
ii. Dimensioning
Dimensioning is the convention used for adding measurement notes, such as the
length and breadth of the object, to a drawing. Dimensions include text, lines,
extension lines and arrowheads.
When an engineering drawing is made, dimensioning is of vital importance. All
the dimensions necessary to make the articles drawn must be on the drawing and
they must be presented so that they can be easily read, easily found, and not open
to misinterpretation. A neat drawing can be spoilt by bad dimensioning.
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 The conventions for drawing dimension lines are described below.

a) Projection lines should be thin lines and should extend from about 1 mm from
the outline to 3 mm to 6 mm past the dimension line.
b) The dimension line should be a thin line and terminate with arrowheads at least
3mm long and these arrowheads must touch the projection lines.
c) The dimension may be inserted within a break in the dimension line or be placed
on top of the dimension line.
d) The dimensions should be placed so that they are read from the bottom of the
paper or from the right-hand side of the paper.
e) Dimension lines should be drawn outside the outline, whenever possible, and
should be kept well clear of the outline.
f) Overall dimensions should be placed outside the intermediate dimensions.
g) Centre lines must never be used as dimension lines. They may be used as
projection lines
h) Diameters may be dimensioned in one of two ways. Either dimension directly
across the circle (not on a centre line) or project the diameter to outside the
outline. ‘Diameter’ is denoted by the symbol φ placed in front of the dimension.
i) When dimensioning a radius, you must, if possible, show the centre of the radius.
The actual dimension for the radius may be shown either side of the outline but
should, of course, be kept outside if possible. The word radius must be
abbreviated to R and placed in front of the dimension.
j) When a diameter or a radius is too small to be dimensioned by any of the above
methods, a leader may be used. The leader line should be a thin line and should
terminate on the detail that it is pointing to with an arrowhead or, within an
outline, with a dot. Long leader lines should be avoided even if it means inserting
another dimension. The leader line should always meet another line at an acute
angle.
k) Dimensions should not be repeated on a drawing. It is necessary to put a
dimension on only once, however many views are drawn. There is one exception
to this rule. If, by inserting one dimension, it saves adding up lots of small
dimensions then this is allowed.
l) These types of dimensions are called ‘auxiliary dimensions’ and are shown to be
so either by underlining the dimensions or putting it in brackets.

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m) Unless unavoidable, do not dimension hidden detail. It is usually possible to
dimension the same detail on another view.
n) When dimensioning angles, draw the dimension lines with a compass; the point
of the compass should be on the point of the angle. The arrowheads may be
drawn either side of the dimension lines, and the dimension may be inserted
between the dimension lines or outside them. Whatever the angle, the dimension
must be placed so that it can be read from either the bottom of the paper or from
the right-hand side.
o) If a lot of parallel dimensions are given, it avoids confusion if the dimensions are
staggered so that they are all easier to read.
p) If a lot of dimensions are to be shown from one projection line (often referred to
as a datum line), either of the methods shown in Fig. 18.20 may be used. Note
that in both methods, the actual dimension is close to the arrowhead and not at
the centre of the dimension line.
q) If most dimensions on a drawing are in one unit, it is not necessary to put on the
abbreviation for the units used, i.e. cm or mm. In this case, the following note
must be printed on your drawing.
UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, DIMENSIONS ARE IN
MILLIMETRES
r) If a very large radius is drawn, whose centre is off the drawing, the dimension
line is drawn with a single zigzag in it.
s) Dimensioning small spaces raises its own problems and solutions. Some
examples are shown in figure below. There are one or two more rules that do not
require illustrating.
t) If the drawing is to scale, the dimensions put on the drawing are the actual
dimensions of the component and not the size of the line on your drawing.

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 Figure 60 Sample dimensioning

iii. Title blocks

You need a title panel to identify the name of the person to whom the drawing
belongs as well as the name of the drawing, the scale at which it is drawn, and
the date that it was completed
Every drawing should include information which identifies the drawing. A title
block is often used to do this. It will contain information that includes the:

a) name of the person the drawing belongs to

b) date the drawing was completed
c) number of the drawing
d) scale at which it was drawn.
e) Title of drawing

The title block is usually placed at the bottom right of the drawing. However, it
may occupy the full width of the top or bottom of the paper to allow the drawing
to fit within the size of the drawing paper.

iv. Margins
Margins define the space where the drawings are to be done.
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 Your drawing must also be enclosed within a frame called a margin.
Before starting the drawing, a manual drawing template should be drawn up.
This will have the margins and the title block marked out and will allow you to
see how much drawing space you have before you start.

Figure 61 Paper Layout

v. Letters and Numbers

All drawings require some form of lettering and numbers. The principles to
remember are:
a) They should be legible and clear – especially numbers, as they often must be
read on their own.
b) They should be of a suitable size and not less than 3mm tall. Title blocks and
relative information are usually larger.
c) They should be correctly spaced and positioned. Notes and captions should
be placed so that they can be read in the same direction as in the title block.
In other worlds it should not be necessary to turn a drawing on its side to read
the information.
d) Notes should be grouped together and not spread over the drawing.
e) Underlining is not recommended.

vi. Abbreviations
A list of the standard abbreviations for some general engineering terms is shown

135
 below. These abbreviations are used to save time, and space on drawings.
Although the abbreviations are shown in block capital letters, small letters may
be used. For unit abbreviations always use small letters.
To read a drawing properly, and to understand what is happening, an agreed set
of graphical symbols and abbreviations are used. All the different trades have a
set of symbols pertaining to their respective works. The works of the plumber is
often referred to as the “Mechanical Services”.

2.2.2.4. Learning Activities

Study the isometric view below. Using the back side of grid paper, your engineering
notebook, or graph paper (as indicated by your instructor) recreate the isometric view for
practice. Be sure to use the techniques you have learned for sketching isometric circles
to sketch the arcs and circles in this view.

2.2.2.5. Self-Assessment
1. State the use of the following line;
i. Extension line
ii. Dimension line
iii. Long-break line
2. Construct the following angles;
i.
300
ii.
600

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 iii.
450
3. Explain the following types of triangles
i. A scalene triangle
ii. An isosceles triangle
iii. An equilateral triangle
iv. A right-angled triangle
4. Figure below shows a circle of diameter 80mm.

Construct a pentagon circumscribed by the circle.

5. Explain the following terms as used in polygons;

a) Pentagon
b) A hexagon
c) A heptagon
d) An octagon
e) A nonagon

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 f) A decagon
2.2.2.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’
2.2.2.7. References
Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.
Maguire, C. H. (2004). Manual of Engineering drawing. Oxford: Elsevier Newnes.
Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.

2.2.2.8. Model answers.

1. State the use of the following line;
i. Extension line – a thin line that extends from the object to show dimension limits
ii. Dimension line – a thin line with an arrowhead in one end used to indicate the
iii. Measurements of the object
iv. Long-break line – a medium thick line consisting of broken and straight lines drawn
2. Construct the following angles;
i. 300

138
ii. 600

iii. 450

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3. Explain the following types of triangles
i. A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
ii. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides, and hence two angles, equal.
iii. An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides, and hence all the angles,
equal.
iv. A right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite
the right angle is called the ‘hypotenuse’.

4. Figure below shows a circle of diameter 80mm. Construct a pentagon circumscribed by the
circle.

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5. Explain the following terms as used in polygons;
i. Pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.
ii. A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
iii. A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
iv. An octagon is a plane figure bounded by eight sides.
v. A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
vi. A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides.

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 2.2.3 Learning outcome 3: Develop solid geometry drawings

2.2.3.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working
drawings and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section will
give an understanding of the different types of working drawings, building symbols and
different representations of drawings.

2.2.3.2. Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be
considered competent:
1. Pattern drawings are interpreted according to standard conventions
2. Solid Geometry drawings are constructed according to given plane geometry

2.2.3.3. Information Sheet

a) Terms and concepts
i. Auxiliary view
This is when a view is projected on a plane that is parallel to the surface of the
principal view. To see the true size of the surface the view must be shown at
right angles to that surface. This is an Auxiliary view. Auxiliary views are often
used to show the inclined surfaces true size
ii. Development
A layout of the complete surface of an object i.e it is the method of unfolding or
unrolling a geometrical shape into a plane shape.
iii. Dimensioning
Process of placing measurements in a drawing in the metric or English
System
iv. Isometric axes
Light lines used as bases in constructing an isometric view of an object
v. Isometric drawing
Pictorial drawing showing the three views of the object tilted 30
Degrees in front of the observer.
vi. Multi-view drawing
Drawing that shows more than one view of an object
vii. Notation
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 All lettering and other dimension found in a drawing or working sketch
viii. Oblique drawing
Kind of pictorial drawing of an object one surface of which is shown
parallel to the frontal plane and the other is inclined to it.
ix. Orthographic projection
Presentation of an object in two or more views by projecting the
outline of the object to the plane of projection perpendicular to each other
x. Overall dimension
The total width, height, and depth of the object
xi. Perspective drawing
A drawing which shows an object as it appears to our eyes
xii. Pictorial view
The presentation of an object where it is viewed showing the three faces of
an object
xiii. Truncated Object
It is a geometrical object that has been cut
xiv. Working plan

A freehand drawing showing all the information needed to construct an

Object.

b) Interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns e.g. cylinders, prisms, and

pyramids

Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection is a way of drawing an 3D object from different directions. Usually a
front, side and plan view are drawn so that a person looking at the drawing can see all the
important sides. Orthographic drawings are useful especially when a design has been developed
to a stage whereby it is almost ready to manufacture.
There are two ways of drawing in orthographic - First Angle and Third Angle. They differ only
in the position of the plan, front and side views. Below is an example of First Angle projection.
Opposite is a simple L-shape, drawn in three dimensions.
The front, side and plan views have drawn around the 3D shape. However this is not the correct
way of drawing them as they are not in the right positions.

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 First angle orthographic

Figure 62 Example of orthographic views of an L shape figure

The correct method of presenting the three views, in first angle orthographic projection is
shown below. The drawing is composed of a front, end, and plan view of the L-shaped object.
The first drawing is the front view (drawn looking straight at the front of the L-shape), the
second is a drawing of the L-shape seen from the side (known as side view) and last of all a
drawing from above known as a plan view. The red lines are faint guidelines and they are drawn
to help keep each view in line, level, and the same size.
The correct first angle projection of the L shape is shown below

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 First angle projection convention
Figure 63 First angle projection views of the L shape
The views are obtained as by imagining you are standing directly in front of the L-shape, the
drawing below shows exactly what you would see.

Figure 64 Front Elevation

The end elevation is obtained as shown below from a side view

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 Figure 65 End Elevation obtained from the side view
The plan is obtained by viewing from the top as shown below

Figure 66 Plan view from the top

Third angle projection

An L-shaped object.
The Plan View of the L-shape is drawn as a 'birds eye' view, a view from above.
The Front View is drawn as if stood in front of the L-shape.
The Side View is drawn as if stood at the side.
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The following figures show another metal block with the views in third angle and then first
angle projection.

Third Angle projection convention symbol

Figure 67 Third angle orthographic projection of the L shape
The only difference is the positioning of the end elevation and plan views, the process of
viewing is similar.

Figure 68 Third angle projection of a metal block

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 The figure above on the right shows a isometric view of a metal block where we are
required to draw orthographic views of the front elevation (FE), 2 end elevations
(EE) and plan from the top as indicated by the arrows.
The figure on the left shows the solution to the question and the views are projected
by using the third angle projection

Figure 69 First angle orthographic projection

Figure above shows the same figure using first angle projection
c) Develop geometrical solid figures e.g. prisms, cones, surface development

Principle of Development
Every line on the development should show the true length of the corresponding line on the
surface which is developed.
Methods of Development
i. Parallel-line development.
Used for developing prisms and cylinders.
ii. Radial-line development.
For developing pyramids and cones.
iii. Triangulation development.
For developing transition pieces.
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 iv. Approximate development.
For developing spheres.
Cylinder
Draw the development of the complete surface of a cylinder. Diameter is 40 mm and
the height is 70 mm.

Figure 70 Development of a cylinder

Prism
Develop the complete surface of a square prism of side of base 40 mm and height 80
mm.

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 Figure 71 Square Prism development

Pyramid
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a square pyramid, side of base 30 mm
and height 50 mm, resting with its base on H.P. All edge of the base are equally inclined
to V.P.

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 Figure 72 Pyramid development
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a square pyramid, side of base 30 mm
and height 50 mm, resting with its base on H.P. Two of its base edge are equally parallel
to V.P.

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 Figure 73 Square pyramid development 2
Cone
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a cone, base diameter 50 mm and height
70 mm, resting with its base on H.P.

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 Figure 74 Cone development
Development of truncated cylinders, prisms, pyramids, and cones

Development of a truncated right circular cylinder

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 Figure 75 Truncated cylinder development
Development of a truncated prism

Figure 76 Truncated Prism Development

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Development of truncated cone

Figure 77 Truncated Cone development

Development of truncated pyramid

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 Figure 78 Truncated Pyramid development

2.2.3.4. Learning Activities

i. In which direction must the object be viewed to produce the views shown opposite, taking
‘A’ as the FRONT VIEW. Put the appropriate letter under the view.

ii. Study the two drawings and complete the table by matching the numbered surfaces of the
orthogonal drawing with the lettered surfaces of the isometric drawing.

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iii. Transfer the letters from the isometric drawing onto the same plane surfaces of the
orthogonal drawing. Name each view.

iv. Select the view which is requested in the table below. Place the number of this
view in the appropriate position in the table.

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 2.2.3.5. Self-Assessment
1. Explain the following terms;
i. Pictorial view
ii. Truncated Object
iii. Working plan

2. Draw the third angle projection convention symbol.

3. Draw FULL SIZE in first angle projection the three orthographic views of the
block.

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2.2.3.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’
2.2.3.7. References

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Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.
Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.
2.2.3.8. Model Answers
1. Explain the following terms;
i. Pictorial view
The presentation of an object where it is viewed showing the three faces
of
an object
ii. Truncated Object
It is a geometrical object that has been cut
iii. Working plan

A freehand drawing showing all the information needed to construct an

object.
2. Draw the third angle projection convention symbol.

3. Draw FULL SIZE in first angle projection the three orthographic views of the
block.

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 2.2.4 Learning outcome 4: Develop orthographic and pictorial drawings

3.2.4.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working
drawings and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section will
give an understanding of the different types of working drawings, building symbols and
different representations of drawings.

3.2.4.2. Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be considered
competent:

1. Symbols and abbreviations are identified and interpreted according to standard drawing
conventions
2. First and third angle orthographic drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance
with the standard conventions
3. Orthographic elevations are dimensioned in accordance with standard conventions
4. Isometric drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance with standard
conventions

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 5. Oblique drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance to standard conventions
3.2.4.3. Information Sheet

a) Terms and concepts

i. Plumbing drawing
Type of technical drawing used to visually represent and inform on a plumbing system
conveying the engineering design to plumbers or other workers who install the plumbing
system.
ii. Design drawing
Used to develop ideas about a new or developing design
iii. Concept drawings
These are sketches or drawings often freehand done, used by designers such as architects,
engineers, and designers as a quick and simple way of exploring initial ideas for designs.
iv. Parallel Projection
These are projections where the line of sight or projectors are parallel and are perpendicular
to the picture planes. It is subdivided in to the following three categories:
 Orthographic,
 Oblique and
 Axonometric Projections.

v. Orthographic projections
These are multi view drawings, which show flat representations of principal
views of an object.
vi. Oblique Projections
“a projective drawing of which the frontal lines are given in true proportions and relations
and all others at suitable angles other than 90 degrees without regard to the rules of linear
perspective.” According to Mirriam webster dictionary.
vii. Axonometric Projections:
Axonometric projection creates a true plan set at 45º, which retains the original orthogonal
geometry of the plan. It is particularly suitable for representing interior designs, such as
kitchen layouts. Planning drawings can also be effective represented as axonometric
projections, showing the relationships between buildings and topography.
These are three-dimensional drawings that falls into three classifications:
 Isometric,
 Dimetric and
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  Trimetric.
viii. Isometric drawing
The isometric was the standard view until the mid-20th century. Unlike the axonometric
projection, the isometric plan view is slightly distorted, using a plan grid at 30º from the
horizontal in both directions. It can be used to show the nature of the design and explain
construction details more clearly than an orthographic projection. It is sometimes used
during concept design to help the client grasp the mass of the proposal.

b) Free hand sketching

i. Purpose of Technical Drawings

To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one must understand the design process. The
design process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in accomplishing a needed design.
Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled, constructed, built, or subjected to
any other types of conversion process must first be designed. For example, a house must be
designed before it can be built.
ii. Application of Technical Drawing
Technical drawings are used in many different applications. They are needed in any setting,
which involves design, and in any subsequent forms of conversion process. The most common
applications of technical drawings can be found in the fields of manufacturing, engineering, and
construction.
For instance, Surveyors, civil engineers, plumber use technical drawings to document such
works as the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marking of the boundaries for a piece of
property. Contractors and construction personnel use technical drawings as their blueprints in
converting architectural and engineering designs into reality

c) Pictorial and orthographic drawings

d) Meaning of symbols and abbreviations
e) Drawing and interpretation of orthographic elevations
f) Dimensioning of orthographic elevations
g) Conversion of orthographic to pictorial

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g) Freehand sketching
A freehand sketch is a drawing in which all proportions and lengths are judged by eyes
and all lines are drawn without the use of drawing instruments. Comparing with
mechanical drawing, the use of freehand sketching in engineering
Communication provides the following advantages:
iv. A better means of visualizing problems
v. Organizing ideas more quickly
vi. Avoiding wasting of time on formal drawing methods
The following requirements are necessary for sketching materials in plumbing,
Sketching tools:
A sketch communicates information and does not have to be an exact drawing. Many
designs were visualized
on just a piece of paper or whatever is available. The tools that are used in freehand
sketching are:
iv. Sketching paper cross-section paper or grid paper, help secure good proportions
and serve as guides in sketching lines
v. Pencil medium lead (B) or soft lead (HB) type
vi. Eraser soft type
Above the three things are essential for sketching. Sometimes, cross-sectioned graph
paper ruled with light lines is also used instead of a plain paper. These lines and squares
help in drawing straight lines and maintaining proportions.
As such papers may not always be readily available, it is advisable to learn sketching
without their aid.
Freehand drawing is known as sketching. This technique is necessary in any area of
drafting and an important skill for everyone. Skills in freehand drawing can be achieved
through constant training and correct practice.

Use of pencils
Although freehand lines will never be perfectly straight and absolutely uniform along
their lengths, effort should be made to sketch distinct, black and uniform lines. Hints of
using pencils that help sketching to be made to approach exacting uniformity are as
follows:

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Line Sketching
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it needs only patience and continuous
Practice. Practice on a drawing paper the construction of following line without use of
instruments. When drawing straight lines, as on the left, rest the weight of your hand on
the backs of your fingers. When drawing curved lines, as on the right, rest the weight on
that part of your hand between the knuckle of your little finger and your wrist. This
provides a pivot about which to swing your pencil. Always keep your hand on the inside
of the curve, even if it means moving the paper around.\

Pictorial Sketching

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Freehand pictorial sketching looks very much like isometric drawing. Circles appear
as ellipses and lines are drawn at approximately 30 °. Circles have been sketched
onto an isometric cube in figure below. You can see how these same ellipses appear on
sketches of a round bar material.

Figure 79 Pictorial exercises

When sketching, you may find it an advantage to draw a faint ‘box’ first and draw in the
ellipses afterwards. With practice you should find that you can draw quite a good ellipse
if you mark out its centre lines and the major and minor axes. Although drawing is a
continuous process, the work can be divided into three basic stages.
Stage 1: Construction
This should be done with a hard pencil (3H), used lightly, and the strokes with the pencil
should be rapid. Slow movements produce wavy, uncertain lines. Since these
constructed lines are very faint, errors can easily be erased.
Stage 2: Lining in
Carefully line in with a soft pencil (HB), following the construction lines drawn in stage
1. The completion of stage 2 should give a drawing that shows all the details and you
may decide, particularly in an examination, not to proceed to stage 3

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 Figure 80 3 stages of freehand sketching
Stage 3: Shading
Shading brings a drawing to life. It is not necessary on most sketches, and in some
cases it may tend to hide details that need to be seen. If the drawings are to be displayed,
however, some shading should certainly be done.
Shading is done with a soft pencil (HB). It is very easy to overshade, so be careful. For
the smooth merging of shading, the dry tip of a finger can be gently rubbed

167
over the area.

Figure 81 Divider Exercise

Figure 82 Bearing exercise

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 Figure 83 Gear Exercise

Sketching in Orthographic Projection

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 More detail can be seen on an orthographic drawing than on an isometric, mainly
because more than one view is drawn. For this reason it is often advantageous for a
draughts person to make an orthographic sketch. This will be undertaken below
Circles are difficult to draw freehand but you can use your hand as a compass. Hold
your pencil upright and, using your little finger as a compass ‘point’, revolve the paper
keeping your hand quite still.

Orthographic projections

First and third angle projection

This is a graphical method used in engineering drawings. The word orthographic is derived
from the Greek words orthos-straight, rectangular and graphos-written, drawn. A drawing of a
structure or part thereof can be drawn using the following projection methods:
(a) orthogonal (b) oblique and/or (c) perspective

There are two methods of drawing orthographic projections:

1) first angle projection and 2) third angle projection

They are based on right angle planes with defined separate spaces , or quadrants. Each quadrant
could obtain an object to be presented. However, only two are commonly used, the first and the
third as shown .
Both systems of projection are approved
internationally and the system used is
clearly indicated on all engineering
drawings with the following illustrations:

170
Figure 84: Orthographic Projection

In which projection architectural and builders working drawings are represented is generally
insignificant. Nearly all of those drawings do not indicate in which projection they are drawn
and it really does not matter. However, it is important that you understand the basic principles
of orthographic projection and be able to construct orthographic views of objects.

The easiest way to explain the development of a

orthographic drawing is to place an object in a glass cube
as shown in the opposite figure. The object surfaces are
then projected on the faces of the cube. The cube like any
card box can be unfolded so that all six surface areas are
shown as blow.

Figure 85: Views

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 The figure below shows the unfolded box with the same object as shown.

Figure 86: Unfolded Box

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How to draw objects or components

Adopt the method below for drawing building objects or components.

Choose which view or direction or face will
be used as the font view of the object or
component.

The object or component you chose for the

front view should have the longest straight
edge..

From the bottom edge of the front view

draw feint construction lines @ 45° as
shown in Step 1

Carry on finishing the top view. Start a line

below the front view with sufficient
distance for dimensioning of the object or
component.

Complete the top view

Use faint construction lines and draw the

outline of the side views as shown in Step 2

Complete the side view with the aid of

construction lines as shown in Step 3

Always use this method for drawing objects

or components.
Figure 87: How to Draw objects/components

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In Drawing 1 you will draw a number of different objects. The views should always be aligned
with each other allowing sufficient space between the views for dimensions (see Step 1 - Figure
6). Lines that cannot be seen in a specific view are hidden and shown as dashed lines.

Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection shows the views of an object in three different positions,
namely:
PLAN – ELEVATION – END VIEW.
The plan is an outline of the object when viewed from above.
The elevation is what is seen when looking from the front.
The end view shows the view from one of the ends.
Orthographic projection is generally not used in the construction industry. It is more
commonly found in the engineering sector where precise measurement is essential.
Try drawing the object below in orthographic projection i.e. draw a plan (z) an elevation
(x) and an end view (y).

174
 Figure 88 Orthographic views
Isometric Projection

In isometric projection all the horizontal lines are drawn at 30° to the horizontal plane
while vertical lines are drawn vertical.

Figure 89 Isometric axis

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 Figure 90 Isometric Box
Isometric projection embraces the three views from orthographic projection in the one
drawing. In the drawing of the matchbox below you can see the plan, elevation, and
end view.
Procedure for making an Isometric box
i. Draw a light horizontal baseline and a vertical line to represent the nearest
corner.
‘A’ of the box.

Oblique drawing
This is a representation such that the edge of one face is parallel to the horizontal
reference line and the other edges are elevated at an angle of 45°

176
 Figure 91 Oblique Box

Perspective drawing

Parallel – Parallel lines are lines that never touch… even if they are extended indefinitely.
Horizontal Lines – Lines drawn from side to side level with the horizon. Horizontal lines will
be parallel the top and bottom edges of your paper.
Vertical Lines – Lines drawn up and down and perpendicular (right-angled) to the
horizon. Vertical lines should be parallel to the sides of your paper.
Slanted Lines – Lines that are neither vertical nor horizontal; slanted lines are diagonal.
Horizon Line – The horizon line is a special horizontal line that represents eye level to the
viewer.
Vanishing Point – A point on the horizon line where all perspective lines meet.
Perspective Lines (orthogonal lines) – The lines that meet at the vanishing point. Perspective
lines are parallel in real life but converge in a one point perspective drawing.
One Point Perspective

One Point Perspective is a type of linear perspective that uses a single vanishing point to create
the illusion of depth in a work of art.

Abbreviations
A list of the standard abbreviations for some general engineering terms is shown
below. These abbreviations are used to save time, and space on drawings.
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Although the abbreviations are shown in block capital letters, small letters may
be used. For unit abbreviations always use small letters.
To read a drawing properly, and to understand what is happening, an agreed set of graphical
symbols and abbreviations are used. All the different trades have a set of symbols pertaining to
their respective works. The works of the plumber is often referred to as the “Mechanical
Services”.

Abbreviations for Pipe Rises/Drops

Figure 92 Abbreviations for Pipe Rises/Drops

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179
Dimensioning
180
By dimensions, the shape and size of an object are explained. A worker can complete the job
according to the dimensioning.
If the size of an object is represented then such a measurement is called Size
Dimension, Similarly, if the place of an object is represented then such a measurement is called
Location Dimension.
If the dimension is written in the same direction in the whole drawing, then such method is
called Unidirectional Method.
If the dimension is written in two directions, then such method is called Aligned Method.
In addition to this, if dimension it is written parallel to the central line, then such method is
called Base Line Method.
The beauty of a drawing depends on the beauty of dimensioning.

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Types of Dimensioning.
There are two types of writing dimensions on a drawing.
1. Size Dimension.
2. Location Dimension.

1. Size Dimension:
In this type of dimension, the external size of an object is represented. Also, the sizes of
different parts of a drawing are shown there.

182
This shows the length, breadth, and height.
Such a dimensioning is represented mostly by the front view.
2. Location Dimension:
In this type of dimensioning, the distances between different parts of the object and the
distances between the centers of circles are shown.
In addition to this, the distance of the center of a circle or that of any other part from some
particular point is represented.
Location dimension is divided into three different ways:
1. Center to Center Distance.
2. Center to Surface Distance.
3. Surface to Surface Distance.

Order of Dimensioning.
After completing a drawing, the following order is to be kept in mind.
This makes a drawing beautiful. It also saves time.
1. Drawing of Extension Line.
2. Drawing of Dimension Line.
3. Drawing of Arrow Heads.
4. Writing of Numerical Value.
5. Drawing of Cutting Plane Line.
6. Drawing of Leader Line.
7. Drawing of Center Line.
8. Writing of Notes and Specifications.
Systems of Dimensioning.
Following are the three systems of writing dimension.
1. Unidirectional Method.
2. Aligned Method.
3. Base Line Method.
1. Unidirectional Method:
This method is mostly used in dimensioning. In this method, the whole dimension is written in
the same direction in the whole drawing.
2. Aligned Method:
In this method of dimensioning, it is written in two directions in the whole drawing.
It is written upward and at the right side and is read from the bottom and right side of a drawing.
183
Its advantage is this that the dimensions can be written in the horizontal direction which is very
easy to write.

3. Base Line Method:

In this method of dimensioning, baseline is used to write the dimension of various parts of a
drawing. Then all the dimensions are written parallel to the base line.
In writing dimension, the smallest one is written to the side of the object, and the biggest one is
written on the external side of the object.
All other dimensions are written in between them.
In this system, the chances of mistake are very rare.

184
Elements of Dimensioning.
For any drawing to be workable, it is necessary that all the needful dimensions should be
written on it, so that all information could be used properly.
For this purpose, the following elements are written down.
1. Dimension Line.
2. Extension Line.
3. Center Line.
4. Leader Line.
5. Arrow Head.
6. Numbers.
1. Dimension Line:
A Dimension Line is drawn for a given dimension of an object. This line should be at a distance
from 10 mm to 15 mm from the object line.
For writing a dimension, this line is broken from the middle, and the dimension is written in the
middle space. Alternatively, the dimension is written on it after its completion.
2H or 4H pencil is used for this purpose.
2. Extension Line:
185
Such lines which are drawn extending from the ends of a part of a drawing so that the
dimension can be written in between them are called extension lines.
2H or 4H pencil is used for this purpose.
There should be a distance of 1 mm between them and the object line.
3. Center Line:
Such a line is used to represent the center of a cylindrical part of a drawing.
For example, a hole shaft, etc.
This should be extended up to 1 mm distance from the object line.
4. Leader Line:
Any note or specification is written on an object with the help of this line. This is drawn with
2H or 4H Pencil.
It consists of a circle and a leader.
5. Arrow Head:
This is used at the ends of a dimension and the end of a leader. The length of the arrow-head
used in engineering drawing 3 mm.
6. Numbers:
After the completion of any geometric shape of an object, the writing of its size is desired.
Numbers are used for this purpose. The height of the number is kept 3 mm.

186
Principles of Dimensioning.
After completing a drawing, it is necessary that its measurements and notes should be written in
such a way that they can be read easily.
Follow are the Principles that have been devised for this purpose.
1. The dimensions should be given on such view which illustrates the true shape and size of an
object.
2. As far as possible the dimensions should be given outside a view but can be given inside as
well if unavoidable.
3. All the dimensions are given in group form. Scattering of these is not correct.
4. The dimensions should be intelligibly written.
5. All the dimensions should be written parallel to the object line and the numbers should be
written such that they could be read easily.
6. The dimensions should not be repeated unless necessary.
7. The unnecessary dimensions should be avoided.

187
8. The extension and dimension lines should not intersect in any case.
9. While giving dimension after completing a drawing, it should be kept in mind that no unit
should be written with any number.

3.2.4.4. Learning activities

Below is a single line pictorial view o a dwelling house. With the help of your trainer, you are
required to develop it in third and first and label it using the dimensioning methods learned.

`
3.2.4.5. Self-Assessment
1. State any three elements of dimensioning.
2. State two types of writing dimensions

3. Figure below shows a pictorial drawing of a shaped block. To a scale of 1:1 ,

draw three orthographic views of the block in 3'd angle projection. Dimensions.

188
4. State any three principles of dimensioning.
3.2.4.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers

189
 x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’

3.2.4.7. References

Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.

3.2.4.8. Model Answers.

1. State any three elements of dimensioning.
 Dimension Line.
 Extension Line.
 Center Line.
 Leader Line.
 Arrow Head.
 Numbers.
2. State two types of writing dimensions
 Size Dimension.
 Location Dimension.

3. Figure below shows a pictorial drawing of a shaped block. To a scale of 1:1 , draw three
orthographic views of the block in 3'd angle projection. Dimensions

190
4. state any three principles of dimensioning.
 The dimensions should be given on such view which illustrates the true
shape and size of an object.
 As far as possible the dimensions should be given outside a view but can
be given inside as well if unavoidable.
 All the dimensions are given in group form. Scattering of these is not
correct.
 The dimensions should be intelligibly written.
 All the dimensions should be written parallel to the object line and the
numbers should be written such that they could be read easily.
 The dimensions should not be repeated unless necessary.
 The unnecessary dimensions should be avoided.

191
  The extension and dimension lines should not intersect in any case.

2.2.5 Learning outcome 5:Apply computer Aided design

3.2.5.1. Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working drawings and
their purpose during the planning of plumbing works by the use of computer software to design
and document a products design process.
3.2.5.2. Performance Standard
The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be considered
competent:

1. Plane geometry drawings are developed using CAD

2. Geometry drawings are developed using CAD
3. Orthographic drawings are developed using CAD

3.2.5.3. Information Sheet

CADD is an electronic tool that enables us to make quick and accurate drawings with the use of
a computer. Drawings created with CADD have a number of advantages over drawings created
on a drawing board. CADD drawings are neat, clean and highly presentable.
a) Terms and concepts
Chamfer Creates a chamfered corner at the intersection of two selected lines
Ortho mode
Is the mode which is used for vertical axis.
Orthographic Projection The method of showing 2 or more views of same part in drawing a
term used is orthographic projection.
Pan-is terminology used to move around drawing by dragging drawing area around your
screen.
Polar coordinates-to input point based on distance and angle in your drawing.
Snap-this is the drawing mode that allows you to snap your cursor to precise points laid out in
a grid pattern.
CAD
Computer-Aided Design, a term usually applied to the software.

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CADD
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting.

CAE
Computer-Aided Engineering.

Callout
An annotation typically comprised of a leader line and a balloon.

CAM
Type of gear used to achieve irregular motion.
Coordinates / Coordinate System
A set of magnitudes represented as x, y, and z, coordinates that determine the relative
positioning of an object within the drawing space.
Coplanar surface
A given number of surfaces that follow the same planar path.

Cross Section
A 2D, cut-through view of a 3D object.

Draft
Typically used to describe the 2D and isometric line drawings created from 3D objects and
engineering drawings.

Draftsman/Draftsperson
The person responsible for creating drafts.
Engineering Drawings
2D drawings generated for manufacturing.
Entity
A given single object in a drawing. Does not include things like text style or dictionary items.
Exploded view/Exploded drawing
A 2D visualization of a disassembled assembly.

Extrude
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A technique of dragging a 2D dimensional boundary, face or polygon into a 3D object, either
along a single axis or with a taper.
(Sourced from https://blog.bricsys.com/tuesday-tips-glossary-of-cad-terms/)
Introduction
The term computer aided design (CAD) refers to the use of computers to create graphical
representations of physical objects to assist in the design process. It can also refer to the use of
computers to prepare presentational images or to prepare production information enabling
objects to be manufactured, although sometimes this is referred to as computer aided drafting
as it does not necessarily involve designing. In combination, these processes may be referred to
as computer-aided design and drafting (CADD).

CAD can be used to create 2D or 3D representations and can also be used to generate
animations and other presentational material. It may allow the addition of supplementary
information such as dimensions, descriptions of components, references to specifications and
so on.

Specialist CAD software is available for specific purposes, and a wide range of software
applications have been developed for use in the design and construction of built assists such as
buildings.
Computer aided manufacturing
The combination of computer aided draughting and computer aided manufacturing (CAM) has
allowed computer numerical control (CNC) of highly automated end-to-end component design
and manufacture. Computers can produce files that translate design information into commands
to operate machines, singularly or collectively, to perform pre-set sequences of tasks in the
production of building components.

See Computer aided manufacturing for more information.

More recently, the range of possibilities has been increased further by the introduction of
economically viable 3D printing.
BIM

The introduction of building information modelling (BIM) allows further reduction of errors
and improvement to the quality of information and can enable the automatic generation of
quantities, cost estimates, ordering and tracking information.
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BIM is a very broad term that describes the process of creating and managing a digital model of
a building or other facility (such as a bridge, highway, tunnel, and so on), which includes:

Level 0: Unmanaged CAD.

Level 1: Managed CAD in 2D or 3D.
Level 2: Managed 3D environment with data attached but created in separate discipline
models.
Level 3: Single, online, project model with construction sequencing, cost and lifecycle
management information.

See Building information modelling for more information.

Common standards and collaborative practices

Particularly important to the effective use of CAD is the ability to share and re-use information,
and this requires the disciplined application of agreed standards of drawing preparation across
project teams. This means that the effective use of CAD is as much about collaborative
practices as it is about software.

Project standards can be formalised as standard methods and procedures (SMP's) which should
be agreed as early in the project as possible and should describe how information is structured,
how it will be produced and how it will be managed and exchanged.

The SMP might include agreed standards and procedures for:

 Software.
 Layering.
 Zoning.
 Co-ordination
 Origin.
 Orientation.
 Fonts, line types and weights.
 Dimensions, abbreviations and symbols.
 File structure and file naming.
 Standard templates (for example, drawing titles).

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  Page sizes and scales.
 Permissions and change control procedures.

The great variety in the extent to which CAD and building information modelling can be used
on a project means that it is important to clearly define what is expected and to set this out in
tender documents and appointment documents.

b) Geometry drawings
c) Orthographic drawings

4.1 Plane geometry drawings are developed using CAD

Introduction to CAD
Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) is a process of preparing a drawing of an object on the screen
of a computer. There are various types of drawings in different fields of engineering and
sciences.
In the fields of mechanical or aeronautical engineering, the drawings of machine components
and the layouts of them are prepared. In the field of civil engineering, plans and layouts of the
buildings are prepared. In the field of electrical engineering, the layouts of power distribution
systems are prepared. In all fields of engineering use of computer is made for drawing and
drafting.
The use of CAD process provides enhanced graphics capabilities which allows any designer
To:
 Conceptualize his ideas
 Modify the design very easily
 Perform animation
 Make design calculations
 Use colors, fonts and other aesthetic features.

Reasons for Implementing a CAD System

a) Increases the productivity of the designer: CAD improves the productivity of the
designer to visualize the product and its component, parts and reduces the time required in
synthesizing, analyzing and documenting the design
b) Improves the quality of the design: CAD system improves the quality of the design.

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 A CAD system permits a more detailed engineering analysis and a larger number of design
alternatives can be investigated. The design errors are also reduced because of the greater
accuracy provided by the system
c) Improves communication: It improves the communication in design. The use of a
CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more standardization in the drawing,
better documentation of the design, few drawing errors and legibility.
d) Create data base for manufacturing: In the process of creating the documentation
for these products, much of the required data base to manufacture the products is also
created.
e) Improves the efficiency of the design: It improves the efficiency of the design process and
the wastage at the design stage can be reduced.

APPLICATION OF CAD:
There are various processes which can be performed by use of computer in the drafting process:
a) Automated drafting: This involves the creation of hard copy engineering drawings
directly from CAD data base. Drafting also includes features like automatic dimensioning,
generation of cross – hatched areas, scaling of the drawing and the capability to develop
sectional views and enlarged views in detail. It has ability to perform transformations of
images and prepare 3D drawings like isometric views, perspective views etc.,
b) Geometric modeling: concerned with the computer compatible mathematical
Description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical description allows the image of
an object to be displayed and manipulated on a graphics terminal through signals from the
CPU of the CAD system. The software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be
designed for efficient use both by computer and the human designer.

BENEFITS OF CAD:
The implementation of the CAD system provides variety of benefits to the industries
in design and production as given below:
 Improved productivity in drafting
 Shorter preparation time for drawing
 Reduced manpower requirement
 Customer modifications in drawing are easier
 More efficient operation in drafting
 Low wastage in drafting

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  Minimized transcription errors in drawing
 Improved accuracy of drawing
 Assistance in preparation of documentation
 Better designs can be evolved
 Revisions are possible
 Colours can be used to customize the product
 Production of orthographic projections with dimensions and tolerances
 Hatching of all sections with different filling patterns
 Preparation of assembly or sub assembly drawings
 Preparation of part list
 Machining and tolerance symbols at the required surfaces
 Hydraulic and pneumatic circuit diagrams with symbols
 Printing can be done to any scale
Application Menu
The first thing you might see after launching AutoCAD is the Application Menu, in the far
upper left corner. In AutoCAD, it’s generally contains a big red “A”. (Other products generally
have a different color and letter). When you single-click this button a menu drops down that
contains some of the same items in the QAT, plus more. Probably more importantly, the
application menu contains links to your most recently accessed drawings, and sheet sets. With
the click of a button you can change this to a list of currently open drawings. (Tip: Do not
double-click on the Application Menu button, unless you want to shut-down AutoCAD)

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One feature of the Application Menu that many people overlook is the Search Commands
portion. You can type in the full or partial name of any command and a search will be
performed on the related commands in the menu. This can be helpful when you can’t quite
remember that command name or its location. In the image below, we have entered “poly” in
the search box, and you can see the results.

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Quick Access Toolbar (QAT)
Right next to the At the top of the UI, in the title bar area, is the Quick Access Toolbar, or QAT.
By default the QAT contains icons for the following commands: Qnew, Open, QSave, SaveAs,
Plot, Undo, and Redo. But like most other UI elements, you can customize this to meet your
desires. Below is the stock QAT, highlighted to show its position.

Ribbon
The ribbon is a UI tool that first appeared in AutoCAD 2009. It contains various commands
organized into tabs and panels. It can be heavily customized by administrators and end users.

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Contextual tabs are very powerful, they appear with panels of commands and options relating to
whatever task is at hand and/or whatever entity type is selected. For example, if a HATCH
object is selected, a contextual tab with hatch editing command appears automatically.

In-Editor elements
There are a few elements you may find inside the drawing editor, and are shown in their default
location in the image below. The visibility of each of these can be controlled by the user. The
viewport controls are in the upper left corner, and allow you to change the view and visual style.
The Viewcube is in the upper right, from which you can change the view and UCS. Just below
that is the NavBar, that gives you controls for zooming, panning, orbiting, and more. Lastly, in
the lower left hand corner, is the UCS icon, which can tell you at a glance if you are in WCS,
and/or the general orientation of the UCS.

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Status Bar
Moving to the bottom of the application, you will find the Status Bar. Since AutoCAD 2015, the
status bar contains icons only. By default several icons are not enabled, so you might want to
turn them on. We believe Autodesk does this because on a small monitor, all of the icons may
not fit across on one row. But the icons will wrap up to a second row if needed, and on any
decent sized monitor these days, at 1920×1080 resolution, you can enable all of the status bar
icons and they fit with ease.

Below is a stock status bar, along with the control icon on the far right, expanded to show
you the other available icons (Click on the image below for a full size version)

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You can hover your cursor over each icon to find its purpose. Generally speaking, gray means
the toggle is off, and blue means the toggle it on.
File Tabs
File tabs provide access to all open documents in a minimal amount of space. Each open
document has its own tab. Left-click on a tab to make it current, and right-click on a tab to
access more options, such as Save and Close. There is always a tab containing a plus sign to
open a new document using the QNEW command. By default, File Tabs are oriented at the top
of the documents, below the Ribbon.

Layout Tabs

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Layout tabs provide access to Model Space and each Layout in a given document. Left-click on
a tab to make it current, and right-click on a tab to access more options such as Print, Move, or
Rename. There is always a tab containing a plus sign for the creation of a new layout. By
default, Layout Tabs are oriented at the bottom of the editor window and if the command line is
docked, below that – in the status bar area.

Shortcut Menu
By default, with no command active, if you right-click in the drawing editor, you will get the
Shortcut Menu. This pop-up menu contains recent commands, and other common commands.
You can customize this menu, like most other UI items. If there is a command active, a different
menu may appear when you right-click. This behavior is controlled by
the SHORTCUTMENU system variable.

Drop-Down Menus
Drop-down, or pull-down menus have been around since almost the beginning of AutoCAD,
long before Windows was a platform. A top level clickable name reveals commands and/or sub
menus below. These commands support macros and even autolisp statements. The menu
disappears when a command is selected and/or the menu loses input focus. Drop-down menus
are not enabled by default. You can turn them on by entering the command MENUBAR and
setting it to 1. An example of a drop-down menu can be found below:

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Toolbars
Toolbars go back to the early 1990’s in AutoCAD. These are flat panels that contain buttons
and or drop-down lists. Each button contains an icon and a macro to perform a command or
macro. Toolbars can be floating or docked.

Palettes
There are various palettes available in AutoCAD. Palettes are special windows that can docked,
floating and made to collapse when not in use. You do not have to close palettes in order to
work with graphic data on screen. Most palettes support transparency (with proper hardware
support) to allow them to remain on screen during AutoCAD commands.
Command Line
The command line is a palette where you can type in command names and/or command
responses, and the view the history of both. If the command line is docked, it has a fixed
number of visible lines. Floating command line palettes can expand when needed to show you
more data. The F2 key in both cases will toggle open/closed, a larger command line history
window. A typical floating command line is shown here:

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Tool Palette
Tool Palettes contain buttons to insert blocks, execute commands, create hatches, just to name a
few items. Users are free to customize the content. A sample is shown below:

Sheet Set Manager

The Sheet Set Manager is a tool that allows you to organize sheets, streamline printing and
archiving, and automate annotation on drawing sheets among other uses. A sample is shown
below:

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There are many other palettes, such as the Quick Calculator, Drawing Recovery
Manager, Visual Styles Manager, the Materials Browser, etc.
Quick View Drawings
Before File Tabs, there was Quick View Drawings. Although no longer enabled by default as a
UI element, this command still works from the command line (Command: QVD). It reveals a
miniature preview of each open document, and allows you to switch to another document. As
the mouse is hovered over a document preview, the layouts of that drawing appear, allowing
you to switch directly to a selected layout.

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Quick View Layouts
Introduced as sort of replacement for Layout Tabs, Quick View Layouts has suffered the same
fate as Quick View Drawings. That is to say it is still part of the software, but hidden away. This
command (QVL) reveals miniature previews of all of the layouts of the current open document.
Hover over a preview enables the option to print it, or clicking on one switches to that layout.

Info Center
Info Center has been through a few iterations and name changes since it was introduced. It
resides in the Title Bar area, just to the left of the Windows control buttons. It contains a help
search bar, Autodesk A360 sign in, social media links, and a Help drop-down menu. InfoCenter
has been linked to excessive “phoning home” and is frequently disabled and hidden by many
CAD managers. There is no UI method of controlling the visibility of this element, it must be
done in the registry, or with a 3rd party add-on such as this one. Below is the default InfoCenter
bar.

Screen Menu

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The Screen Menu goes back to the beginnings of AutoCAD on DOS and UNIX. The Screen
Menu is composed of nested menus. Clicking on one entry usually replaces the screen menu
contents with another menu, until you get to a particular command. There is always a back
and/or home choices too. Most people do not know it still exists in AutoCAD 2018 today. To
access it, you must know the secret code.
Well, it is not too secret, just type in.

Image Tile Menu

Last, but not least, unless you’ve been around for ~20 years or so, you have probably never seen
an Image Tile Menu. We were able to actually get one of these to work in AutoCAD 2018 as
seen below. These were largely replaced by Tool Palettes and Design Center around
the AutoCAD 2000 era.

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Lines
The line is the most basic and common object in AutoCAD drawings. To draw a line, click the
Line tool.

Alternatively, you can type LINE or just L in the Command window, and then press Enter or
the Spacebar.
Notice the prompt in the Command window for a point location.

To specify the starting point for this line, you would type in the Cartesian coordinates 0,0. It's
generally a good idea to locate one corner of your model at 0,0, which is called the origin point.
To locate additional points, you could specify additional X,Y coordinate locations in the
drawing area, however more efficient methods for specifying points are available, and will be
presented in the Precision topic.

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After you specify the next point, the LINE command automatically repeats itself, and it keeps
prompting you for additional points. Press Enter or the Spacebar to end the sequence.
Grid Display
Some people like working with grid lines as a reference, while others prefer working in a blank
area. To turn off the grid display, press F7. Even with the grid turned off, you can force your
cursor to snap to grid increments by pressing F9.
Lines as Construction Aids
Lines can serve as reference and construction geometry such as
 Property line setbacks
 The mirror line of a symmetrical mechanical part
 Clearance lines to avoid interferences
 Traversal path lines
Circles
The default option of the CIRCLE command requires you to specify a center point and a radius.

The other circle options are available from the drop-down:

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Alternatively, you can enter CIRCLE or just C in the Command window and click to choose an
option. If you do, you can specify a center point, or you can click one of the highlighted
command options as shown below.

Circles can be useful as reference geometry. For example, you can see that the two doors in the
illustration can interfere with each other.

Polylines and Rectangles

A polyline is a connected sequence of line or arc segments that is created as a single object.

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Use the PLINE command to create open or closed polylines for
 Geometry that needs to have fixed-width segments
 Continuous paths for which you need to know the total length
 Contour lines for topographic maps and isobaric data
 Wiring diagrams and traces on printed circuit boards
 Process and piping diagrams
Polylines can have a constant width or they can have different starting and ending widths. After
you specify the first point of the polyline, you can use the Width option to specify the width of
all subsequently created segments. You can change the width value at any time, even as you
create new segments.

The User Coordinate System (Optional)

The user coordinate system (UCS) icon indicates the direction of the positive X and Y axis for
any coordinates that you enter, and it also defines the horizontal and vertical directions in a
drawing. In some 2D drawings, it can be convenient to click and place the UCS to change the
origin point and the X or Y axis.
For example, by reorienting the UCS, you can create rectangles that are automatically aligned
with the X axis as shown.

To restore the user coordinate system to its original location, enter UCS in the Command
window and press Enter to specify the default <World> option.
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Hatches and Fills
In AutoCAD, a hatch is a single, compound object that covers a specified area with a pattern of
lines, dots, shapes, a solid fill color, or a gradient fill

LIMITATIONS OF CAD
a) 32 – bit word computer is necessary because of large amount of computer memory
and time
b) The size of the software package is large
c) Skill and judgment are required to prepare the drawing
d) Huge investment

SCALING OF DRAWING:
zoom command displays the object at a specified scale
factor. The value entered is relative to the limits of the drawing. for example, entering 2
doubles the apparent display size of any objects from what it would be if it were zoomed to
the limits of the drawing. If you enter a value followed by xp, auto CAD specifies the scale
relative to paper scale units for example; entering 0.5xp displays model space at half the scale
of paper space units. The following illustration shows several viewports arranged in
paper space. the view in each view port is scaled relative to paper space. the first view is
scaled 1=1 relative to paper space (1xp), the second is scaled 0.5=1 relative to paper space
(0.5xp), and so on.
ZOOM
This increase or decreases the apparent size of objects in the current view port
At the command prompt, enter zoom
All/center/dynamic/extents/left/previous/vmax/window/<scale(x/xp)>: enter an option or
value, specify a point, or press enter
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TEXT: The text in software is indicated by fonts. the fonts define the shapes of the
text characters that make up each character set. In AUTOCAD, you can use true type fonts in
addition to AUTOCAD’s own compiled shape (SHX) fonts.
A font is indicated by various parameters like
i. Style :these are four types: normal,bold,italic,underline
ii. Size: this is the size of characters
iii. Colour: there are facilities to colour the characters selecting layer.
iv. Type: different types of fonts may be used:
Mono text: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Romans: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Romand: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Dtext: This displays text on the screen as it is entered. AutoCAD can create text with a
variety of character patterns, or fonts. These fonts can be stretched, compressed, oblique,
mirrored, or aligned in a vertical column by applying a style to the font .text can be rotated,
justified, and made any size.
At the command prompt, enter text
Justify/style/<start point>: specify a point or enter an option
TEXT: This creates a single line of text. AutoCAD can create text with a variety of character
patterns, or fonts. These fonts can be stretched, compressed, oblique, mirrored, or aligned in a
vertical column by applying a style to the font.
At the command prompt, enter text
Justify/style/<start point>: specify a point or enter an option
QTEXT: This controls the display and plotting of text and attribute of objects.
At the command prompt, enter text
ON/OFF <current>: enter on or off, or press enter
TRANSFORMATIONS: These are the modifications in the drawn objects.
There are different types of transformations used
MOVE: This allows to move or displace objects a specified distance in a specified
Direction
At the command prompt, enter move
Select objects: use an object selection method
Base point or displacement: specify a base point (1)
Second point of displacement: specify a point (2) or press enter
COPY: This is used for producing a duplicate copy of the drawing.
At the command prompt, enter copy
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Select objects: use an object selection method
<Base point or displacement >/multiple: specify a base point(1)
For a single copy or enter m for multiple copies
ROTATE: It moves objects about a base point
At the command prompt, enter rotate
Select objects: use an object selection method
<Rotate angle >/reference: specify an angle or enter r
STRETCH: This moves or stretches objects .AutoCAD stretches lines, arcs, elliptical
arcs, splines, rays and polyline segments that cross the selection window.
At the command prompt, enter stretch
Select objects: use the CPOLYGON or cross object selection method(1,2)
Base point or displacement: specify a point (3) or press
Second point of displacement: specify a point ($) or press
EXTEND: This extends an object to meet another object. Objects that can be
extended include arcs, elliptical arcs, lines, open 2D, and 3Dpolylines and rays.
At command prompt, enter extend
Select boundary edges
(projmode=UCS, edge mode=no extend)
Select objects: use an object selection method
SCALE: This enlarges or reduces selected objects equally in X and Y directions
At the command prompt, enter scale
Select objects: use an object selection method
Base point: specify a point (1)
<Scale factor>/reference: specify a scale or enter r
TRACE: This creates solid lines.
From the miscellaneous tool bar choose
At the command prompt, enter trace
Trace width<current>: specify a distance, enter a value ,or press enter
From point: specify point (1)
To point: specify a point (2)
To point: specify a point (3) or press to end the command
EXTRUDE: This creates unique solid primitives by extruding existing twodimensional objects
extrudes also creates solids by extruding two-dimensional objects along
a specified path .we can extrude multiple objects with extrude
At the command prompt enter, extrude
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Select objects: use an object selection method
Path/<height of extrusion>: specify a distance or enter p
MIRROR: This is used to producing mirror image of the object
At the command prompt enter, mirror
Select objects: use an object selection method
First point of the mirror line: specify a point (1)
Second point: specify a point (2)
OFFSET: This creates concentric circles, parallel lines and parallel curves, offset
creates a creates a new object at a specified distance from an existing object or through a
specified point
At the command prompt enter, offset
Offset distance: specify a distance, enter t or press enter
ARRAY: This creates multiple copies of objects in pattern. Arrays are three types.
a) Rectangular Array
b) Path Array
c) Polar Array
Rectangular Array: In this, the object is arranged in an array of rows and columns.
At the command prompt: type ARRAYRECT or select the option from MODIFY toolbar. It
asks you to select objects. Select the object and press enter. By default it shows an array of 3
rows and 4 columns. The no. of rows and columns can be changed by selecting the COUnt
option (OR) by selecting COLUMNS and ROWS options separately

Figure 93 Array Selection

Path Array: In this, an object is arranged in a specified path.
At the command prompt: type ARRAYPATH or select the option from MODIFY toolbar.
Then select object to be arrayed. Then select the path through which the object is made to be
Array

Figure 94 Path Array

CUTTING OF OBJECTS

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The drawn objects can be cut or trimmed by using following commands
TRIM: Trims objects at a cutting object defined by other objects. Objects that can be
trimmed include arcs, circles, elliptical arcs, lines, open 2D and 3Dpolylines,rays and splines
At the command prompt, enter trim
Select cutting edges:
Select objects: use object selection method
<Select object to trim>/project/edge/undo: select an object, enter an option, or press enter
BREAK: This erases an object or splits the object in to two parts
From the modify toolbar select break flyout
At the command prompt, enter break
Select objects: use an object selection method
First point of the mirror line: specify a point (1) on an object
Enter second point: specify the second break point (2) or enter F
DIMENSIONING IN DRAWINGS:
The dimensions are inserted in the drawing by use of DIM command. There are various types
of dimensions used in AutoCAD.
Linear dimensions:
i. Horizontal- this allows horizontal dimensions
ii. Vertical- this allows vertical dimensions
iii. Aligned- this allows inclined dimensions
iv. Rotated- this allows inclined dimensions

Angular dimensions:
This allows angular dimensioning of objects
Radial dimensions:
This allows radial dimensioning of arc or circle
Diametric dimensions:
This allows diameteral dimensions of the circle
For dimensioning of objects, the first point and second point has to be specified. The
dimension text must be written and then the position of dimension must be specified
at the command prompt ,enter dim
Dim: Enter a dimensioning mode command
AREA:
This allows calculation of the area and perimeter of objects or of defined areas
From the object properties toolbar, choose the inquiry flyout, then
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At the command prompt, enter area
<First point>/object/add/subtract: specify a point or enter option
FILLET
Rounds and fillets the edges of the object
At the command prompt enter fillet
Polyline / Radius / Trim / <Select first object>: use an object selection method or enter an
option
Select first object
Select second object: use an object selection method
Enter radius <current>: specify a distance or press
Chain / Radius <Select edge>: Select edges or enter c or r their intersection
CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
The co- ordinate system can be modified in the AutoCAD. There are two types of coordinate
systems used. The WCS (World co- ordinate system) is a universal system in which
its origin is at the fixed position. The UCS (User co- ordinate system) is a system in which
user can fix his origin at any point.
UCS: This manages user co- ordinate systems
At the command prompt enter ucs
Origin / z axis/ 3 point/ object/ view/ X/Y/Z / Prev/ Restore/Save/ Del/?/< world>: enter an
option or press enter
WCS: This manages world co- ordinate system
EXPLODE:
This breaks a compound object into its component objects
At the command prompt enter explode
Select objects: use an object selection method.
UNION:
This measures the distance and angle between two points.
At the command prompt, enter union
Select object: Use an object selection method
DIST: This measures the distance and the angle between two points .
At the command prompt area enter dist
First point: Specify a point (1)
Second point : Specify a point (2)
Distance = calculated distance
Angle in XY plane = angle from XY plane = angle
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Delta X = change in X
Delta Y = change in Y
Delta Z = change in Z.
REGENERATION OF DRAWING:
ACAD provides a facility of regenerating a drawing to clear the cross points or marks on the
screen.
i. REDRAW
ii. REGEN
iii. REGENALL
iv. REGENAUTO
TOLERANCE
This creates geometric tolerances. Geometric tolerances define the maximum allowable
variations of form or profile, orientation, location and run out from the exact geometry in a
drawing. They specify the required accuracy for proper function and fit the objects drawn in
AutoCAD
SKETCH
This creates a series of free hand line segments.
From the miscellaneous toolbar, choose
At the command prompt enter sketch
Follow the prompting
3D FUNCTIONS
BOX
This creates a three-dimensional solid box.
At the command prompt enter box
Center/<corner of the box><0,0,0> :
Specify a point (1), enter c, or press enter
Corner of a box
Specifying a point or pressing defines the first corner of the box.
Cube/length /<other corner>: specify a point (2) or enter an option center
Creates the box by a specified center point
CONE
This creates a 3D solid cone. A cone is solid primitive with a circular or elliptical based
tapering symmetrically to a point perpendicular to its base.
At the command prompt enter cone
Elliptical /<center point> <0,0,0> : specify a point , enter e or press enter
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CYLINDER
This creates a 3D solid cylinder. A cylinder is solid primitive with a circular or elliptical
based to a point perpendicular to its base without a taper.
At the command prompt enter cylinder
Elliptical /<center point> <0,0,0> : specify a point , enter e or press enter
SPHERE
This creates a 3D solid sphere. A sphere is positioned so that its central axis is parallel to the
Z-axis of the current UCS. Latitudinal lines are parallel to the XY plane.
At the command prompt enter sphere
Center of the sphere <0,0,0> : specify a point , enter e or press enter

WEDGE
This creates a three dimensional solid with a sloped face tapering along X axis.
At the command prompt enter wedge
Center <corner of the wedge> <0,0,0> : specify a point , enter e or press enter
Follow the prompting
ELEV
This sets an elevation and extrusion thickness of new objects. The current elevation is the Z
value that is used whenever a 3D point is expected but only X and y values are supplied.
At the command prompt enter elev
Follow the prompting
SHADE
This displays a flat shaded image of the drawing in the current view port. SHADE removes
hidden lines and displays a shaded picture of the drawing.
From the render toolbar, choose
At the command prompt, enter shade
REGION
This creates a region object from a selection set of existing objects. Regions are
2Dimensional areas you create from closed shapes.
REINIT
This reinitializes the input/output ports, digitizer, display and program parameters file.
REPLAY
This displays a GIF, TGA or TIFF image.
From the tool’s menu, choose image, then view.
REVOLVE
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This creates a solid by revolving a two – dimensional object about an axis. From the solids
toolbar, choose
At the command prompt, enter revolve
SHAPE
This inserts a shape. Before inserting a shape, you must load the file containing the desired
shape.
ROTATE 3D
This moves objects about a three-dimensional axis
From the modify toolbar, choose the rotate flyout then
Follow the prompting
SECTION
This uses the intersection of a plane and solids to create a region.
AutoCAD creates regions on the current layer and inserts them at the location of the cross –
section. Selecting several solids creates separate regions for each solid.
SLICE
This slices a set of solids with a plane.
SHELL
This accesses operating system commands.
REVOLVE
This creates a solid by revolving a two-dimensional object about an axis.
RENDER
This creates a realistically shaded image of a three-dimensional wireframe or solid model.
RENDER produces an image using information from a scene, the current selection set, or the
current view.
STARTING THE DRAWING
The figures we do in engineering are fitted into a template. In ACAD we manually draw a
template known as Drawing sheet in two different formats.
The size of the drawing sheet is ISO A4 210 X 297.
The format is as given in the following figures
Polar Array: In this, an object is arranged in a circular shape.
At the command prompt: type ARRAYPOLAR or select the option from MODIFY toolbar.
Then select object to be arrayed. Then select the center point of array. By default, a six items
array is created. The No. of items can be changed by selecting the Items option. Angle
between the two items can also be changed.

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Geometry drawings are developed using CAD

2D DRAWINGS
Aim: to draw the following figure using ACAD

Figure 95 Exercise 1
PROCEDURE
Set the limits of the drawing screen
STEP 1: Draw axis lines in the respective format with their intersection point at (0,0)
• Go to PROPERTIES tool bar
• Load line type as ISO LONG DASH SHORT DASH in the line type area.
• Select line type ISO LONG DASH SHORT DASH in the line type area.

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 Figure 96 starting drawing center lines
STEP 2 a: Draw circles of given dimensions using circle command with their centre as the
intersection of the axis lines
• 3 circles of diameters 94, 74 and 54 are to be drawn
• The circle with 74 diameter is of ISO LONG DASH SHORT DASH format
STEP 2 b: Using POLAR ARRAY draw the 6 holes on the circle of diameter 74 each of 12
dia.
STEP 3: Draw two construction lines at an angle of 30o to the vertical axis line
STEP 4: With A as center an radius 100 draw an arc between the above lines
STEP 5: Offset the arc on the either side by the distances as mentioned in the figure.
STEP 6: Complete the figure by using fillet command.
STEP 7: Give dimensions to the completed figure.
Command: _qsave
PRECAUTIONS:
Put ORTHO ON where ever necessary.
Use the required modify tool bar commands like TRIM, ERASE, COPY, MIRROR ETC.,

Aim: to draw the following figure using ACAD

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 Figure 97 Exercise 2
PROCEDURE
Set the limits of the drawing screen
STEP 1: Draw axis lines in the respective format with their intersection point at (0,0)
STEP 2: Draw circles of given dimensions using circle command with their centre as the
intersection of the axis lines.
STEP 3: Using POLAR ARRAY draw the 6 key holes on the circle of diameter 58 of given
dimensions
STEP 4: For the outer cover use CIRCLE command and the in-command prompt area type
TAN TAN RADIUS. This gives the idea of drawing the outer cover
STEP 5: Give dimensions to the completed figure.
Command: _qsave
PRECAUTIONS:
Put ORTHO ON wherever necessary.
Use the required modify tool bar commands like TRIM, ERASE, COPY, MIRROR ETC.,

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Orthographic drawings are developed using CAD
Orthographic drawings are a very common style of drawing and are easily created with CAD. In
this exercise, we will use CAD to draw the front, top, and right side views of the object shown
at the right. We will start with a third angle view then try some first angle views in the
exercises. The dimensions of the object are shown at the right and we will make our CAD
drawing dimensionally correct.
Unlike some of our previous drawings, we will use coordinates to draw the lines instead of
simply clicking with the mouse. In the last assignment, you drew solid lines but sometimes you
need dashed or
dotted lines. CAD can draw many different types of lines but the line type or style must be
loaded before they can be used. The line types are loaded with the commands:
Starting CAD
You can start ACAD by either double clicking on the program Icon on the desktop or by
clicking on the program name in the Start menu. The program will start and after a minute or so
should display a screen similar to the one shown below. The dialog box in the middle will aid
you in getting started
at either creating a new drawing or continuing your work on a drawing that is not finished.
If you are continuing work on a drawing, click on the “A” icon in the extreme
upper left corner of the window and Open->Drawing. A “Select File” dialog box will
open allowing you to select the drawing file you want to open.

The Initial Screen

ACAD has a very versatile user interface that allows you to control the program in several
different ways. At the top of the window is a row of menus. Clicking on the Home, Insert, or
Annotate causes another selection of menus to appear. This new selection of commands is
frequently called a Ribbon or a
Dashboard. You can operate the program by clicking on the icons in these menus. Another
method of using the program is typing in the command names. This is frequently faster than
using drop down menus for frequently used commands because you do not have to search for
the correct menu or icon. You just type in the command name. For the most part, we will use

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this approach in this series of tutorials. The commands that you type will appear at the bottom
of the of the ACAD window.

The LINE Command

Now that you have started AutoCAD and configured tool bars you want, you
are ready to start learning to use the program. We will start with relatively simple
commands and eventually, in later lessons, look at some of the more complex things
that AutoCAD can do. The first command we will look at drawing straight lines. At
the keyboard, type:
line
and press the ENTER key. You can use either upper or lower case when you type in
ACAD commands.
The program will respond with:
Specify First Point:
Each line has a beginning and ending point and the program wants you to specify the beginning
point of the line. You enter the beginning point by either typing the point coordinates at the
keyboard or by clicking the mouse on a location of the screen where you want the line to begin.
It is certainly much simpler to click with the mouse than it is to type in coordinates but
engineering drawings are drawn precisely to scale and for the most part we will have to enter
coordinates from the keyboard.
When you type a coordinate, enter the X or horizontal coordinate first followed by a comma and
the Y or vertical coordinate. You cannot enter a space between the two coordinates. AutoCAD
interprets a space as the ENTER key and assumes that you have finished entering the
coordinates.
For Example, you could type:

Specify First Point: 3.5,6

The 3.5 coordinate is the X or horizontal coordinate and the 6 is the vertical coordinate. After
you enter the coordinates, press the enter key. The enter key tells the program that you have
entered the first coordinate and are ready to enter the coordinates for the next which will be the
end of the line. The program responds by displaying:

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 Figure 98 Sample 1
To Point:
If you want a horizontal line that is 5 units long, you enter the coordinates @5,0 which is shown
below.
To Point: @5,0
The @ sign tells the program this coordinate is measured from the last coordinate entered. In
other words, it says place the end if the line 5 units horizontally from the beginning point and 0
units vertically. The line drawn is shown above.
Using the @ sign to specify relative coordinates is easier than specifying absolute coordinates
without the @ sign. The first point we drew had an absolute coordinate of 3.5,6 and the second
point had an absolute coordinate of 8.5,6 since it is displaced 5 units horizontally from the first
point.
We will continue with this to create the object shown on the right. It has lines,
an arc, and a circle. We have drawn the first and we will continue drawing the rest of
the lines.
As a shortcut, you can start the LINE command by typing L instead of the
entire word LINE. Many AutoCAD commands can be abbreviated to just the first
letter of the command.

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 Figure 99 Sample 2
Continue Drawing the Object
We can continue drawing the object shown on the right by adding more lines. If the line
command is
still operating, press ENTER to end it.
We will start it again to draw the remaining lines.
You can draw the remaining lines by typing:
line
Specify First Point: 8.5,6 {these are the coordinates of the end of the first line we drew}
To Point: @-2,2
To Point @2, 2
To Point @-5,0
To point {Press ENTER without entering coordinates. This will end the line command}

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 Figure 100 Orthographic figure

3.2.5.4. Learning activities

Below is an orthographic drawing drawn in Isometric. With the help of your trainer, you are
required to develop it using CAD.

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3.2.5.5. Self-Assessment
1. Define the following
i. CAD

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 ii. CADD

iii. CAE
2. List the three types of arrays.
3. List any three reasons for implementing CAD systems.

4. What are palettes?

5. List two types of coordinate systems.

3.2.5.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

xiv. Drawing boards
xv. T squares
xvi. Set squares
xvii. Drawing sets
xviii. Drawing paper
xix. Protractors
xx. Eraser Shield
xxi. Pencils
xxii. Erasers
xxiii. Masking tapes
xxiv. Paper clips
xxv. Drawing curves
xxvi. Technical drawing software’

3.2.5.7. References
https://www.designtechcadacademy.com/knowledge-base/introduction-to-cad
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Computer_aided_design_CAD
https://static.sdcpublications.com/pdfsample/1-58503-297-2-4.pdf

3.2.5.8. Model Answers.

1. Define the following
i. CAD
Computer-Aided Design, a term usually applied to the software.
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 ii. CADD
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting.

iii. CAE
Computer-Aided Engineering
2. List the three types of arrays.
 Rectangular Array
 Path Array
 Polar Array
3. List any three reasons for implementing CAD systems.
 Increases the productivity of the designer
 Improves communication:
 Create data base for manufacturing:
 Improves the efficiency of the design.

4. What are palettes?

Palettes are special windows that can docked, floating and made to collapse when not in use

5. List two types of coordinate systems.

 World co- ordinate system
 Universal system

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