BME 113 ENGINEERING DRAWING I

Course Objective
Students will be taken through Engineering Drawing
Learning Outcomes
Having completed this module, the learner will be able to:
1. Construct pictorial drawings of geometrical figures
2. Draw Orthographic projections of engineering components /machines
3. Produce assembly drawings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Technical drawing is a precise graphical representation of objects, structures, or concepts used in

various industries to communicate design and manufacturing information. It serves as a universal
language among engineers, architects, designers, and manufacturers, conveying detailed
specifications, dimensions, and instructions. Here's an introduction to technical drawing:

1. Purpose: Technical drawings serve to communicate complex ideas, designs, and

specifications in a clear, standardized format. They facilitate the visualization,
construction, and documentation of objects, machinery, buildings, and more.
2. Tools and Instruments:
o Drawing Instruments: Technical drawings often utilize tools such as pencils,
rulers, compasses, set squares, protractors, and templates for precision and
accuracy.
o CAD Software: Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software has revolutionized
technical drawing, allowing for digital creation, modification, and representation
of designs, enhancing efficiency and accuracy.
3. Standards and Conventions:
o Technical drawings adhere to established standards and conventions set by
organizations like ISO (International Organization for Standardization) or national
standards bodies (e.g., ANSI, BSI, DIN). These standards ensure consistency and
compatibility across industries and countries.

1
 4. Types of Technical Drawings:
o Orthographic Projections: These drawings represent the object in two or more
views, typically front, top, side, and sectional views, providing a comprehensive
depiction from different angles.
o Isometric Drawings: These present three-dimensional objects in a two-
dimensional space, allowing for a more realistic view by showing all three
dimensions in equal proportion.
o Exploded Views: These illustrate the assembly of a product or object by
separating components to display their relationships and positions within the
assembly.
5. Applications:
o Technical drawings find applications in various industries including engineering,
architecture, manufacturing, construction, automotive, aerospace, and more. They
aid in designing, planning, constructing, and maintaining diverse structures and
products.
6. Communication and Collaboration:
o They serve as a means of communication between designers, engineers,
manufacturers, and stakeholders, conveying precise information about
dimensions, materials, assembly instructions, and tolerances.
7. Evolution with Technology:
o Advances in technology have transitioned technical drawing from manual drafting
to computer-based design (CAD/CAM/CAE), allowing for greater precision,
efficiency, and the integration of 3D modeling and simulation.

Drawing Instruments and Their Uses:

Drawing instruments are essential tools used by artists, architects, engineers, and designers to
create precise and detailed drawings, plans, and illustrations. These tools serve various purposes,
enabling users to achieve accuracy, measure distances, create shapes, and bring their ideas to life.
Here's an introduction to drawing instruments and their uses:

2
1. Pencils:
o Uses: Pencils come in various grades, allowing for different line weights and
shading effects. They are versatile tools used for sketching, outlining, shading,
and drafting.
2. Rulers/Straightedges:
o Uses: Rulers or straightedges are essential for creating straight lines and
measuring distances accurately. They serve as guides for drawing precise lines in
technical drawings, diagrams, and blueprints.
3. Compasses:
o Uses: Compasses are used for drawing perfect circles, arcs, and curves. They
consist of two legs, one holding a needle or pencil point and the other acting as a
pivot, allowing for accurate circular shapes.
4. Set Squares
Set squares, also known as triangles, are tools primarily used in technical drawing,
drafting, and geometry to create precise angles and lines. They come in various types,
each serving specific purposes:
a. 45-45-90 Set Square:
o This set square has two angles of 45 degrees and one of 90 degrees.
o Use: It's ideal for drawing and measuring right angles, creating perpendicular
lines, and constructing geometric shapes that involve 45-degree angles.

3
b. 30-60-90 Set Square:
o This set square has angles of 30, 60, and 90 degrees.
o Use: It's used for drawing and measuring angles of 30 and 60 degrees. It's
especially useful for constructing equilateral triangles, hexagons, and other shapes
with these angles.
c. Adjustable Set Squares:
o These set squares have adjustable arms that allow users to set various angles as
needed.
o Use: They are versatile, allowing for the creation of angles other than standard 30,
45, or 60 degrees.
d. Combination Set Squares:
o Combination squares incorporate both 45-45-90 and 30-60-90 angles in one tool.
o Use: They offer flexibility for drawing multiple types of angles without needing
separate set squares.

5. Protractors:

Protractors are primarily used to measure angles between lines or surfaces. The curved
edge of the protractor is marked with degree graduations ranging from 0 to 180 or 0 to
360 degrees, allowing users to measure or draw angles of various sizes.

Besides the traditional semi-circular protractors, there are also full-circle protractors that
measure angles up to 360 degrees. Digital or electronic protractors are also available,
offering precise digital readings of angles.

6. French Curves/Templates:
o Uses: French curves and templates contain various curved edges and shapes,
aiding in drawing complex curves, arcs, and irregular shapes that are challenging
to create freehand.
7. Templates/Stencils:

4
 o Uses: Templates and stencils come in various shapes and patterns and are used for
quickly reproducing specific shapes or symbols. They are commonly used in
technical drawings, flowcharts, architectural plans, and more.
8. Erasers:
o Uses: Erasers are essential for correcting mistakes and removing unwanted marks
without damaging the drawing surface. Different types of erasers cater to different
drawing materials.
9. Drawing Boards/Tablets:
o Uses: Drawing boards or tablets provide a stable surface for drawing, especially
for large-scale or technical drawings. They offer features such as tilting, rotating,
or securing paper for convenience.

BIS Conventions:

In technical drawings, BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) conventions refer to the specific
standards and guidelines set by BIS for creating accurate and standardized technical drawings.
These conventions ensure uniformity, clarity, and precision in technical documentation across
various industries. Here's an introduction to BIS conventions in technical drawings:

1. Drawing Layout and Title Block: BIS conventions define the layout of technical
drawings, specifying the arrangement of views, title blocks, borders, and other essential
elements. This includes standardized placement of information like title, scale, sheet
numbers, and revisions.
2. Line Types, Weights, and Dimensioning: BIS standards specify line types, thicknesses,
and their meanings within technical drawings. This ensures consistency in depicting
different elements such as visible lines, hidden lines, centerlines, and dimensions.
3. Standard Symbols and Notations: BIS conventions include a set of standardized
symbols, abbreviations, and notations used in technical drawings. These symbols
represent components, materials, surface finishes, tolerances, and other crucial
information, ensuring clear communication among professionals.
4. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T): BIS standards might encompass
guidelines for geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, which involves specifying

5
 permissible variations in form, orientation, and location of features within technical
drawings.
5. Projection Methods: BIS conventions often dictate the use of specific projection
methods like orthographic projection, isometric projection, or sectional views, ensuring
consistency and accuracy in representing three-dimensional objects in two dimensions.
6. Drawing Scales: BIS standards might provide guidelines on choosing appropriate scales
for technical drawings, ensuring that drawings maintain clarity and readability while
representing accurate dimensions.
7. Title and Revision Blocks: BIS conventions dictate the information to be included in the
title block, such as drawing title, author, date, scale, and other relevant details.
Additionally, revision blocks outline changes made to drawings over time.

Freehand Practicing:

Freehand drawing refers to the ability to draw something without using any tools or mechanical
instruments like grids, rulers, or compasses to help them do it. Instead, artists draw using only
their hands and rely on their observational skills to measure and draw what they see. These
include:

 Sketching: Helps improve hand-eye coordination and drawing accuracy.

 Gesture Drawing: Quick sketches capturing the essence and movement of a subject.
 Observational Drawing: Drawing from real-life objects or scenes to enhance
observational skills and detail accuracy.

2.0 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

Lines, planes and surfaces of objects, Sectional views, Auxiliary views, Space geometry: lines
and planes, True lengths and shapes, Properties of parallelism, Perpendicularity and intersections
of lines and planes, Simple intersections of solids and development of lateral simple solids.

LINES

6
Certain features on a Engineering Drawing requires specific ways of indication. For example,
holes require center lines to identify the center and show that it is round. Hidden detail are shown
with a certain line type to avoid confusion with visible edges.

Most CAD Software packages will have these different line types predefined as layers.
Depending on the layer chosen, the line will display it in a certain way. Often, most drafting
companies will have their own custom layers with different colours, however the final product
on paper will (or should) be as discussed below.

Line Description

Continuous Thick Line

Continuous Thin Line

Continuous Thin Freehand Line

Continuous Thin Zigzag Line

Thick or Thin Dashed Line

Thin Chain Line

Thin Chain Line with Thick ends

7
 Thick Chain Line

Thin Chain Double Dashed Line

Continuous Thick Line

The continuous thick line is used to show visible outlines or edges of a component or assembly.
This line may be made thin if the drawing is congested and allot of lines are so close to each
other that the clarity of the drawing is negatively influenced.

Continuous Thin Line

The continuous thin line is the most frequently used line type on Engineering Drawings. These
lines are solid and has no break in them. Here is the list of cases where the continuous thin line
will be used:

 Imaginary lines of intersection

 Dimension line
 Projection lines
 Leader lines
 Hatching
 Outlines of revolved sections
 Short center lines (as opposed to the chain line)
 Bending lines

Continuous Thin Freehand Line

Freehand lines shows breaks or cuts in parts or assemblies. The edge of the partial or interrupted
view is indicated with a freehand line.

8
Continuous Thin Zigzag Line

The Continuous Thin Zigzag Line shows a break line. If a part needs to be shortened with a
break for ease of visibility, a break can be made using this line. *Remember, any dimensions
spanning over the break needs to have a dimension break indicated on the dimension line also.

Thick or Thin Dashed Line

The Dashed Line is used to indicate hidden details like hidden outlines and hidden edges. The
dashed line may be either thick or thin, but only one type (thick or thin) should be used on a
single drawing or set of drawings.

Thin Chain Line

The Thin Chain Line is used to indicate center lines, the lines of symmetry and also trajectories.
Often this line is used as a point of reference on engineering drawings.

Thin Chain Line with Thick ends

Sectional cutting planes are indicated with a Thin Chain Line with Thick ends. This helps to
identify the plane in which the part or assembly is cut. If the cut line is on more than one plane,
the change in direction should also be indicated with thicker ends.

Thick Chain Line

A Thick Chain Line is used to indicate special requirements on a surface. This line does not form
part of the geometry of the part, but is rather used to identify the surface

Thin Chain Double Dashed Line

The Thin Chain Double Dashed Line is used to show adjacent components. This is especially
useful when the component has a reference to the existing components.
It is also used to show alternative or extreme positions. On drawings where bends are indicated,
these lines are used to show the initial outlines before forming or bending.

9
One can also use this line to indicate parts or components situated in front of the cutting plane, to
give reference to the part shown.

One-dimensional geometric figures with length but no width or depth. In technical drawings,
they represent edges, boundaries, or paths.

PLANES

In geometry and mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely in
all directions. It has no thickness and is defined by an infinite number of points.

Characteristics of Planes:

1. Flatness: A plane has no curvature or unevenness. It is perfectly flat and extends

infinitely in all directions.
2. No Depth or Thickness: Unlike three-dimensional objects, a plane has no volume. It
exists solely in two dimensions.
3. Infinite Extent: A plane extends infinitely in length and width without any boundaries.
4. Defined by Points: A plane can be described or defined by three non-collinear points
(points that don't lie on the same line). These points form a unique plane.
5. Parallel Lines: Any two lines within a plane remain in the plane and never intersect.

Representation:

In visual representations or technical drawings, a plane is often depicted as a flat, featureless

surface or as a bounded area within a larger space.

Application:

 Geometry: Essential in understanding geometric shapes and relationships between

points, lines, and solids.
 Engineering and Architecture: Used extensively in technical drawings and blueprints to
represent surfaces, walls, floors, and other flat components of structures.

10
Types of Planes:

1. Horizontal Plane: A plane parallel to the horizon or a level surface.

2. Vertical Plane: A plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane.
3. Inclined Plane: A plane that is neither vertical nor horizontal but at an angle to them.

Understanding planes is fundamental in various fields, especially in geometry, engineering,

architecture, and physics, as they form the basis for understanding spatial relationships and
shapes in a two-dimensional context.

SURFACES OF OBJECTS

Surfaces of objects in drawing refer to the outer boundaries or faces of three-dimensional objects
represented on a two-dimensional plane. Understanding and effectively depicting these surfaces
is crucial in technical drawing, architecture, engineering, and design. Here's a breakdown:

Types of Surfaces:

1. Planar Surfaces: Flat surfaces like squares, rectangles, and triangles.

2. Curved Surfaces: Can be:
o Concave: Curved inward, like the inner surface of a bowl.
o Convex: Curved outward, like the surface of a sphere.
3. Complex Surfaces: Combinations of planar and curved surfaces, as seen in irregular
shapes or complex objects.

Techniques to Represent Surfaces:

1. Orthographic Projections:
o Show different views of an object (front, top, side) to represent its surfaces
accurately.
2. Shading and Rendering:
o Use shading techniques (like hatching, cross-hatching, or stippling) to create the
illusion of depth and texture on surfaces.

11
 3. Isometric or Perspective Drawings:
o Represent surfaces in three dimensions, conveying depth and realism.

Considerations for Drawing Surfaces:

1. Outlines and Contours:

o Clearly define the edges and boundaries of surfaces to distinguish them from one
another.
2. Depicting Textures:
o Use different line patterns, shading, or rendering techniques to convey various
textures like roughness, smoothness, or patterns.
3. Light and Shadow:
o Understand how light falls on surfaces to depict highlights, shadows, and
gradations, enhancing the 3D effect.
4. Accuracy and Scale:
o Maintain accuracy in dimensions and scale while representing surfaces to ensure
the proper depiction of objects.
5. Detailing:
o Add necessary details to surfaces, emphasizing important features or elements.

Tools Used:

 Pencils and Pens: For outlining and detailing surfaces.

 Shading Tools: Such as graphite pencils, charcoal, or ink for rendering textures and
shading.
 Rulers, Compasses, and Protractors: To ensure precision and accuracy in drawing
surfaces.

SECTIONAL VIEWS

12
Sectional views in technical drawings provide a clear representation of an object's internal
structure by slicing it to reveal its interior features. They are crucial in engineering, architecture,
and design to communicate complex details. Here's a comprehensive overview:

Purpose:

 Internal Detailing: Shows hidden features that aren't visible in the regular orthographic
views.
 Clarity: Provides a clear understanding of an object's internal structure, helping in
manufacturing and assembly.

Types of Sectional Views

Common Types of Sectional Views:

1. Full Section or Cross-Section

The object is sliced completely, showing both internal and external features. This is the
most common type of sectional view.

2. Half Section:

13
One-quarter of the object is removed to display internal details, while the other quarter remains
visible to show the external appearance.

3. Offset Section:
o The cutting plane is not straight but is offset to highlight specific features of
interest. It's used when straight cuts might obscure crucial details.

4. Revolved Section:
o The object is sectioned along an axis of revolution, typically used for cylindrical
objects like shafts or pipes.

14
5. Auxiliary Section:
o A supplementary section that shows details not visible in the primary section,
often used to reveal additional internal features.

6. Removed Section:
o A part of the object is physically removed and displayed next to the main
drawing, showing its internal structure.

15
 7. Broken-Out Section:
o A section cut that is used when a small part of the object needs to be displayed
separately with a break in the main view.

Other Specific Types:

 Aligned Section: A section view taken through an object along a specific aligned
direction.

16
  Pictorial Section: Uses a 3D view to illustrate the internal details of an object.
 Conventional Breaks: Rather than a true section, a portion is removed to shorten the
object's representation without a detailed section view.

Each type of sectional view serves a specific purpose, aiding in the clear communication of
internal structures, features, and dimensions within a technical drawing. The choice of the type
of sectional view depends on the nature of the object, the information needed to be conveyed,
and the clarity required in illustrating internal details.

Representing Sectional Views:

 Cutting Plane: Shows where the object is sliced.

 Section Lines: Indicate the surfaces that have been cut, using specific patterns for
different materials (cross-hatching for metals, different patterns for different materials).
 Hidden Features: Dashed lines for hidden edges or features beyond the cut.

Benefits:

 Clarity of Design: Provides a clear understanding of an object's internal arrangement.

 Reduced Confusion: Eliminates ambiguity about how internal components fit together.
 Precision: Helps in specifying dimensions, tolerances, and relationships between parts.

How to Create Sectional Views:

1. Identify the Cutting Plane: Decide where the object needs to be sliced to reveal internal
features.
2. Determine the View Direction: Choose the direction from which the section will be
viewed to show the most relevant details.

AUXILIARY VIEWS

Auxiliary views are additional views used in technical drawing to display an object's features or
details that are not clearly visible in the primary orthographic views (top, front, side). These

17
views help to present specific details, angles, or surfaces that may be inclined or not parallel to
any of the primary planes. Here's a detailed breakdown:

18
19
AUXILIARY VIEW CLASSIFICATIONSAUXILIARY VIEW
CLASSIFICATIONS

• Auxiliary views are created by positioning a new line of sight relative to the object.
It is possible to create any number of auxiliary views, including a new auxiliary view
from an existing auxiliary view.

– A primary auxiliary view is a single view projected from one of the six principal
views.

– A secondary auxiliary view is a single view projected from a primary auxiliary

view.

– A tertiary auxiliary view is a single view projected from a secondary or another

tertiary auxiliary view.

20
Space Geometry: Lines and Planes

 True Lengths and Shapes: Refers to the actual lengths and shapes of lines or objects
when viewed from a specific angle or orientation.
 Properties of Parallelism and Perpendicularity: Deals with the relationship between
lines or planes that are parallel or perpendicular to each other. Parallel lines/plane never
intersect, while perpendicular lines/plane meet at a right angle.
 Intersections of Lines and Planes: Describes the points where lines or planes meet or
cross each other.

Simple Intersections of Solids and Development of Lateral Simple Solids:

21
  Simple Intersections of Solids: Deals with determining the shapes resulting from the
intersection of two or more three-dimensional objects or solids.
 Development of Lateral Simple Solids: Involves unfolding or unrolling the surfaces of
3D objects (like cylinders or prisms) to create a flat pattern or net.

Application in Technical Drawing:

 Orthographic Projections: Techniques used to represent 3D objects in 2D space, using

multiple views (front, top, side, etc.).
 Isometric and Perspective Drawings: Methods of illustrating objects in 3D space,
conveying depth and dimensionality.

Understanding these concepts is crucial in technical drawing, engineering, architecture, and

design fields. Mastery of these principles enables accurate representation and visualization of
three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional plane, aiding in effective communication of
design and construction details.

3.0 ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS

Isometric projection is a method used in technical and engineering drawings to represent three-
dimensional objects in two dimensions. It's a type of axonometric projection that displays an
object's three primary axes equally foreshortened, resulting in a 3D-like representation. Here's an
introduction to isometric projection:

22
Isometric scale

An isometric scale is a specialized measuring tool used in technical drawing, specifically for
isometric projections. It allows the accurate representation of three-dimensional objects in a two-
dimensional space while maintaining the proportions and angles required for isometric drawings.
Here's a detailed overview:

Components of an Isometric Scale:

1. Isometric Axes: Three axes indicating length, width, and height, oriented at 120-degree
angles to each other.
2. Measurements Along Axes: Divisions along each axis represent equal units of
measurement (inches, millimeters, etc.) for length, width, and height.

23
Usage:

 Technical Drawings: Essential in engineering, architecture, and design fields for

creating accurate isometric projections of objects.
 Visualization: Aids in visualizing and planning objects in three dimensions on a two-
dimensional drawing surface.

Isometric projection of simple plane figures

Absolutely, creating an isometric projection of simple plane figures involves representing these
2D shapes in a 3D space while maintaining equal scaling along each axis. Here's a breakdown
for some common simple plane figures:

Square:

 Isometric Projection: Displayed as a rhombus with equal side lengths and angles of 120
degrees.
 Representation: All sides appear equally foreshortened and oriented along the isometric
axes.

Rectangle:

 Isometric Projection: Appears as a parallelogram, maintaining equal angles but with

foreshortened sides.
 Representation: Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and oriented along the isometric
axes.

Circle:

 Isometric Projection: Represented as an ellipse or oval shape due to foreshortening.

 Representation: The major and minor axes of the ellipse are oriented at 30 degrees to the
horizontal axis.

Triangle:

24
  Isometric Projection: Appears as a three-sided figure with equal angles but
foreshortened sides.
 Representation: Each side is equally foreshortened and oriented along the isometric
axes.

Pentagon:

 Isometric Projection: Displayed as a five-sided figure with equal angles but

foreshortened sides.
 Representation: All sides maintain equal foreshortening along the isometric axes.

Hexagon:

 Isometric Projection: Represented as a six-sided figure with equal angles and

foreshortened sides.
 Representation: All sides maintain equal angles between adjacent sides along the
isometric axes.

Drawing Isometrically:

1. Set Up Isometric Axes: Draw three axes at 120-degree angles to each other.
2. Align the Figure: Orient the sides of the plane figure along the axes, ensuring correct
angles and scaling.
3. Sketch the Outline: Draw the outline of the figure, keeping in mind the equal
foreshortening along each axis.
4. Add Details: Include any necessary details or markings to the figure while maintaining
the isometric perspective.

Mastering the creation of isometric projections involves maintaining accurate angles and equal
scaling along each axis, creating a consistent and realistic 3D representation of 2D plane figures.
Practice and familiarity with isometric principles are key to achieving accurate isometric
drawings.

25
Isometric projection of tetrahedron

Creating an isometric projection of a tetrahedron involves representing this three-dimensional

solid object on a two-dimensional surface while adhering to the rules of isometric drawing. A
tetrahedron is a polyhedron with four triangular faces, six edges, and four vertices. Here's how to
depict a tetrahedron in isometric projection:

Isometric Projection of a Tetrahedron:

1. Understanding the Shape:

o A tetrahedron has four equilateral triangular faces.
o All edges and angles within a tetrahedron are equal.
2. Isometric Axes:
o Draw three isometric axes at 120-degree angles to each other (x, y, z axes).
3. Representation:
o Each triangular face of the tetrahedron will be represented by a rhombus in
isometric projection.
o The rhombuses will have equal sides and angles of 120 degrees.
4. Steps to Draw:
o Start by drawing the base of the tetrahedron as an equilateral triangle aligned
along the isometric axes.
o Connect each vertex of the base triangle to form the three remaining triangular
faces.
o Represent each triangular face as a rhombus with equal sides and equal angles.
o Ensure the edges of the rhombuses align with the edges of the tetrahedron.

Key Points:

 All lines in an isometric projection of a tetrahedron will be drawn parallel to the isometric
axes.
 The edges of the tetrahedron will appear foreshortened and equally scaled along each
axis.

26
Tools Used:

 Isometric grid paper or an isometric scale can aid in maintaining accurate proportions and
angles.
 Drawing tools such as pencils, rulers, and protractors for precision in drawing the lines
and shapes.

Importance:

Mastering the isometric projection of complex shapes like tetrahedrons helps in accurately
representing 3D objects on a 2D surface. It's particularly valuable in technical drawings,
engineering, and architectural designs, offering a clear visual representation of solid geometrical
forms in isometric space. Practice and understanding of isometric principles are essential for
accurately portraying various complex shapes.

Hexahedron (cube)

A hexahedron, commonly known as a cube, is a three-dimensional geometric shape characterized

by six square faces, twelve edges, and eight vertices. Representing a cube in isometric projection
involves drawing this three-dimensional shape on a two-dimensional plane while maintaining
accurate proportions and angles along the isometric axes.

Isometric Projection of a Cube:

1. Understanding the Shape:

o A cube has six identical square faces.
o All edges of a cube are equal in length, and all angles within a cube are right
angles (90 degrees).
2. Isometric Axes:
o Draw three isometric axes (x, y, z) at 120-degree angles to each other.
3. Representation:
o Each face of the cube is represented by a square in isometric projection.
o All sides of the square are equal and oriented along the isometric axes.

27
 o Adjacent faces are connected by lines forming the edges of the cube.
4. Steps to Draw:
o Begin by drawing the base square of the cube, aligned along the isometric axes.
o Extend lines from the corners of the base square to create the remaining faces of
the cube.
o Ensure that all lines are parallel to the isometric axes and maintain equal lengths.

Key Points:

 All lines in an isometric projection of a cube will be drawn parallel to the isometric axes.
 The edges of the cube will appear equally scaled and foreshortened along each axis.

Tools Used:

 Isometric grid paper or an isometric scale can aid in maintaining accurate proportions and
angles.
 Drawing tools such as pencils, rulers, and protractors for precision in drawing the lines
and shapes.

Right regular prisms

A right regular prism is a three-dimensional geometric solid characterized by parallel polygonal

bases (which are identical in shape and size) connected by rectangular or parallelogram lateral
faces. The lateral edges of a right regular prism are perpendicular to the bases, resulting in all
lateral faces being rectangles.

Characteristics of a Right Regular Prism:

1. Bases: Identical polygonal shapes that are parallel to each other.

2. Lateral Faces: Rectangular faces connecting corresponding sides of the bases.
3. Edges: Lateral edges are perpendicular to the bases, creating right angles at the vertices.
4. Symmetry: Symmetrical along its vertical axis, with identical cross-sections at any
height.

28
Properties:

 Volume: Calculated by multiplying the area of the base by the height.

 Surface Area: Determined by adding the areas of all faces (two bases and the lateral
faces).

Isometric Projection:

 The isometric projection of a right regular prism involves representing this three-
dimensional shape on a two-dimensional plane using isometric drawing principles.
 Each base of the prism appears as a regular polygon in isometric projection.
 The lateral faces are drawn as rectangles, connecting corresponding sides of the bases
with lines parallel to the isometric axes.

Usage:

 Right regular prisms are commonly found in architecture, engineering, and everyday
objects. Examples include rectangular boxes, buildings with rectangular foundations, and
certain types of containers.

Calculation:

 Volume: V=Base Area×HeightV=Base Area×Height

 Surface Area:

A=2×Base Area+Perimeter of Base×HeightA=2×Base Area+Perimeter of Base×Height

Properties of Specific Right Regular Prisms:

 Rectangular Prism: A right regular prism with rectangular bases. All angles are right
angles.
 Square Prism: A right regular prism with square bases. All lateral faces are square.

29
Mastering the representation and understanding of right regular prisms is fundamental in
geometry, engineering, and architectural drawings. It aids in visualizing, calculating, and
working with three-dimensional objects and their properties in various fields.

Pyramids

Pyramids are three-dimensional geometric solids characterized by a polygonal base and

triangular faces that converge at a single point called the apex or vertex. There are various types
of pyramids based on the shape of their base, such as square pyramids, triangular pyramids,
pentagonal pyramids, etc. Here are details about pyramids:

Characteristics of Pyramids:

1. Base: The bottom polygonal face upon which the pyramid rests. It can be any polygon:
square, triangle, pentagon, etc.
2. Apex: The point at which all the triangular faces meet. It's the topmost point of the
pyramid.
3. Lateral Faces: Triangular faces that connect the base to the apex.
4. Edges: The line segments where the lateral faces meet. Pyramids have a fixed number of
edges depending on the shape of their base.

Types of Pyramids:

1. Triangular Pyramid: Has a triangular base and three triangular faces meeting at the
apex.
2. Square Pyramid: Has a square base and four triangular faces meeting at the apex.
3. Pentagonal, Hexagonal, etc., Pyramids: Based on the number of sides of their base
polygon.

Properties:

 Volume: Calculated as one-third the product of the base area and the height of the
pyramid.

30
  Surface Area: Determined by adding the area of the base to the sum of the areas of all
triangular faces.

Isometric Projection:

 Isometrically projecting a pyramid involves representing this three-dimensional shape on

a two-dimensional plane using isometric drawing principles.
 The base of the pyramid appears as a regular polygon in isometric projection, and the
triangular faces converge toward the apex.

Usage:

 Pyramids have historical significance in architecture, particularly in ancient civilizations

like Egypt, where they were used as monumental structures, tombs, or temples.
 They are also commonly used in mathematics, geometry, and engineering for
understanding spatial concepts and calculations.

Calculation:

 Volume: V=13×Base Area×Height V=31×Base Area×Height

 Surface Area: Base Area + 0.5 * Perimeter of Base * Slant Height

Cylinders

In isometric projection, representing cylinders involves showcasing these three-dimensional

shapes in a two-dimensional space following the rules of isometric drawing. Here's a guide on
how cylinders appear in isometric projections:

Circular Cylinder in Isometric Projection:

1. Bases:
o In isometric projection, the circular bases of the cylinder appear as ellipses or
ovals.
2. Curved Surface:

31
 o The curved lateral surface of the cylinder appears as a series of lines or curves
connecting the corresponding points on the ellipses representing the bases.
3. Axes:
o The axis of the cylinder is drawn parallel to the isometric axes and remains
consistent in direction and length.
4. Foreshortening:
o The sides of the cylinder are equally scaled along each isometric axis, maintaining
equal foreshortening.

Cones

Isometric projection is a method used to represent three-dimensional objects in two dimensions.

Cones can be represented using isometric projections by following certain principles of drawing.

To draw an isometric projection of a cone:

1. Start with the Base: Draw an ellipse or a circle representing the base of the cone. Ensure
that the major axis of the ellipse is angled at 30 degrees from the horizontal.

32
 2. Connect the Apex: From the center of the ellipse, draw lines extending upwards at the
same angle (30 degrees) to represent the sides of the cone converging at a point, forming
the apex.
3. Render the Shape: Connect the apex with the ellipse's perimeter using curved lines,
creating the surface of the cone. The lines should follow the natural curve of the shape,
depicting its three-dimensional form in the isometric projection.
4. Remember, isometric drawings maintain equal angles between the axes, usually 30
degrees in relation to the horizontal plane. This technique allows for a visually appealing
representation of three-dimensional objects in a two-dimensional space.

Spheres

Isometric projection is a method used in technical and engineering drawings to represent three-
dimensional objects in two dimensions. When it comes to spheres, representing them in
isometric projection involves depicting them as ellipses or circles in a way that retains their
three-dimensional appearance.

In isometric projection, circles (like the cross-section of a sphere) appear as ellipses with equal
angles between their axes. The challenge with spheres in isometric projection lies in conveying
their roundness while depicting them on a flat surface.

To draw a sphere in isometric projection:

1. Start with the basic isometric axes (typically at 30-degree angles).

2. Draw the enclosing cube or square that the sphere would fit within.
3. Plot the center point of the sphere within this square/cube.
4. Sketch the ellipses that represent the sphere's shape. The major and minor axes of these
ellipses are equal, emphasizing the sphere's symmetry.

33
Remember, isometric drawing provides a simplified, dimensional representation that doesn't
perfectly mirror reality but gives a good sense of the object's form and space. Practice helps in
mastering the technique!

Cut spheres

Sure, depicting cut spheres in isometric projection involves illustrating a sphere that has been
sliced or cut in a particular direction. Here's a general guide to creating an isometric projection of
a cut sphere:

1. Start with the Sphere: Draw the basic isometric axes and sketch the sphere's outline
using ellipses in the appropriate position and size.
2. Determine the Cutting Plane: Decide where the cut will be made on the sphere. This
will determine the shape and appearance of the cut surface.
3. Sketch the Cut Surface: Draw the cut surface of the sphere. If the cut is horizontal, it
will result in a circle. If it's at an angle, the cut surface will appear as an ellipse or an
irregular shape depending on the angle and direction of the cut.

34
 4. Show the Inside: Depict the internal structure or details of the cut sphere, depending on
what's visible. This might involve showing cross-sections or parts of the sphere's interior.
5. Add Shading and Details: Use shading techniques (such as hatching or rendering) to
add depth and dimension to the cut sphere, distinguishing between the different surfaces
and the interior.

Remember, isometric projection aims to represent three-dimensional objects on a two-

dimensional surface, so it might not capture all the complexities and details of a cut sphere, but it
provides a simplified visual representation. Practice and experimentation with shapes and angles
will improve your isometric drawing skills.

Combinations of solids

Combinations of solids in isometric projection involve illustrating multiple three-dimensional

shapes or objects together in a single drawing. This can include combinations like cubes,
spheres, cylinders, prisms, or any other geometric shapes.

Here’s a step-by-step approach to creating an isometric projection of combined solids:

1. Plan the Composition: Decide which solids you want to combine and their positions in
relation to each other. Consider how they intersect or overlap.

35
 2. Draw the Basic Shapes: Begin by sketching the isometric outlines of each solid
separately. Use guidelines and construction lines to maintain the correct proportions and
angles.
3. Identify Overlapping Areas: If solids intersect or overlap, determine the sections where
they meet. This could involve parts where one solid appears to be in front of or behind
another.
4. Draw Overlapping Sections: Detail the areas where solids intersect. For example, if a
cylinder intersects with a cube, you'll need to draw the parts where the cylinder's curved
surface meets the edges of the cube.
5. Add Details and Shading: Once the basic shapes are established, add details to each
solid, such as distinguishing features, textures, or internal elements. Use shading
techniques to create depth and differentiate between different surfaces.
6. Refine and Finalize: Review the drawing, ensuring that the proportions, angles, and
intersections accurately represent the combination of solids. Make any necessary
adjustments or refinements.

Remember, isometric projection doesn’t perfectly replicate realistic perspectives, but it provides
a simplified representation of combined solids in three dimensions. Practice helps in mastering
the techniques and understanding how different shapes interact in an isometric view.

36
Introduction to computer graphic (autoCAD)

AutoCAD is a computer-aided design (CAD) software developed by Autodesk that has become
an industry standard for creating precise 2D and 3D drawings. Here's an introduction to the key
aspects of AutoCAD:

1. Design and Drafting: AutoCAD allows users to create accurate technical drawings,
plans, and designs. It is extensively used in architecture, engineering, construction,
manufacturing, and other industries to produce detailed blueprints, schematics, and
models.
2. 2D Drafting: In its early iterations, AutoCAD focused primarily on 2D drafting. It
provides tools for creating lines, arcs, circles, polygons, and other geometric shapes.
Users can generate precise technical drawings with annotations, dimensions, and layers to
organize different elements.
3. 3D Modeling: AutoCAD has evolved to include robust 3D modeling capabilities. Users
can create three-dimensional models of objects, buildings, or mechanical parts. It
supports solid modeling, surface modeling, and mesh modeling, allowing users to
visualize designs in three dimensions.
4. Customization and Automation: AutoCAD offers a high level of customization through
its programming interface (AutoLISP, Visual LISP, etc.). Users can automate repetitive
tasks, create custom commands, and develop specialized tools using programming
languages to enhance their workflow.
5. Collaboration and Documentation: AutoCAD facilitates collaboration among teams by
enabling the sharing and annotation of designs. It allows users to produce comprehensive
documentation with dimensions, annotations, and other details necessary for construction
or manufacturing.
6. Integration with Other Autodesk Software: AutoCAD integrates with other Autodesk
products like Revit, 3ds Max, and Inventor, allowing for a seamless transfer of files and
data between different software in the design and engineering process.
7. Continuous Updates and Improvements: Autodesk regularly updates AutoCAD,
introducing new features, tools, and enhancements to improve performance, usability,
and functionality based on industry needs and technological advancements.

37
AutoCAD's versatility, precision, and extensive toolset make it a go-to software for professionals
involved in various design and drafting disciplines. Whether it's creating floor plans, mechanical
designs, architectural drawings, or intricate 3D models, AutoCAD remains a cornerstone in the
world of computer-aided design.

The distinction between AutoCAD and CAD (Computer-Aided Design) lies in their scope and
specific application:

1. CAD (Computer-Aided Design):

o CAD is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of software and technologies
used to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of designs.
o It refers to the entire field of computer-assisted design, including various software
applications beyond AutoCAD.
o CAD software can include programs for 2D drafting, 3D modeling, simulation,
rendering, and more, tailored for specific industries and purposes.
2. AutoCAD:
o AutoCAD is a specific software application within the CAD domain, developed
by Autodesk.
o It's one of the most well-known and widely used CAD software programs
globally, particularly for creating 2D and 3D designs.
o AutoCAD specifically focuses on creating precise technical drawings, schematics,
blueprints, and models used in architecture, engineering, construction, and
manufacturing industries.

In summary, CAD is the general term that encompasses all computer-assisted design tools and
technologies, while AutoCAD is a specific software application falling under the CAD umbrella,
renowned for its capabilities in design and drafting. There are many other CAD software options
available, each tailored to different specialties and industries, whereas AutoCAD remains a
popular choice for its versatility in creating detailed 2D and 3D designs.

Readings Materials

1. Gopala,K.R. K. (2001). Engineering Graphics (15th Edition). Subhash Publishers Bangalore.

38
2. Bhatt,N.D. (2005). Engineering Graphics, Elementary Engineering Drawing (48th Edition),
Charotar Publishing House.
3. Frederick Ernest Giesecke, Henry C. Spencer, Alva E. Mitchell, John Thomas Dygdon, (2012)
Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics, Prentice Hall, ISBN: 0135090490
4. Jay D. Hensel & Glencoe McGraw-Hill. (2003). Mechanical Drawing: Board and CAD
Techniques, 13th Edition. McGraw-Hill.
5. AutoCAD 2015), I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Limited, ISBN: 9384588687

39