Chapter 9

Basic Flight Maneuvers

Introduction
From the previous chapters, it should be apparent that no
two helicopters perform the same way. Even when flying
the same model of helicopter, wind, temperature, humidity,
weight, and equipment make it difficult to predict just how
the helicopter will perform. Therefore, this chapter presents
the basic flight maneuvers in a way that would apply to
the majority of helicopters. In most cases, the techniques
described apply to small training helicopters with:
• A single, main rotor rotating in a counterclock­wise
direction (looking downward on the rotor).
• An antitorque system.

9-1
Where a technique differs, it is noted. For example, a power Perform the maneuver with less intensity until all
increase on a helicopter with a clockwise rotor system aspects of the machine can be controlled. The pilot
requires right antitorque pedal pressure instead of left pedal must be aware of the sensitivity of the flight controls
pressure. In many cases, the terminology “apply proper pedal due to the high speed of the main rotor.
pressure” is used to indicate both types of rotor systems. 2. Anticipate changes in aircraft performance due to
However, when discussing throt­tle coordination to maintain loading or environmental condition. The normal
proper rotations per minute (rpm), there is no differentiation collective increase to check rotor speed at sea level
between those helicopters with a gov­ernor and those without. standard (SLS) may not be sufficient at 4,000 feet
In a sense, the governor is doing the work for you. In addition, pressure altitude (PA) and 95 °F.
instead of using the terms “collective pitch control” and
“cyclic pitch control” throughout the chapter, these controls 3. The following flight characteristics may be expected
are referred to as just “collective” and “cyclic.” during maneuvering flight and will be discussed and
demonstrated by your Flight Instructor:
Because helicopter performance varies with weather • Left turns, torque increases (more antitorque).
conditions and aircraft loading, specific nose attitudes and This applies to most helicopters, but not all.
power settings are not detailed in this handbook. In addition,
• Right turns, torque decreases (less antitorque).
this chapter does not detail every attitude of a helicopter in
This applies to most helicopters, but not all.
the various flight maneuvers, nor every move that must be
made in order to perform a given maneuver. • Application of aft cyclic, torque decreases and
rotor speed increases.
When a maneuver is presented, there is a brief description, • Application of forward cyclic (especially when
followed by the technique to accomplish the maneuver. In immediately following aft cyclic application),
most cases, there is a list of common errors at the end of the torque increases and rotor speed decreases.
discussion.
• Always leave a way out.
The Four Fundamentals • Know where the winds are.
There are four fundamentals of flight upon which all • Engine failures can occur during power changes
maneuvers are based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and cruise flight. One possible cause of engine
and descents. All controlled flight maneuvers consist of one failure during cruise flight can be attributed to the
or more of these four fundamentals of flight. If a student pilot pilot ignoring carburetor air temperatures, which
is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the student’s could lead to carburetor icing and, subsequently,
proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and control analysis engine failure.
rather than mechanical movements, the ability to perform • Crew coordination is critical. Everyone needs
any assigned maneuver is only a matter of obtaining a clear to be fully aware of what is going on, and each
visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must crewmember has a specific duty.
impart a good knowledge of these basic elements to the
student and must combine them and plan their practice so that • In steep turns, the nose drops. In most cases,
proper performance of each is instinctive without conscious energy (airspeed) must be traded to maintain
effort. The importance of this to the success of flight training altitude as the required excess engine power may
cannot be overemphasized. As the student progresses to not be available (to maintain airspeed in a 2G/60°
more complex maneuvers, discounting any difficulties in turn, rotor thrust/engine power must increase by
visualizing the maneuvers, most student difficulties are 100 percent). Failure to anticipate this at low
caused by a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the altitude endangers the crew and passengers.
principles of one or more of these fundamentals. The rate of pitch change is proportional to gross
weight and density altitude.
Guidelines • Normal helicopter landings usually require high
Good practices to follow during maneuvering flight include: power settings, with terminations to a hover
requiring the highest power setting.
1. Move the cyclic only as fast as trim, torque, and rotor
speed can be maintained. When entering a maneuver • The cyclic position relative to the horizon
and the trim, rotor, or torque reacts quicker than determines the helicopter’s travel and attitude.
anticipated, pilot limitations have been exceeded. If
continued, an aircraft limitation will be exceeded.

9-2
Straight-and-Level Flight Although the cyclic is sensitive, there is a slight delay in
control reaction, and it is necessary to antici­pate actual
Straight-and-level flight is flight in which constant altitude
movement of the helicopter. When making cyclic inputs to
and heading are maintained. The attitude of the rotor disk
control the altitude or airspeed of a hel­icopter, take care not
relative to the horizon determines the airspeed. The horizontal
to overcontrol. If the nose of the helicopter rises above the
stabilizer design determines the helicopter’s attitude when
level-flight attitude, apply forward pressure to the cyclic to
stabilized at an airspeed and altitude. Altitude is primarily
bring the nose down. If this correction is held too long, the
controlled by use of the collective.
nose drops too low. Since the helicopter continues to change
attitude momentarily after the controls reach neutral, return
Technique
the cyclic to neutral slightly before the desired attitude is
To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-path plane must
reached. This principle holds true for any cyclic input.
be tilted forward to obtain the necessary horizontal thrust
component from the main rotor. By doing this, it causes the
Since helicopters are not very stable, but are inherently very
nose of the helicopter to lower which in turn will cause the
controllable, if a gust or turbulence causes the nose to drop,
airspeed to increase. In order to counteract this, the pilot
the nose tends to continue to drop instead of returning to a
must find the correct power setting to maintain level flight by
straight-and-level attitude as it would on a fixed-wing aircraft.
adjusting the collective. [Figure 9-1] The horizontal stabilizer
Therefore, a pilot must remain alert and fly the helicop­ter
aids in trimming the helicopter about its transverse, horizontal
at all times.
axis, and reduces the amount of nose tuck that would occur.
On several helicopters, it is designed as a negative lift airfoil,
Common Errors
which produces a lifting force in a downward direction.
1. Failure to trim the helicopter properly, tending to hold
When in straight-and-level flight, any increase in the antitorque pedal pressure and opposite cyclic. This is
collective, while holding airspeed constant, causes the commonly called cross-controlling.
helicopter to climb. A decrease in the collective, while holding 2. Failure to maintain desired airspeed.
airspeed constant, causes the helicopter to descend. A change
in the collective requires a coordi­nated change of the throttle 3. Failure to hold proper control position to main­tain
to maintain a constant rpm. Additionally, the antitorque pedals desired ground track.
need to keep the helicopter in trim around the vertical axis. 4. Failure to allow helicopter to stabilize at new airspeed.

To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight, apply Turns

forward pressure on the cyclic and raise the collective as
A turn is a maneuver used to change the heading of the
necessary to maintain altitude. To decrease airspeed, apply
helicopter. The aerodynamics of a turn were previously
rearward pressure on the cyclic and lower the collective, as
discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics of Flight.
necessary, to maintain altitude.
Technique
Before beginning any turn, the area in the direction of the
turn must be cleared not only at the helicopter’s alti­tude, but
also above and below. To enter a turn from straight-and-level
flight, apply sideward pressure on the cyclic in the direction
A O M
the turn is to be made. This is the only control movement
E R
CLUTCH
MR
TEMP

0
MR
CHIP
STARTER
ON
TR
CHIP
lOW
FUEL
LOW
RPM

needed to start the turn. Do not use the pedals to assist the
10

KNOTS 20 FEET
30 I00

100 120
20
30 9 0 I
110 110
40 20 20
2
100 100 110
MPH
40
I0 I0 8 ALT

turn. Use the pedals only to compensate for torque to keep

90 90
50 29.8
90
CALIBRATED
TO
80 80 100 20,000 FEET 29.9
30.0

50
70
60
70
60
50
90 70
60 50 20
I0 I0
20 7 3
80
6
5 4
80 60
%RPM
70 STBY PWR TEST

20 L R I0

the helicopter in trim around the vertical axis. [Figure 9-2]

15
30 15
25 24 5
MANFOLD UP
VERTICAL SPEED
33

PRESS
2I

10 30
100 FEET PER MINUTE

0 20
IN H g
5 35
DOWN
I5

AL g.
3

5
6 15
I0
I2
2 MIN TURN
DC ELEC

Keeping the fuselage in the correct streamlined position

N 3
33
6
30

GS
W

E
12
24

NAV
245 II5 FUEL
26 26 15
T I00 P 20 R OBS
21 S
R I

around the vertical axis facilitates the helicopter flying

E G
E
M S H
P S T

Figure 9-1. Maintain straight-and-level flight by adjusting the rotor

tip-path plane forward but adjusting the collective as necessary to forward with the least drag. Trim is indicated by a yaw string
maintain a constant airspeed and altitude. The natural horizon line in the center, or a centered ball on a turn and slip indicator. A
can be used as an aid in maintaining straight-and-level flight. If yaw string (also referred to as a slip string) is a tool used to
the horizon line begins to rise, slight power may be required or the indicate slip or skid during flight. It is simply a string attached
nose of the helicopter may be too low. If the horizon line is slowly to the nose or canopy of an aircraft so that it is visible to the
dropping, some power may need to be taken out or the nose of the pilot during flight. The string measures sideslip and offers
helicopter may be too high, requiring a cyclic adjustment. a visual cue to the pilot in order to make yaw corrections.

9-3
 or too much in the direction oppo­site the turn, in relation
to the amount of power used. In other words, if you hold
improper antitorque pedal pres­sure, which keeps the nose
from following the turn, the helicopter slips sideways toward
the center of the turn.

Inertia Skids
A skid occurs when the helicopter slides sideways away from
HCL the center of the turn. [Figure 9-4] It is caused by too much
antitorque pedal pressure in the direction of the turn, or by
too little in the direction opposite the turn in relation to the
amount of power used. If the helicopter is forced to turn faster
Figure 9-2. During a level, coordinated turn, the rate of turn with increased pedal pressure instead of by increasing the
is commensurate with the angle of bank used, and inertia and degree of the bank, it skids sideways away from the center
horizontal component of lift (HCL) are equal. of the turn instead of flying in its normal curved path.

How fast the helicopter banks depends on how much lateral In summary, a skid occurs when the rate of turn is too great
cyclic pressure is applied. How far the helicop­ter banks (the for the amount of bank being used, and a slip occurs when
steepness of the bank) depends on how long the cyclic is the rate of turn is too low for the amount of bank being used.
displaced. After establishing the proper bank angle, return [Figure 9-5]
the cyclic toward the neutral position. When the bank is
established, returning the cyclic to neutral (or holding it Slip
inclined relative to the horizon) will maintain the helicopter
at that bank angle. Increase the collective and throttle to
maintain altitude and rpm. As the torque increases, increase
HCL
the proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain longi­tudinal
trim. Depending on the degree of bank, addi­tional forward
cyclic pressure may be required to maintain airspeed.
Inertia
Rolling out of the turn to straight-and-level flight is the same
as the entry into the turn, except that pressure on the cyclic
is applied in the opposite direction. Since the helicopter
continues to turn as long as there is any bank, start the rollout
Figure 9-3. During a slip, the rate of turn is too low for the angle
before reaching the desired heading.
of bank used, and the horizontal component of lift (HCL) exceeds
The discussion on level turns is equally applicable to making inertia.
turns while climbing or descending. The only difference is
that the helicopter is in a climbing or descending attitude
Skid
rather than that of level flight. If a so-called simultaneous
entry (entering a turn while, at the same time, climbing or
descending) is desired, merely combine the techniques of
both maneuvers—climb or descent entry and turn entry.
HCL
When recovering from a climbing or descending turn, the
desired heading and altitude are rarely reached at the same
time. If the heading is reached first, stop the turn and maintain
the climb or descent until reaching the desired altitude. On the Inertia
other hand, if the altitude is reached first, establish the level
flight attitude and continue the turn to the desired heading.

Slips Figure 9-4. During a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the
A slip occurs when the helicopter slides sideways toward the angle of bank used, and inertia exceeds the horizontal component
center of the turn. [Figure 9-3] It is caused by an insufficient of lift (HCL).
amount of antitorque pedal in the direction of the turn,

9-4
 If the pilot wishes to climb faster, with a decreased airspeed,
Slip then the climb can be initiated with aft cyclic. Depending
on initial or entry airspeed for the climb, the climb can be
Yaw string accomplished without increasing the collective, if a much
slower airspeed is acceptable. However, as the airspeed
decreases, the airflow over the vertical fin decreases
4 6 LT
O

6
0
10

necessitating more antitorque (left) pedal application.

SA
Acceleration
4 8 60
40

ts
2 8 2 10 160

kno
G UNITS knots
0 winter knots
140

90
80
0 10 2 10 120
100
4 8

50
-2 6
-4 20

80
PUS 60
H
70

To level off from a climb, start adjusting the attitude to the

GO
OFF I00 FEET FOR

9 0
N 30 60 E 120 150
STEER

PULL
NET AVG

L
+
FNCN
I
DIST
NAV
VOL BATT 8 CALIBRATED ALT 2
29.8
PUSH ALT
PWR TO
20,000 FEET
29.9
KNOTS 30.0
−
HW 7 3 FOR

level flight attitude a few feet prior to reaching the desired

SEL S 210 240 W 300 330

6
5 4
STEER

ON ON

PUS RADIO

altitude. The amount of lead depends on the rate of climb at

Coordinated the time of level-off (the higher the rate of climb, the more
the lead). Generally, the lead is 10 percent of the climb rate.
For example, if the climb rate is 500 feet per minute (fpm),
Yaw string
you should lead the level-off by 50 feet.

4 6 LT
O

6
0
10
To begin the level-off, apply forward cyclic to adjust and
SA

4 8 60

maintain a level flight attitude, which can be slightly nose

Acceleration 40
ts

2 8 2 10 160
kno

G UNITS knots
0 winter knots
140
90

80
0 10 2 10 120
100
4 8
50

-2 6
-4 20
80

PUS 60
H
70

OFF

PULL
NET
GO

AVG

L
NAV +
FNCN

VOL BATT 8
9 0
I00 FEET

ALT
I
2
N 30 60
FOR

STEER
E 120 150
low. Maintain climb power until the airspeed approaches the
desired cruising airspeed, then lower the collective to obtain
DIST CALIBRATED
29.8
PUSH ALT
PWR TO
20,000 FEET
29.9
KNOTS 30.0
−
HW
SEL
7 3 S 210 240
FOR

W 300 330

6
5 4
STEER

ON ON

PUS RADIO

cruising power and adjust the throttle to obtain and maintain

Skid cruising rpm. Throughout the level-off, maintain longitudinal
trim with the antitorque pedals.
Yaw string
Common Errors
1. Failure to maintain proper power and airspeed.
2. Holding too much or too little antitorque pedal.
0
10
O
LT
4 6 6
SA

Acceleration
4 8 60
40
ts

2 8 2 10 160
kno

G UNITS knots
0 winter knots
140
90

80
0 10 2 10 120
100
4 8
50

-2 6
-4 20
80

PUS 60

3. In the level-off, decreasing power before adjusting the

H
70

GO
OFF I00 FEET FOR

9 0
N 30 60 E 120 150
STEER

PULL
NET AVG

L
+
FNCN
I
NAV
8 2

nose to cruising attitude.

VOL BATT ALT
DIST CALIBRATED
29.8
PUSH ALT
PWR TO
20,000 FEET
29.9
KNOTS 30.0
−
HW
SEL
7 3 S 210 240
FOR

W 300 330

6
5 4
STEER

ON ON

PUS RADIO

Normal Descent
Figure 9-5. Cockpit view of a slip and skid.
A normal descent is a maneuver in which the helicop­ter loses
altitude at a controlled rate in a controlled attitude.
Normal Climb
The entry into a climb from a hover has already been described Technique
in the Normal Takeoff from a Hover subsection; there­fore, To establish a normal descent from straight-and-level flight
this discussion is limited to a climb entry from cruising flight. at cruising airspeed, lower the collective to obtain proper
power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase
Technique right antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading in a
To enter a climb in a helicopter while maintaining airspeed, counterclockwise rotor system (or left pedal pressure in a
the first actions are increasing the collective and throttle, clockwise system). If cruising airspeed is the same as or
and adjusting the pedals as necessary to maintain a centered slightly above descending air­speed, simultaneously apply
ball in the slip/skid indicator. Moving the collective up the necessary cyclic pressure to obtain the approximate
requires a slight aft movement of the cyclic to direct all descending attitude. If the pilot wants to decelerate, the
of the increased power into lift and maintain the airspeed. cyclic must be moved aft. If the pilot desires to descend with
Remember, a helicopter can climb with the nose down and increased airspeed, then forward cyclic is all that is required if
descend with the nose up. Helicopter attitude changes mainly airspeed remains under the limit. As the helicopter stabilizes
reflect acceleration or deceleration, not climb or descent. at any forward airspeed, the fuselage attitude will streamline
Therefore, the climb attitude is approximately the same as due to the airflow over the horizontal stabilizer. As the
level flight in a stable climb, depending on the aircraft’s airspeed changes, the airflow over the vertical stabilizer or
horizontal stabilizer design. fin changes, so the pedals must be adjusted for trim.

9-5
The pilot should always remember that the total lift and thrust collective. Helicopter position and the direction of travel are
vectoring is controlled by the cyclic. If a certain airspeed controlled by the cyclic.
is desired, it will require a certain amount of cyclic and
collective movement for level flight. If the cyclic is moved, After receiving the proper clearance and ensuring that the
the thrust-versus-lift ratio is changed. Aft cyclic directs area is clear of obstacles and traffic, begin the maneuver with
more power to lift, and altitude increases. Forward cyclic the collective in the down position and the cyclic in a neutral
directs more power to thrust, and airspeed increases. If the position, or slightly into the wind. Very slowly increase the
collective is not changed and there is a change only in cyclic, collective until the helicopter becomes light on the skids or
the total thrust to lift ratio does not change: aft cyclic results wheels. As collective and torque increases, antitorque must
in a climb, and forward cyclic results in a descent with the be adjusted as well. Therefore, as the aircraft begins to get
corresponding airspeed changes. light on the landing gear, apply appropriate antitorque pedal
to maintain aircraft heading. Continue to apply pedals as
To level off from the descent, lead the desired altitude necessary to maintain heading and coordinate the cyclic for
by approximately 10 percent of the rate of descent. For a vertical ascent. As the helicopter slowly leaves the ground,
example, a 500-fpm rate of descent would require a 50-foot check for proper attitude control response and helicopter
lead. At this point, increase the collective to obtain cruising center of gravity. A slow ascent will allow stopping if
power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase left responses are outside the normal parameters indicating hung
antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading (right pedal or entangled landing gear, center of gravity problems, or
pressure in a clockwise rotor system). Adjust the cyclic to control issues. If a roll or tilt begin, decrease the collective
obtain cruising airspeed and a level flight atti­tude as the and determine the cause of the roll or tilt. Upon reaching the
desired altitude is reached. desired hover altitude, adjust the flight controls as necessary
to maintain position over the intended hover area. Student
Common Errors pilots should be reminded that while at a hover, the helicopter
is rarely ever level. Helicopters usually hover left side low
1. Failure to maintain constant angle of decent dur­ing
due to the tail rotor thrust being counteracted by the main
training.
rotor tilt. A nose low or high condition is generally caused
2. Failure to level-off the aircraft sufficiently, which by loading. Once stabilized, check the engine instruments
results in recovery below the desired altitude. and note the power required to hover.
3. Failure to adjust antitorque pedal pressures for changes
in power. Excessive movement of any flight control requires a change
in the other flight controls. For example, if the helicopter
Vertical Takeoff to a Hover drifts to one side while hovering, the pilot naturally moves
the cyclic in the opposite direction. When this is done,
A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the helicopter
part of the vertical thrust is diverted, resulting in a loss of
from the ground vertically to a skid height of two to three
altitude. To maintain altitude, increase the collective. This
feet, while maintaining a constant heading. Once the desired
increases drag on the blades and tends to slow them down. To
skid height is achieved, the helicopter should remain nearly
counteract the drag and maintain rpm, increase the throttle.
motionless over a reference point at a constant altitude and
Increased throttle means increased torque, so the pilot must
on a constant heading. The maneuver requires a high degree
add more pedal pressure to maintain the heading. This can
of concentration and coordination.
easily lead to overcontrolling the helicopter. However, as
Technique level of proficiency increases, prob­lems associated with
overcontrolling decrease. Helicopter controls are usually
The pilot on the controls needs to clear the area left, right,
more driven by pressure than by gross control movements.
and above to perform a vertical takeoff to a hover. The
pilot should remain focused outside the aircraft and obtain
Common Errors
clearance to take off from the controlling tower. If necessary,
the pilot who is not on the controls assists in clearing the 1. Failing to ascend vertically as the helicopter becomes
aircraft and provides adequate warning of any obstacles and airborne.
any unannounced or unusual drift/altitude changes. 2. Pulling excessive collective to become airborne,
causing the helicopter to gain too much altitude.
Heading control, direction of turn, and rate of turn at hover
are all controlled by using the pedals. Hover height, rate of 3. Overcontrolling the antitorque pedals, which not only
ascent, and the rate of descent are controlled by using the changes the heading of the helicopter, but also changes
the rpm.

9-6
 4. Reducing throttle rapidly in situations in which 3. Confusing attitude changes for altitude changes, which
proper rpm has been exceeded, usually resulting in results in improper use of the controls.
exaggerated heading changes and loss of lift, resulting 4. Hovering too high, creating a hazardous flight
in loss of altitude. condition. The height velocity chart should be
5. Failing to ascend slowly. referenced to determine the maximum skid height
to hover and safely recover the helicopter should a
Hovering malfunction occur.
A stationary hover is a maneuver in which the helicopter is 5. Hovering too low, resulting in occasional touch­down.
main­tained in nearly motionless flight over a reference point
6. Becoming overly confident over prepared surfaces
at a constant altitude and on a constant heading.
when taking off to a hover. Be aware that dynamic
rollover accidents usually occur over a level surface.
Technique
To maintain a hover over a point, use sideview and peripheral Hovering Turn
vision to look for small changes in the helicopter’s attitude
and altitude. When these changes are noted, make the A hovering turn is a maneuver performed at hovering height
necessary con­trol inputs before the helicopter starts to in which the nose of the helicopter is rotated either left or
move from the point. To detect small variations in altitude right while maintaining position over a reference point on the
or position, the main area of visual attention needs to be surface. Hovering turns can also be made around the mast or
some distance from the aircraft, using various points on the tail of the aircraft. The maneuver requires the coordination
helicopter or the tip-path plane as a reference. Looking too of all flight controls and demands pre­cise control near the
closely or looking down leads to overcontrolling. Obviously, surface. A pilot should maintain a constant altitude, rate of
in order to remain over a certain point, know where the point turn, and rpm.
is, but do not focus all attention there.
Technique
As with a takeoff, the pilot controls altitude with the collec­ Initiate the turn in either direction by applying anti-torque
tive and maintains a constant rpm with the throttle. The cyclic pedal pressure toward the desired direction. It should be noted
is used to maintain the helicopter’s position; the pedals, to that during a turn to the left, more power is required because
control heading. To maintain the helicopter in a stabilized left pedal pressure increases the pitch angle of the tail rotor,
hover, make small, smooth, coordinated corrections. As the which, in turn, requires additional power from the engine. A
desired effect occurs, remove the correction in order to stop the turn to the right requires less power. (On helicopters with a
helicopter’s movement. For example, if the helicopter begins clock­wise rotating main rotor, right pedal increases the pitch
to move rearward, apply a small amount of forward cyclic angle and, therefore, requires more power.)
pressure. However, neutralize this pres­sure just before the
helicopter comes to a stop, or it will begin to move forward. As the turn begins, use the cyclic as necessary (usually into
the wind) to keep the helicopter over the desired spot. To
After experience is gained, a pilot develops a certain “feel” continue the turn, add more pedal pressure as the helicopter
for the helicopter. Small deviations can be felt and seen, turns to the cross­wind position. This is because the wind is
so you can make the corrections before the helicopter striking the tail surface and tail rotor area, making it more
actually moves. A certain relaxed looseness develops, and difficult for the tail to turn into the wind. As pedal pressures
controlling the helicopter becomes sec­ond nature, rather than increase due to crosswind forces, increase the cyclic pressure
a mechanical response. into the wind to maintain position. Use the collective with the
throttle to maintain a constant altitude and rpm. [Figure 9-6]
Common Errors
After the 90° portion of the turn, decrease pedal pressure
1. Tenseness and slow reactions to movements of the slightly to maintain the same rate of turn. Approaching the
helicopter. 180°, or downwind portion, anticipate opposite pedal pressure
2. Failure to allow for lag in cyclic and collective pitch, due to the tail moving from an upwind position to a down­
which leads to overcontrolling. It is very common for wind position. At this point, the rate of turn has a ten­dency
a student to get ahead of the helicopter. Due to inertia, to increase at a rapid rate due to the tendency of the tail
it requires some small time period for the helicopter surfaces to weathervane. Because of the tailwind condition,
to respond.

9-7
 Cyclic—Forward Cyclic—Right Cyclic—Rearward Cyclic—Left Cyclic—Forward

WIND

WIND
Pedal Pedal Pedal Pedal Pedal
Some left in hover, more Most left pressure in Changing from left to Most right pedal Some right to stop turn,
left to start turn to left turn right pressure pressure in turn then left to maintain
heading

Collective Collective Collective Collective Collective

Adjust collective as Adjust collective as Adjust collective as Adjust collective as Adjust collective as
necessary to maintain necessary to maintain necessary to maintain necessary to maintain necessary to maintain
proper hover height proper hover height proper hover height proper hover height proper hover height

Throttle Throttle Throttle Throttle Throttle

As necessary to As necessary to As necessary to As necessary to As necessary to
maintain rpm maintain rpm maintain rpm maintain rpm maintain rpm

Normally left pedal Normally left pedal Normally left pedal Normally left pedal
application requires application requires application requires application requires
more throttle more throttle more throttle more throttle

Figure 9-6. Left turns in helicopters with a counterclockwise rotating main rotor are more difficult to execute because the tail rotor
demands more power. This requires you to compensate with additional left pedal and increased throttle. Refer to this graphic throughout
the remainder of the discussion on a hovering turn to the left.

hold rearward cyclic pressure to keep the helicopter over Control pressures and direction of application change
the same spot. continuously throughout the turn. The most dramatic change
is the pedal pressure (and corresponding power requirement)
The horizontal stabilizer has a tendency to lift the tail during necessary to control the rate of turn as the helicopter moves
a tailwind condition. This is the most difficult portion of through the downwind portion of the maneuver.
the hovering turn. Horizontal and vertical stabilizers have
several different designs and locations, including the canted
stabilizers used on some Hughes and Schweizer helicopters. Turns can be made in either direction; however, in a high
The primary purpose of the vertical stabilizer is to unload wind condition, the tail rotor may not be able to produce
the work of the antitorque system and to aid in trimming the enough thrust, which means the pilot cannot control a turn
helicopter in flight should the antitorque system fail. The to the right in a counterclockwise rotor system. Therefore,
horizontal stabilizer provides for a more usable CG range if control is ever question­able, first attempt to make a 90°
and aids in trimming the helicopter longitudinally. turn to the left. If sufficient tail rotor thrust exists to turn
the helicopter crosswind in a left turn, a right turn can be
Because of the helicopter’s tendency to weathervane, successfully controlled. The opposite applies to helicopters
maintaining the same rate of turn from the 180° posi­tion with clockwise rotor systems. In this case, start the turn to
actually requires some pedal pressure opposite the direction the right. Hovering turns should be avoided in winds strong
of turn. If a pilot does not apply opposite pedal pressure, enough to preclude sufficient aft cyclic control to maintain
the helicopter tends to turn at a faster rate. The amount of the helicopter on the selected surface reference point
pedal pressure and cyclic deflection throughout the turn when headed downwind. Check the flight manual for the
depends on the wind velocity. As the turn is finished on the manufacturer’s recom­mendations for this limitation.
upwind heading, apply opposite pedal pressure to stop the
turn. Gradually apply forward cyclic pressure to keep the
helicopter from drifting.

9-8
Common Errors 2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting
in excessive heading change.
1. Failing to maintain a slow, constant rate of turn.
3. Failure to maintain desired hovering height.
2. Failing to maintain position over the reference point.
4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.
3. Failing to maintain rpm within normal range.
5. Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.
4. Failing to maintain constant altitude.
5. Failing to use the antitorque pedals properly. Hovering—Sideward Flight
Sideward hovering flight may be necessary to move the
Hovering—Forward Flight helicopter to a specific area when conditions make it
Forward hovering flight is normally used to move a helicopter impossible to use forward flight. During the maneu­ver,
to a specific location, and it may begin from a stationary a constant groundspeed, altitude, and heading should be
hover. During the maneuver, constant groundspeed, altitude, maintained.
and heading should be maintained.
Technique
Technique Before starting sideward hovering flight, ensure the area
Before starting, pick out two references directly in front and for the hover is clear, especially at the tail rotor. Constantly
in line with the helicopter. These reference points should be monitor hover height and tail rotor clearance during all
kept in line throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-7] hovering maneuvers to prevent dynamic rollover or tail
rotor strikes to the ground. Then, pick two points of in-line
Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by reference in the direction of sideward hovering flight to help
applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As movement maintain the proper ground track. These reference points
begins, return the cyclic toward the neutral position to should be kept in line throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-8]
maintain low groundspeed—no faster than a brisk walk.
Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by
and path over the ground with the cyclic, a constant heading applying cyclic toward the side in which the movement is
with the antitorque pedals, altitude with the collective, and desired. As the movement begins, return the cyclic toward the
the proper rpm with the throttle. neutral position to maintain low groundspeed—no faster than
a brisk walk. Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant
To stop the forward movement, apply rearward cyclic groundspeed and ground track with cyclic. Maintain heading,
pressure until the helicopter stops. As forward motion stops,
return the cyclic to the neutral position to pre­vent rearward
movement. Forward movement can also be stopped by
simply applying rearward pressure to level the helicopter
and allowing it to drift to a stop.

Common Errors
1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in
erratic movement over the surface.

Reference point
Reference point
A O M

MR MR STARTER TR lOW LOW

CLUTCH
TEMP CHIP ON CHIP FUEL RPM

0
E R
10

KNOTS 20 FEET
30 I00

100 120
20
30 9 0 I
110 110
40 20 20
2
100
90
100
90
110
MPH
40
50
I0 I0 8 ALT 29.8
90
CALIBRATED
TO
80 80 100 20,000 FEET 29.9
30.0

50
70
60
70
60
50
90 70
60 50 20
I0 I0
20 7 3
80
6
5 4
80 60
%RPM
70 STBY PWR TEST

15
20
25 L R 24
30
5
I0 15
MANFOLD UP
VERTICAL SPEED
33

PRESS
2I

10 30
100 FEET PER MINUTE

0 20
IN H g
5 35
DOWN
I5

AL g.
3

5
6 15
I0
I2
2 MIN TURN
DC ELEC

N 3
33
6
30

GS
W

Figure 9-8. The key to hovering sideward is establishing at least

12
24

NAV
245 II5 FUEL
26 26 15
T I00 P 20 R OBS
21 S
R I
E G
E
M S H
P S T

Figure 9-7. To maintain a straight ground track, use two reference two reference points that help maintain a straight track over the
points in line and at some distance in front of the helicopter. ground while keeping a constant heading.

9-9
which in this maneuver is perpendicular to the ground track, To stop the rearward movement, apply forward cyclic and
with the antitorque pedals, and a constant altitude with the hold it until the helicopter stops. As the motion stops, return
collective. Use the throttle to maintain the proper operating the cyclic to the neutral position. Also, as in the case of
rpm. Be aware that the nose tends to weathervane into the forward and sideward hovering flight, opposite cyclic can
wind. Changes in the pedal position will change the rpm be used to level the helicopter and let it drift to a stop. Tail
and must be corrected by collective and/or throttle changes rotor clearance must be maintained. Generally, a higher-than-
to maintain altitude. normal hover altitude is preferred.

To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclic pres­sure in Common Errors

the direction opposite to that of movement and hold it until
1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic resulting in
the helicopter stops. As motion stops, return the cyclic to
overcontrolling and an uneven movement over the
the neutral position to prevent movement in the opposite
surface.
direction. Applying sufficient opposite cyclic pressure to
level the helicopter may also stop sideward move­ment. The 2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting
helicopter then drifts to a stop. in excessive heading change.
3. Failure to maintain desired hovering height.
Common Errors
4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.
1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in
5. Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting
overcontrolling and erratic movement over the surface.
the maneuver.
2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting
in excessive heading change. Taxiing
3. Failure to maintain desired hovering height. Taxiing refers to operations on or near the surface of taxiways
4. Failure to maintain proper rpm. or other prescribed routes. Helicopters utilize three different
types of taxiing.
5. Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting
the maneuver. Hover Taxi
A hover taxi is used when operating below 25 feet above
Hovering—Rearward Flight ground level (AGL). [Figure 9-9] Since hover taxi is just like
Rearward hovering flight may be necessary to move the forward, sideward, or rearward hovering flight, the technique
helicopter to a specific area when the situation is such that to perform it is not presented here.
forward or sideward hovering flight cannot be used. During
the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed, altitude, and Air Taxi
heading. Due to the limited visibility behind a helicopter, it An air taxi is preferred when movements require greater
is important that the area behind the helicopter be cleared distances within an airport or heliport bound­ary. [Figure 9-10]
before beginning the maneuver. Use of ground personnel is In this case, fly to the new location; however, it is expected
rec­ommended. that the helicopter will remain below 100 feet AGL with
an appropriate airspeed and will avoid over flight of other
Technique aircraft, vehicles, and personnel.
Before starting rearward hovering flight, pick out two
reference points in front of, and in line with the heli­copter
Hover taxi (25 feet or less)
just like hovering for­ward. [Figure 9-7] The movement of
the helicopter should be such that these points remain in line.

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height

by applying rearward pressure on the cyclic. After the
movement has begun, position the cyclic to maintain a slow
groundspeed—no faster than a brisk walk. Throughout the
maneuver, maintain constant ground­speed and ground track
with the cyclic, a constant heading with the antitorque pedals,
constant altitude with the collective, and the proper rpm with Poor surface conditions for skid type helicopters
the throttle.
Figure 9-9. Hover taxi.

9-10
 6. Flying in the cross-hatched or shaded area of the
Air taxi (100 feet or less) height/velocity diagram.
7. Flying in a crosswind that could lead to loss of tail
rotor effectiveness.
8. Excessive tail-low attitudes.
9. Excessive power used or required to stop.
10. Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.

Surface Taxi
Faster travel
A surface taxi is used to minimize the effects of rotor
downwash in wheel-type helicopters. [Figure 9-11] Surface
Figure 9-10. Air taxi.
taxiing in skid type helicopters is generally not recommended
due to the high risk of dynamic rollover; for more information,
Technique refer to Chapter 11, Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards.
Before starting, determine the appropriate airspeed and
altitude combination to remain out of the cross-hatched or Technique
shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram (see Figure 7-1). The helicopter should be in a stationary position on the surface
Additionally, be aware of crosswind conditions that could with the collective full down and the rpm the same as that
lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness. Pick out two references used for a hover. This rpm should be maintained throughout
directly in front of the helicopter for the ground path desired. the maneuver. Then, move the cyclic slightly forward and
These reference points should be kept in line throughout the apply gradual upward pres­sure on the collective to move
maneuver. the helicopter forward along the surface. Use the antitorque
pedals to maintain heading and the cyclic to maintain ground
Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by track. The collective controls starting, stopping, and speed
applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As move­ment while taxiing. The higher the collective pitch, the faster the
begins, attain the desired airspeed with the cyclic. Control the taxi speed; however, do not taxi faster than a brisk walk. If
desired altitude with the collective and rpm with the throttle. the helicopter is equipped with brakes, use them to help slow
Throughout the maneuver, maintain a desired groundspeed down. Do not use the cyclic to control groundspeed.
and ground track with the cyclic, a constant heading with
antitorque pedals, the desired altitude with the collective, During a crosswind taxi, hold the cyclic into the wind a
and proper operating rpm with the throttle. sufficient amount to eliminate any drifting movement.

To stop the forward movement, apply aft cyclic pressure to Common Errors
reduce forward speed. Simultaneously lower the col­lective to
initiate a descent to hover altitude. As forward motion stops, 1. Improper use of cyclic.
return the cyclic to the neutral posi­tion to prevent rearward 2. Failure to use antitorque pedals for heading control.
movement. As approaching the proper hover altitude, increase
the collective as necessary to stop descent at hover altitude
(much like a quick stop maneuver (see page 10-4)). Surface taxi

Common Errors
1. Erratic movement of the cyclic, resulting in improper
airspeed control and erratic movement over the
surface.
2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, result­ing
in excessive heading change.
3. Failure to maintain desired altitude. Less rotor downwash

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

Figure 9-11. Surface taxi.
5. Overflying parked aircraft causing possible dam­age
from rotor downwash.

9-11
 3. Improper use of the controls during crosswind While accelerating through effec­tive translational lift (position
operations. 3), the helicopter begins to climb, and the nose tends to rise
4. Failure to maintain proper rpm. due to increased lift. At this point, adjust the collective to
obtain normal climb power and apply enough forward cyclic
Normal Takeoff from a Hover to overcome the tendency of the nose to rise. At position 4,
hold an attitude that allows a smooth acceleration toward
A normal takeoff from a hover is an orderly transition to climb­ing airspeed and a commensurate gain in altitude so that
forward flight and is executed to increase altitude safely and the takeoff profile does not take the helicopter through any
expeditiously. Before initiating a takeoff, the pilot should of the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity
ensure that the proper checklist has been completed and diagram. As airspeed increases (position 5), place the aircraft
the helicopter systems are within normal limits. During the in trim and allow a crab to take place to maintain ground track
takeoff, fly a pro­file that avoids the cross-hatched or shaded and a more favorable climb configuration. As the helicopter
areas of the height/velocity diagram. continues to climb and accel­erate to best rate-of-climb, apply
aft cyclic pressure to raise the nose smoothly to the normal
Technique
climb attitude.
Refer to Figure 9-12 (position 1). Bring the helicopter to a
hover and perform a hover and systems check, which includes Common Errors
power, balance, and flight controls prior to continuing flight.
The power check should include an evaluation of the amount 1. Failing to use sufficient collective pitch to pre­vent
of excess power available; that is, the difference between the loss of altitude prior to attaining transla­tional lift.
power being used to hover and the power available at the 2. Adding power too rapidly at the beginning of the
existing altitude and temperature conditions. The balance transition from hovering to forward flight without
condition of the helicopter is indicated by the position forward cyclic compensation, causing the helicopter
of the cyclic when maintaining a stationary hover. Wind to gain excessive altitude before acquiring airspeed.
necessitates some cyclic deflection, but there should not be
3. Assuming an extreme nose-down attitude near the
an extreme deviation from neutral. Flight controls must move
surface in the transition from hovering to forward
freely, and the hel­icopter should respond normally. Then,
flight.
visually clear the surrounding area.
4. Failing to maintain a straight flightpath over the
Start the helicopter moving by smoothly and slowly eas­ing the surface (ground track).
cyclic forward (position 2). As the helicopter starts to move 5. Failing to maintain proper airspeed during the climb.
forward, increase the collective, as nec­essary, to prevent the
6. Failing to adjust the throttle to maintain proper rpm.
helicopter from sinking and adjust the throttle to maintain
rpm. The increase in power requires an increase in the proper 7. Failing to transition to a level crab to maintain ground
antitorque pedal to maintain heading. Maintain a straight track.
takeoff path throughout the takeoff.

3
1 2

Figure 9-12. The helicopter takes several positions during a normal takeoff from hover.

9-12
Normal Takeoff from the Surface side opposite the cyclic.
Normal takeoff from the surface is used to move the helicopter After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, make a
from a position on the surface into effective translational lift coordinated turn into the wind to maintain the desired ground
and a normal climb using a minimum amount of power. If the track. This is called crabbing into the wind. The stronger the
surface is dusty or covered with loose snow, this technique crosswind, the more the helicopter has to be turned into the
provides the most favorable visibility conditions and reduces wind to maintain the desired ground track. [Figure 9-14]
the possibility of debris being ingested by the engine.
Ground Reference Maneuvers
Technique
Ground reference maneuvers may be used as training
Place the helicopter in a stationary position on the sur­face.
exercises to help develop a division of attention between
Lower the collective to the full down position, and reduce
the flightpath and ground references, and while controlling
the rpm below operating rpm. Visually clear the area and
select terrain features or other objects to aid in maintaining
the desired track during takeoff and climb out. Increase the
throttle to the proper rpm, and raise the collective slowly
until the helicopter is light on the skids. Hesitate momentarily
and adjust the cyclic and antitorque pedals, as neces­sary, to
prevent any surface movement. Continue to apply upward
collective. As the helicopter leaves the ground, use the
cyclic, as necessary, to begin forward movement as altitude Helicopter
Wind movement
side movement
is gained. Continue to acceler­ate. As effective translational
lift is attained, the helicopter begins to climb. Adjust attitude
and power, if necessary, to climb in the same manner as a
takeoff from a hover. A second, less efficient, but acceptable,
technique, is to attempt a vertical takeoff to evaluate if power
or lift is sufficient to clear obstructions. This allows the Figure 9-13. During a slip, the rotor disk is tilted into the wind.
helicopter to be returned to the takeoff position if required.

Common Errors

Ground Track
Heli

1. Departing the surface in an attitude that is too nose-

cop

low. This situation requires the use of exces­sive power

ter H

to initiate a climb.
ead

2. Using excessive power combined with a level attitude,

ing

which causes a vertical climb, unless needed for Wind Movement

obstructions and landing considerations.
3. Application of the collective that is too abrupt when
departing the surface, causing rpm and heading control
errors.

Crosswind Considerations During Takeoffs

If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the
helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of the
maneuver. [Figure 9-13] The cyclic is held into the wind a
sufficient amount to maintain the desired ground track for
the takeoff. The heading is maintained with the use of the
antitorque pedals. In other words, the rotor is tilted into the
wind so that the sideward movement of the helicopter is
just enough to counter­act the crosswind effect. To prevent
the nose from turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it is Figure 9-14. To compensate for wind drift at altitude, crab the
necessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on the helicopter into the wind.

9-13
the helicopter and watching for other air­craft in the vicinity. line and maintain a specific heading, aircraft heading must be
Other examples of ground reference maneuvers are flights adjusted in order to compensate for the winds and stay on the
for photographic or observation purposes, such as pipe line proper ground track. Also, keep in mind that a constant scan
or power line checks. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn of flight instruments and outside references aid in maintaining
should be done to ensure the area is free of conflicting traffic. proper ground track.

Rectangular Course Although the rectangular course may be entered from any
The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the direction, this discussion assumes entry on a downwind
ground track of the helicopter is kept equidistant from the heading. [Figure 9-15] while approaching the field boundary
sides of a selected rectangular area. While performing the on the downwind leg, begin planning for an upcoming turn.
maneuver, the altitude and air­speed should be held constant. Since there is a tailwind on the downwind leg, the helicopter’s
The rectangular course helps develop recognition of a drift groundspeed is increased (position 1). During the turn, the
toward or away from a line parallel to the intended ground wind causes the heli­copter to drift away from the field. To
track. This is helpful in recognizing drift toward or from an counteract this effect, the roll-in should be made at a fairly
airport runway during the various legs of the airport traffic fast rate with a relatively steep bank (position 2). This is
pattern and is also useful in observation and photographic normally the steepest turn of the maneuver.
flights.
As the turn progresses, the tailwind component decreases,
Technique which decreases the groundspeed. Consequently, the bank
Maintaining ground track while trying to fly a straight line angle and rate-of-turn must be reduced gradually to ensure
can be very difficult for new pilots to do. It is important to that upon completion of the turn, the crosswind ground track
understand the effects of the wind and how to compensate continues to be the same distance from the edge of the field.
for this. For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular Upon completion of the turn, the helicopter should be level
field, or an area bounded on four sides by section lines or and crabbed into the wind in order to maintain the proper
roads, with sides approximately a mile in length. The area ground track. Keep in mind that in order to maintain proper
selected should be well away from other air traffic. Fly the ground track the helicopter may have to be flown almost
maneuver approximately 500 to 1,000 feet above the ground sideways depending on the amount of wind. The forward
as appropriate. If the student finds it difficult to maintain a cyclic that is applied for airspeed will be in the direction of
proper ground track at that higher altitude, lower the altitude the intended flight path. For this example, it will be in the
for better ground reference until they feel more comfortable direction of the downwind corner of the field. However, since
and are able to grasp the concept better. Altitude can be raised the wind is now pushing the helicopter away from the field,
up to 1,000 feet as proficiency improves. establish the proper drift correction by heading slightly into
the wind. Therefore, the turn should be greater than a 90°
Fly the helicopter parallel to and at a uniform distance, about change in heading (position 3). If the turn has been made
one-fourth to one-half mile, from the field boundaries, and properly, the field boundary again appears to be one-fourth
not directly above the boundaries. For best results, position to one-half mile away. While on the crosswind leg, the wind
flightpath outside the field boundaries just far enough away correction should be adjusted, as necessary, to maintain a
that they may be easily observed from either pilot seat by uniform distance from the field boundary (position 4).
looking out the side of the helicopter. If an attempt is made
As the next field boundary is being approached (position 5),
to fly directly above the edges of the field, there will be no
plan for the next turn. Since a wind correction angle is being
usable reference points to start and complete the turns. In
held into the wind and toward the field, this next turn requires
addition, the closer the track of the helicop­ter is to the field
a turn of less than 90°. Since there is now a headwind, the
boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning
groundspeed decreases during the turn, the bank initially must
points. The edges of the selected field should be seen while
be medium and progressively decrease as the turn pro­ceeds.
seated in a normal position and looking out the side of the
To complete the turn, time the rollout so that the helicopter
helicopter during either a left-hand or right-hand course. The
becomes level at a point aligned with the corner of the field
distance of the ground track from the edges of the field should
just as the longitudinal axis of the helicopter again becomes
be the same regardless of whether the course is flown to the
parallel to the field boundary (position 6). The distance from
left or right. All turns should be started when the helicopter is
the field boundary should be the same as on the other sides
abeam the corners of the field boundaries. The bank nor­mally
of the field.
should not exceed 30°–45° in light winds. Strong winds may
require more bank.

The pilot should understand that when trying to fly a straight

9-14
 Enter 45° to downwind

Start turn at boundary No crab Complete turn at boundary

2 1 11
Turn more than 90°

10

Turn more than 90°—roll

3 out with crab established

Tra
Complete turn at boundary
n

ck
ctio

Start turn

with
orre

at boundary

n
dc

ow
win

ind
Crab into wind
no

cor
Wind
with

rec
Crab into wind

ti
ck

on
Tra

Turn less than 90°—roll out with crab established

Start turn
at boundary 9
Complete turn at boundary

Turn less than 90°

6 7 8
Complete turn at boundary No crab Start turn at boundary

Figure 9-15. Example of a rectangular course.

Continue to evaluate each turn and determine the steepness correct for wind drift in turns. This maneuver requires turns
or shallowness based on the winds. It is also important to to the left and right.
remember that as the bank angles are adjusted in the turn,
the pilot is subsequently forced to make changes with the Technique
flight controls.

Common Errors
1. Faulty entry technique.
Wind

2. Poor planning, orientation, and/or division of attention.

3. Uncoordinated flight control application.
4. Improper correction for wind drift. 3 4
Points of shallowest bank Points of steepest bank
5. Failure to maintain selected altitude and airspeed.
1 2 5
6. Selection of a ground reference with no suitable Point of steepest bank
emergency landing area within gliding distance.
7. Not flying a course parallel to the intended area (e.g.,
traffic pattern or square field).

S-Turns
Another training maneuver to use is the S-turn, which helps Figure 9-16. S-turns across a road.

9-15
The pilot can choose to use a road, a fence, or a railroad the upwind side of the reference line (side from which the
for a reference line. Regardless of what is used, it should wind is blowing), crab the nose of the heli­copter toward the
be straight for a considerable distance and should extend as outside of the circle. During the turn on the downwind side
nearly perpendicular to the wind as possible. The object of of the reference line (side of the reference line opposite to the
S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half cir­cles of equal size direction from which the wind is blowing), crab the nose of
on opposite sides of the reference line. [Figure 9-16] The the helicopter toward the inside of the circle. In either case, it
maneuver should be performed at a constant altitude between is obvious that the helicopter is being crabbed into the wind
500 and 800 feet above the terrain. As mentioned previously, just as it is when trying to maintain a straight ground track.
if the student pilot is having a difficult time maintaining the The amount of crab depends on the wind velocity and how
proper altitude and airspeed, have him or her attempt the close the helicopter is to a crosswind position. The stronger
S-turn at a lower altitude, providing better ground reference. the wind is, the greater the crab angle is at any given position
The discussion that follows is based on choosing a reference for a turn of a given radius. The more nearly the helicopter
line perpendicular to the wind and starting the maneuver with is to a crosswind position, the greater the crab angle. The
the helicopter facing downwind. maximum crab angle should be at the point of each half circle
farthest from the reference line.
As the helicopter crosses the reference line, immedi­
ately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepest A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since the
used throughout the maneuver since the helicopter is radius depends on the airspeed of the helicopter, the velocity
headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is greatest of the wind, and the initial bank chosen for entry. The only
(position 1). Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to standard is crossing the ground reference line straight and
describe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turn so level and having equal radius semi-circles on both sides.
that, as the rollout is completed, the helicopter is crossing
the reference line perpendicular to it and head­ing directly Common Errors
upwind (position 2). Immediately enter a bank in the opposite
1. Using antitorque pedal pressures to assist turns.
direction to begin the second half of the “S” (position 3).
Since the helicopter is now on an upwind heading, this bank 2. Slipping or skidding in the turn.
(and the one just completed before crossing the reference 3. An unsymmetrical ground track during S-turns across
line) is the shallowest in the maneuver. Gradually increase a road.
the bank, as necessary, to describe a ground track that is a
half circle identical in size to the one previously completed on 4. Improper correction for wind drift.
the other side of the refer­ence line (position 4). The steepest 5. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
bank in this turn should be attained just prior to rollout when 6. Excessive bank angles.
the helicopter is approaching the reference line nearest the
downwind heading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is Turns Around a Point
com­plete, the helicopter is perpendicular to the reference
This training maneuver requires flying constant radius
line and is again heading directly downwind (position 5).
turns around a preselected point on the ground using a bank
angle of approximately 30°–45°, while maintaining both
In summary, the angle of bank required at any given
a constant altitude and the same distance from the point
point in the maneuver is dependent on the ground­speed.
throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-17] The objective, as in
The faster the groundspeed is, the steeper the bank is; the
other ground reference maneuvers, is to develop the ability
slower the groundspeed is, the shallower the bank is. To
to subconsciously control the helicopter while dividing
express it another way, the more nearly the helicopter is to a
attention between flightpath, how the winds are affecting
downwind heading, the steeper the bank; the more nearly it
the turn and ground references and watching for other air
is to an upwind heading, the shallower the bank. In addition
traffic in the vicinity. This is also used in high reconnaissance,
to varying the angle of bank to correct for drift in order to
observation, and photography flight.
maintain the proper radius of turn, the helicopter must also
be flown with a drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its
Technique
ground track; except, of course, when it is on direct upwind
or downwind headings or there is no wind. The factors and principles of drift correction that are involved
in S-turns are also applicable to this maneu­ver. As in other
One would normally think of the fore and aft axis of the ground track maneuvers, a constant radius around a point
heli­copter as being tangent to the ground track pattern at requires the pilot to change the angle of bank constantly
each point. However, this is not the case. During the turn on and make numerous control changes to compensate for

9-16
 drift and varying of the bank angle and wind correction angle
as required, entry into the maneuver may be from any point.

Wind
Steeper bank When entering this maneuver at any point, the radius of the
turn must be carefully selected, taking into account the wind
velocity and groundspeed so that an excessive bank is not
d half of cir
win cle required later to maintain the proper ground track.
Up

Common Errors
Shallowest bank

Steepest bank
1. Faulty entry technique.
2. Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.
3. Uncoordinated flight control application.
4. Improper correction for wind drift.
Do 5. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
wn le
wind h lf of circ
a
6. Failure to maintain an equal distance around the point.
7. Excessive bank angles.
Shallower bank
Traffic Patterns
A traffic pattern promotes safety by establishing a common
Figure 9-17. Turns around a point.
track to help pilots determine their landing order and provide
common reference. A traffic pattern is also useful to control
the wind. The closer the helicopter is to a direct downwind the flow of traffic, par­ticularly at airports without operating
heading at which the groundspeed is greatest, the steeper the control towers. It affords a measure of safety, separation,
bank and the greater the rate of turn required to establish the protection, and administrative control over arriving,
proper wind correc­tion angle. The closer the helicopter is to departing, and circling aircraft. Due to specialized operating
a direct upwind heading at which the groundspeed is least, character­istics, airplanes and helicopters do not mix well
the shallower the bank and the lower the rate of turn required in the same traffic environment. At multiple-use airports,
to establish the proper wind correction angle. Therefore, regulation states that helicopters should always avoid the
throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate of turn must flow of fixed-wing traf­fic. To do this, be familiar with the
be varied gradually and in proportion to the groundspeed patterns typically flown by airplanes. In addition, learn how
corrections made for the wind. to fly these patterns in case air traf­fic control (ATC) requests
a fixed-wing traffic pattern be flown. Traffic patterns are
The point selected for turns should be prominent and easily initially taught during the day. Traffic patterns at night may
distinguishable, yet small enough to present a precise need to be adjusted; for more information, refer to Chapter
reference. Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar small 12, Night Operations.
landmarks are usually suitable. The point should be in an area
away from communities, livestock, or groups of people on
the ground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard to others.
Additionally, the area should be clear and suitable for any
3 Downwind leg
emergency landings should they be required.

Just as S-turns require that the helicopter be turned into the

Base leg 4
wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turns around a Wind
2 Crosswind leg
point. During the downwind half of the circle, the helicopter’s
nose must be progressively turned toward the inside of the
circle; during the upwind half, the nose must be progressively
09

turned toward the outside. The downwind half of the turn 5 Final approach leg 1 Takeoff leg (into the wind)
around the point may be compared to the downwind side of
the S-turn, while the upwind half of the turn around a point
may be compared to the upwind side of the S-turn. Figure 9-18. A standard fixed-wing traffic pattern consists of left
turns, has five designated legs, and is flown at 1,000' AGL.
Upon gaining experience in performing turns around a point
and developing a good understanding of the effects of wind
9-17
A normal airplane traffic pattern is rectangular, has five named detail. For information concerning traffic pattern and landing
legs, and a designated altitude, usually 1,000 feet AGL. While direction, utilize airport advisory service or UNICOM, when
flying the traffic pattern, pilots should always keep in mind available.
noise abatement rules and flying friendly to avoid dwellings
and livestock. A pattern in which all turns are to the left is The standard departure procedure when using the fixed-
called a standard pattern. [Figure 9-18] The takeoff leg (item wing traffic pattern is usually a straight-out, down­wind, or
1) normally consists of the aircraft’s flightpath after takeoff. right-hand departure. When a control tower is in operation,
This leg is also called the departure leg. Turn to the crosswind request the type of departure desired. In most cases, helicopter
leg (item 2) after passing the departure end of the runway when departures are made into the wind unless obstacles or traffic
at a safe altitude. Fly the downwind leg (item 3) parallel to the dictate otherwise. At airports without an operating control
runway at the designated traffic pattern altitude and distance tower, comply with the departure procedures established for
from the runway. Begin the base leg (item 4) at a point selected that airport, if any.
according to other traffic and wind conditions. If the wind is
very strong, begin the turn sooner than normal. If the wind A helicopter traffic pattern is flown at 500-1,000 feet AGL
is light, delay the turn to base. The final approach (item 5) depending on considerations such as terrain, obstacles, and
is the path the air­craft flies immediately prior to touchdown. other aircraft traffic. [Figure 9-19] This keeps the helicopter
out of the flow of fixed-wing traffic. A helicopter may take
Flying a fixed wing traffic pattern at 1,000 feet AGL upon off from a helipad into the wind with a turn to the right after
the request of ATC should not be a problem for a helicopter 300 feet AGL or as needed to be in range of forced landing
unless conducting specific maneuvers that require specific areas. When 500 feet AGL is attained, a right turn to parallel
altitudes. There are variations at different localities and at the takeoff path is made for the downwind. Then, as the
airports with operating control towers. For example, ATC intended landing point is about 45 degrees behind the abeam
may have airplanes in a left turn pattern (as airplane pilots position of the helicopter, a right turn is made, and a descent
are usually seated in the left), seat and a right turn pattern for is begun from downwind altitude to approximately 300 feet
helicopters (as those pilots are usually in the right seat). This AGL for a base leg.
arrangement affords the best view from each of the respective
cockpits. Always consult the Airport/Facility Directory for As the helicopter nears the final approach path, the turn to
the traffic pattern procedures at your airport/heliport. final should be made considering winds and obstructions.
Depending on obstructions and forced landing areas, the final
When approaching an airport with an operating control tower approach may need to be accomplished from as high as 500
in a helicopter, it is possible to expedite traffic by stating feet AGL. The landing area should always be in sight and
intentions. The communication consists of: the angle of approach should never be too high (indicating
1. The helicopter’s call sign, “Helicopter 8340J.” that the base leg is too close) to the landing area or too low
(indicating that the landing area is too far away).
2. The helicopter’s position, “10 miles west.”
3. The “request for landing and hover to ...” Approaches
An approach is the transition from traffic pattern alti­tude
To avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic, the tower often to either a hover or to the surface. The approach should
clears direct to an approach point or to a particular runway
intersection nearest the destination point. At uncontrolled
airports, if at all possible, adhere to standard practices and 3 Downwind leg
patterns.

Traffic pattern entry procedures at an airport with an operating Wind

4 Base leg
control tower are specified by the controller. At uncontrolled Crosswind leg 2
airports, traffic pattern altitudes and entry procedures may
vary according to established local procedures. Helicopter
27

pilots should be aware of the standard airplane traffic 1 Takeoff leg (into the wind) 5 Final approach leg
pattern and avoid it. Generally, helicopters make a lower
altitude pattern opposite from the fixed wing pattern and
make their approaches to some point other than the runway
Figure 9-19. A standard helicopter traffic pattern consists of right
in use by the fixed wing traffic. Chapter 7 of the Airplane
turns, has 5 designated legs, and is flown at 500' AGL.
flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-3 discusses this in greater

9-18
terminate at the hover altitude with the rate of descent and have to be aligned until about 50-100 feet AGL to facilitate
groundspeed reaching zero at the same time. Approaches a controlled approach. [Figure 9-20] Just prior to reaching
are categorized according to the angle of descent as normal, the desired approach angle, begin the approach by lowering
steep, or shallow. In this chapter, concentration is on the the collective sufficiently to get the helicopter decelerating
normal approach. Steep and shallow approaches are discussed and descending down the approach angle. With the decrease
in the next chapter. in the collective, the nose tends to pitch down, requiring
Use the type of approach best suited to the existing conditions. aft cyclic to maintain the recommended approach airspeed
These conditions may include obstacles, size and surface of attitude. Adjust antitorque pedals, as necessary, to maintain
the landing area, density altitude, wind direction and speed, trim. Pilots should visualize the angle from the landing
and weight. Regardless of the type of approach, it should point to the middle of the skids or landing gear underneath
always be made to a specific, predetermined landing spot. them in the cockpit and maneuver the helicopter down that
imaginary slope until the helicopter is at a hover centered
Normal Approach to a Hover over the landing point or touching down centered on the
A normal approach uses a descent angle of between 7° and landing point. The most important standard for a normal
12°. approach is maintaining a consistent angle of approach to
the termination point. The collective controls the angle of
Technique approach. Use the cyclic to control the rate of closure or how
On final approach, at the recommended approach airspeed fast the helicopter is moving towards the touchdown point.
and at approximately 300 feet AGL, the helicopter should Maintain entry airspeed until the apparent groundspeed and
be on the correct ground track (or ground alignment) for the rate of closure appear to be increasing. At this point, slowly
intended landing site, but the axis of the helicopter does not begin decelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothly lower
the collective to maintain approach angle. Use the cyclic to
maintain a rate of closure equivalent to a brisk walk.
Reference point
At approximately 25 knots, depending on wind, the helicopter
begins to lose effective translational lift. To compensate for
loss of effective translational lift, increase the collective to
maintain the approach angle, while maintaining the proper
rpm. The increase of collective pitch tends to make the nose
rise, requiring forward cyclic to maintain the proper rate of
closure.
Imaginary centerline
As the helicopter approaches the recommended hover
altitude, increase the collective sufficiently to maintain the
hover. Helicopters require near maximum power to land
because the inertia of the helicopter in a descent must be
overcome by lift in the rotor system. At the same time, apply
aft cyclic to stop any forward movement while controlling
the heading with antitorque pedals.
Wind

Common Errors
1. Failing to maintain proper rpm during the entire
approach.
2. Improper use of the collective in controlling the angle
of descent.
3. Failing to make antitorque pedal corrections to
compensate for collective changes during the
Figure 9-20. Plan the turn to final so the helicopter rolls out on an approach.
imaginary extension of the centerline for the final approach path.
This path should neither angle to the landing area, as shown by 4. Maintaining a constant airspeed on final approach
the helicopter on the left, nor require an S-turn, as shown by the
helicopter on the right.

9-19
 instead of an apparent brisk walk. helicopter in hovering maneuvers is always controlled by
5. Failing to simultaneously arrive at hovering height the pedals. The collective controls power, which is altitude
and attitude with zero groundspeed. at a hover. This technique should be used on any type of
crosswind approach, whether it is a shallow, normal, or
6. Low rpm in transition to the hover at the end of the steep approach.
approach.
7. Using too much aft cyclic close to the surface, which Go-Around
may result in tail rotor strikes. A go-around is a procedure for remaining airborne after
8. Failure to crab above 100’AGL and slip below an intended landing is discontinued. A go-around may be
100’AGL. necessary when:
• Instructed by the control tower.
Normal Approach to the Surface
• Traffic conflict occurs.
A normal approach to the surface or a no-hover landing is
often used if loose snow or dusty surface conditions exist. • The helicopter is in a position from which it is not
These situations could cause severely restricted visibility, or safe to continue the approach. Any time an approach
the engine could possibly ingest debris when the heli­copter is uncomfortable, incorrect, or potentially dangerous,
comes to a hover. The approach is the same as the normal abandon the approach. The deci­sion to make a go-
approach to a hover; however, instead of termi­nating at a around should be positive and initiated before a critical
hover, continue the approach to touchdown. Touchdown situation develops. When the decision is made, carry it
should occur with the skids level, zero groundspeed, and a out without hesitation. In most cases, when initiating
rate of descent approaching zero. the go-around, power is at a low setting. Therefore,
the first response is to increase collective to takeoff
Technique power. This movement is coordinated with the throttle
As the helicopter nears the surface, increase the collec­tive, as to maintain rpm, and with the proper antitorque pedal
necessary, to cushion the landing on the sur­face, terminate in to control heading. Then, establish a climb attitude
a skids-level attitude with no forward movement. and maintain climb speed to go around for another
approach.
Common Errors
Chapter Summary
1. Terminating to a hover, and then making a vertical
This chapter introduced basic flight maneuvers and the
landing.
techniques to perform each of them. Common errors and why
2. Touching down with forward movement. they happen were also described to help the pilot achieve a
3. Approaching too slow, requiring the use of exces­sive better understanding of the maneuver.
power during the termination.
4. Approaching too fast, causing a hard landing
5. Not maintaining skids aligned with direction of travel
at touchdown. Any movement or misalignment of the
skids or gear can induce dynamic rollover

Crosswind During Approaches

During a crosswind approach, crab into the wind. At
approximately 50-100 feet of altitude, use a slip to align the
fuselage with the ground track. The rotor is tilted into the
wind with cyclic pressure so that the sideward movement
of the helicopter and wind drift counteracts each other.
Maintain the heading and ground track with the antitorque
pedals. Under crosswind approaches, ground track is always
controlled by the cyclic movement. The heading of the

9-20