Error & Unit Dimension
ERROR
Introduction
• The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the error of measurement.
Classification of errors
• Systematic Controllable Errors:- Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known. They can be either
positive or negative. Due to the known causes these errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can further be classified
into three categories:
(i) Instrumental errors:- These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufacture or misuse of the
measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate instruments.
(ii) Procedure errors:- These errors are arise due to wrong procedure adopted to perform the experiment. For
example to determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will always give a
temperature lower than the actual value of the body temperature.
(iii) Personal errors:- These errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatus or carelessness in taking observations.
• Random Errors:- These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur irregularly and are variable in
magnitude and sign. Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely they can not be eliminated completely. For
example, when the same person repeats the same observation in the same conditions, he may get different readings
different times.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the observation a large number of times and taking the arithmetic mean of
all the observations. This mean value would be very closed to the most accurate reading.
Representation of Errors:- Errors can be expressed in the following ways:-
• Absolute Error (a):- The difference between the true value and the individual measured value of the quantity is
called the absolute error of the measurement. Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the measured
values are a1, a2, a3……….an. The arithmetic mean (am) of these values is
n
a1 a2 a3 ........ an 1
am
n
n a
i1
i …(1)
If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (am) can be taken as the true value. Then the absolute
errors in the individual measured values are-
a1 = am – a1 , a2 = am – a2
Similarly an = am – an
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (a)m or a of the value
of the physical quantity a
n
| a1|| a2|.........| an| 1
(a)m
n
n | a |
i1
i …(2)
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Error & Unit Dimension
So if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be a, then the true value (at) can be written as
at = a ± a … (3)
• Relative or Fractional Error:- It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error ((a)m or a ) to the true value of
the mean value (am or a ) of the quantity measured.
Mean absolute error (a)m a
Relative or fractional error =
Mean value am or a ….(4)
When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,
Percentage error = relative error × 100
mean absolute error a
or percentage error = 100% = 100% …(5)
true value a
Propagation of Errors in Mathematical Operations
Rule I:- The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of the two quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute
errors in the individual quantities.
If X = A + B or X = A – B and if ± A and ± B represent the absolute errors in A and B respectively, then the maximum
absolute error in X = X = A + B and
X
Maximum percentage error = 100 …(6)
X
The result will be written as X ± X (in terms of absolute error)
X
or x 100 %(in terms of percentage error)
X
Rule II:- The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or division of quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.
If X=A×B or X = A/B
X FG
A B IJ
Then
X
H
A
B K …(7)
Rule III:- The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to a power (n) is n times the fractional error in the quantity
itself, i.e.
X FG IJ
A
If X = An then
X
n
H K
A
…(8)
If X = ApBqCr then
X ALM FG IJ FG IJ FG IJ OP
B C
N H K H K H KQ
p q r
X A B C
ApB q
If X then
Cr
X ALM FG IJ FG IJ FG IJ OP
B C
N H K H K H KQ
p q r
X A B C
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Error & Unit Dimension
Example : The initial and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6 ± 0.2)ºC and (78.3 ± 0.3)ºC.
Calculate the rise in temperature with proper error limits.
Solution : Given 1 = (40.6 ± 0.2)ºC and 2 = (78.3 ± 0.3)ºC
Rise in termp. = 2 – 1 = 78.3 - 40.6 = 37.7ºC.
= ± (1 + 2) = ± (0.2 + 0.3) = ± 0.5ºC
Hence the rise in temperature = (37.7 ± 0.5) °C
Example : A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 2% when heated from T1 to T2. If a copper cube having side 10
L is heated from T1 to T2 what will be the percentage change in
(i) area of one face of the cube and.
(ii) volume of the cube.
Solution : (i) Area A = 10L × 10 L = 100L2.
Percentage change in area
A L
100% 2 100% 2 2% 4%
A L
FG A 2 L IJ
H A LK
Note : - Constants do not have any error in them.
(ii) Volume V = 10 L × 10 L × 10 L = 1000 L3
V L
Percentage change in volume 100 3 3 2% 6%
V L
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Unit and Dimensions
Physical Quantity
A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical happenings can be explained and expressed in the form of
laws is called a physical quantity. For example, length, mass, time, force, etc.
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u
Where n represents the numerical value and u represents the unit. Thus, while expressing a definite amount of physcial
quantity, it is clear that as the unit u changes, the magnitude (n) will also change but product nu will remain same.
1
i.e. n u = constant or n1u1 = n2u2 = constant n
u
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Error & Unit Dimension
Fundamental and derived Quantities
Fundamental quantities Out of a large number of physical quantities which exist in nature, there are only few quantities
which are independent of all other quantity for their definition. therefore, these are called absolute quantities, as all other
quantities are based upon and can be expressed in terms of these quantities.
Derived quantities All other physical quantities can be derived by suitable multiplication or division of different powers of
fundamental quantities. These are, therefore, called dervied quantities.
Fundamental quantities Supplementary quantities
System of units: A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, for all kinds of physical quantities is called system
of units. The common systems are given in Table.
Dimensions of a Physical Quantity
When a derived quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental quantities, it is written as a product of different powers
of the fundamental quantities. The powers to which fundamental quantities must be raised in order to express the given
physical quantity are called its dimensions.
To make it more clear, consider the physical quantity force :
Mass Velocity Mass Length / time
Force = Mass × Acceleration = = Mass × Length × (Time)–2 = [MLT
T–2].
Time Time
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To find dimensions of physical constant or coefficients :
As dimensions of a physical quantity are unique, we write any formula or equation incorporating the given constant and
Then by substituting the dimensional formulae of all other quantities, we can find the dimensions of the required
constant or coefficient.
(i) Height, width, radius, displacement, etc., are a kind of length. So we can say that their dimension is [L]. Here [Height]
can be read as “dimesion of height.”
Area of square = Length × Width = [L] × [L] = [L2]
(ii) Volume of cube =[L3]
mass [M] 1 3 Displacement
(iii) Density = = 3 [M L ] (iv) Velocity = = [M0L1T–1]
volume [L ] Time
Change in Velocity
(v) Acceleration = T–2]
= [LT (vi) Linear momentum (P) = Mass × Velocity = [M1L1T–1]
Time
(vii) Force = Mass × Acceleration = [M1L1T–2] (viii) Work or Energy = Force × Displacement = [M1L2T–2]
Application of Dimensional analysis
To convert a physical quantity from one system to the other :
The measure of a physical quantity is nu = constant.
If a physical quantity X has dimensional formula [MaLbTc] and if the derived units of that physical quantity in two systems
a b c a b c
are M1 L 1 T1 and M2L 2 T2 and n1 and n2 be the numeical values in the two systems, respectively, then n1[u1] = n2[u2]
n1 M1aLb1 T1c n2 M2aLb2 T2c n2
LM O LL O L T O
n M P M P M P
1
a
1
b
1
c
1
NM Q NL Q N T Q
2 2 2
Example : Convert Newton into dyne.
Solution : The Newton is the SI unit of force and has dimensional formula [M1L1T–2], i.e., a = 1, b = 1, c = –2.
So 1 N = 1 kg ms–2
By using Dyne
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Error & Unit Dimension
To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation : This is based on the principle of homogeneity. Accord-
ing to this principle, the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be the same.
If X = A + (BC)2 + DEF
then according to the principle of homogeneity, we have [X] = [A] = [(BC)2] = [ DEF ]
Example : Let us check the dimensional correctness of the relation v = u + at.
Solution : Here u represents the initial velocity, v the final velocity, a the uniform acceleration, and t the time.
The dimensional formula of u is [M0LT–1].
The dimensional formula of v is [M0LT–1]
The dimensional formula of at is [M0LT–1]
Here the dimensions of every term in the given physical relation are the same, hence the given physical relation is
dimensionally correct.
FG a IJ
Example : Find out the unit and dimension of the constants a and b in the van der waal’s equation p H V 2 K
(V – b) = RT, where p is pressure, v is volume, R is gas constant, and T is temperature.
Solution : We can add and subtract only like quantities.
a
Dimensions of P = Dimensions of ...... (i) dimensions of v = Dimensions of b ..... (ii)
V2
Dimensions of a = Dimensions of P × Dimensions of V2 [a] = [M1 L–1 T–2] × [L3]2 = [M1 L5 T–2]
N
Unit of a = Unit of p × Unit of v2 = 2
m 6 Nm 4
m
0 3 0
From (ii), [b] = [V] = [M L T ] So unit of b = Unit of V = m3
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As a research tool to derive new relations :
If one knows the dependency of a physical quantity on other quantities and if the dependency is of the product type, then
using the method of dimensional analysis, a relation between the quantiies can be derived. Let us understand this point
through following examples :
Time period of a simple pendulum :
Let the time period of a simple pendulum be a function of the mass of the bob (m), effective length (l) and acceleration
due to gravity (g), then assuming the function to be the product of power function of m, l and g, i.e., T = Kmx ly gz, where
K = dimensionless constant.
If the above relation is dimensionally correct, then by substituting the dimensions of quantities,
[T] = [M]x [L]y [LT–2]z or [M0 L0T1] = [Mx Ly + z T–2z]
Equating the exponents of similar quantities, we get x = 0, y = 1/2, and z = – 1/2.
l
So, the required physical relation becomes T = K
g
l
The value of dimensionless constant is found (2) through experiments, so T = 2 g
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Error & Unit Dimension
Example : For a particle to move in a circular orbit uniformly, centripetal force is required which infact depends upon mass
(m), velocity (v), and radius (r) of the circle. Express centripetal force in terms of these quantities.
Solution : Accoding to the provided information F mavbrc
F = kmavbrc ......(i)
where k is the dimensionless constant of proportionality and a, b, c are the constant powers of m, v, r, respectively.
Now using the principle of homogeneity, comparing the power of like quantiites on both the sides, we have
a=1 ......(ii), b + c = 1 ......(iii) and b = 2 ......(iv)
Using (ii), (iii) and (iv) we have a = 1, b = 2, and c = – 1.
Using these values in (i), F = km1v2r –2
mv 2
FK which is the desired relation
r
Example : If velocity (V), force (F), and time (T) are chosen as fundamental quantities, express mass in terms of V, F, and T.
Solution : Let M = (Some number) (V)a (F)b (T)c
Equating dimension of both the sides, we get
M1L0T0 = (1) [L1 T–1]a [M1L1T–2] = Mb La +b T–a –2b + c
Get a = –1, b = 1, c = 1.
M = (Some number) (V–1 F1 T1) [M] = [V–1 F1 T1 ]
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VERNIER CALLIPERS
(1) Main Scale : The main scale consists of steel metallic strip graduated in centimeters at one edge and in inches at the other
edge.It carries the inner and outer measuring jaws. When the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale and the
zero of the vernier scale should coincide.If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or negative zero error.
(2) Vernier Scale : A vernier scale slides on the strip.It can be fixed in any position by the retainer. On the vernier scale,
0.9 cm is divided into ten equal parts.
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(3) Outer Measuring Jaws : The outer measuring jaws helps to take the outer dimension of an object.
(4) Inner Measuring Jaws : The inner measuring jaws helps to take the inner dimension of an object.
(5) Retainer : The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the vernier calipers.
(6) Depth Measuring Prong : The depth measuring prong helps to measure the depth of an object.
Least count : The difference between the values of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is known as
Vernier constant (VC) or the Least count (LC). This is the smallest distance that can be accurately measured with the
vernier scale.
FG 1 IJ MSD = Smallest division on main scale
Thus, VC = LC = H nK Number of division on vernier scale
In the ordinary vernier callipers, one MSD is 1 mm
Zero error : If the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of main scale when jaw B touches A and the
straight edge of D touches the straight edge of C, then the instrument has an error called zero error. Zero error is always
algebraically subtracted from measured length.
Positive and Negative zero Error
If the zero of Vernier scale lies to the right of the zero of main scale, then the zero error is positive, and if it lies to the
left of zero of the main scale, then the zero error is negative (when jaws A and B are in contact).
Length of the Rod = (N + x × VC) – Zero error
Here N is the main scale reading on the left of zero of vernier scale and x is the vernier scale division which coincides
with any main scale division. (Here x = 5)
Example : While measuring the length of the rod by vernier calliper the reading on main scale is 6.4 cm and the eight division
on vernier is in line with marking on main scale division. If the least count of callipers is 0.01 cm and zero error –
0.04 cm, find the length of the rod.
Solution. Acurate reading of length of rod = (N + x × VC) – Zero error = 6.4 + 8 × 0.01 – (–0.04) = 6.52 cm
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Error & Unit Dimension
SCREW GAUGE (OR MICROMETER SCREW)
In general, Vernier callipers can measure accurately upto 0.01 cm and for greater accuracy micrometer screw devices,
e.g., screw gauge spherometer, are used. These consist of accurately cut screw which can be moved in a closely
fitting fixed nut by turning it axially as shown in Fig. The instrument is provided with two scales :
(a) The main scale or pitch scale graduated along the axis of the screw
(b) The cap-scale or head scale H round the edge of the screw head
Constants of the screw gauge
Pitch : The translational motion of the screw is directly proportional to the total rotation of the head. The pitch of the instrument
is the distance between two consecutive threads of the screw which is equal to the distance moved by the screw due to one
complete rotation of the cap. If the screw advances by 5 mm for 10 rotations of the cap, then the pitch = 5/10 = 0.5 mm.
Dis tan ce moved by screw
Pitch of the screw =
No. of full rotations given
Least count : In this case also, the minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is equal to one division on the
head scale which is equal to the pitch divided by the total cap divisions. Thus, in the aforesaid illustration, if the total cap
division is 100, then least count = 0.5 mm/100 = 0.005 mm.
Pitch
Least count =
Total Number of divisions on the circular scale
ZERO ERROR : In a perfect instrument, the zero of the head scale coincides with the line of graduation along the screw
axis with no zero error, otherwise the instrument is said to have zero error which is equal to the cap reading with the gap
closed. This error is positive when zero line or the reference line of the cap lies above the line of graduation and vice versa.
Example : The circular head of a screw gauge is divided into 200 divisions and move 1 mm ahead in one revolution. Find the pitch
and least count of the screw gauge. If the same instrument has a zero error of –0.05 mm and the reading on the main
scale in measuring diameter of a wire is 6 mm and that on circular scale is 45, find the diameter of the wire.
Solution. Acurate reading of diameter of wire = (N + x × VC) – Zero error
1mm
pitch = 1mm and LC = = 0.005 mm So, Diameter of wire = (6 + 45 × 0.005) – (–0.05) = 6.275 mm
200
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