GST 04102

MECHANICS AND NUCLEAR

PHYSICS
KILEO BENSON J
TRANSPORT ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (TET)
NATIONAL I NSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT (NIT)
+255782113220 / +255652635479
[email protected]
INTRODUCTION
TO THE COURSE
 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
• MODULE NAME: Mechanics and Nuclear Physics

• MODULE CODE: GST 04102

• QUALIFICATION: NTA Level 4 – Basic Technician

certificate in Auto-electric and Electronics Engineering / NTA
Level 4 – Basic Technician certificate in Pipeline Oil and Gas
Engineering
 MEASUREMENT
DIMENSIONS, UNIT AND
ERROR
 INTRODUCTION
• Measurement is the comparison unknown physical quantity to the certain
known one.
• Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain
basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called
unit.
• The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
• With measurement it is very easy to perform different works in our daily
life.
• Before we proceed further lets define some terms used in measurement
 INTRODUCTION
• Measurement: In our daily life, we need to express and compare the
magnitude of different quantities; this can be done only by measuring them.
• Measurement is the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a
known fixed physical quantity.
• Unit: The known fixed physical quantity is called unit. It is the quantity
used as standard for measurement.
• For example, when we say that length of the classroom is 8 meter. We
compare the length of classroom with standard quantity of length called
meter. Length of class room = 8 meter
 CLASSIFICATION OF UNITS
• Units can be classified into two categories.
• Fundamental
• Derived
• Fundamental Quantity: The quantity which is independent of other physical
quantities. In mechanics, mass, length and time are called fundamental
quantities. Units of these fundamental physical quantities are called
Fundamental units.
• e.g. Fundamental Physical Quantity Fundamental unit
• Mass; Kg, Gram, Pound
• Length; Meter, Centimeter, Foot
• Time; Second
 CLASSIFICATION OF UNITS
• Derived Quantity: The quantity which is derived from the fundamental
quantities e.g. area is a derived quantity.
• Area = Length ×Breadth
= Length ×Length
Speed =Distance / Time
=Length / Time
• The units for derived quantities are called Derived Units.
 SYSTEMS OF UNITS: CGS, FPS, MKS, SI
• For measurement of physical quantities, the following systems are
commonly used:-
i. C.G.S system: In this system, the unit of length is centimeter, the unit of
mass is gram and the unit of time is second.
ii. F.P.S system: In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is
pound and the unit of time is second.
iii. M.K.S: In this system, the unit of length is meter, unit of mass is kg and
the unit of time is second.
iv. S.I System: This system is an improved and extended version of M.K.S
system of units. It is called international system of unit.
TABLE OF FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
SOME IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS
 DEFINITION OF DIMENSIONS
• Dimensions: The powers, to which the fundamental units of mass, length
and time written as M, L and T are raised, which include their nature and
not their magnitude.
• For example Area = Length x Breadth
• Power (0,2,0) of fundamental units are called dimensions of area in mass,
length and time respectively
• Dimensional Formula: An expression along with power of mass, length &
time which indicates how physical quantity depends upon fundamental
physical quantity e.g. Speed = Distance/Time
 DEFINITION OF DIMENSIONS
• Dimensional Equation: An equation obtained by equating the physical
quantity with its dimensional formula is called dimensional equation.
• The dimensional equation of area, density & velocity are given as under
• Area = []
• Density = []
• Velocity = []
Dimensional formula SI& CGS unit of Physical Quantities
Dimensional formula SI& CGS unit of Physical Quantities
PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS
• It states that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of an
equation must be the same.
• According to the principle of homogeneity, the comparison, addition &
subtraction of all physical quantities is possible only if they are of the
same nature i.e., they have the same dimensions.
• If the power of M, L and T on two sides of the given equation are same,
then the physical equation is correct otherwise not.
• Therefore, this principle is very helpful to check the correctness of a
physical equation.
 ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND ERRORS IN
MEASUREMENT
• Accuracy - The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the
measured value is to the true value of the quantity. It depends on the
number of significant figures in it. The larger the significant digit the higher
the accuracy.
• Precision- Precision is the degree of exactness. It depends on the least count
of measuring instrument. The smaller the least count, the more precise will
be measurement.
• Error - The uncertainty in a measurement is called error. Every calculated
quantity which is based on measured values also has an error.
 HOME WORK

a) With aid of dimensional analysis check the correctness of

the following formulae

i) ii)
• where; F is force, m is mass, v is velocity, r is radius, l is length, g is
gravity, t is time
 TYPES OF ERROR
• Error in measurement can be broadly classified as
(1) Systematic error
(2) Random error.
• Systematic Error: Systematic error is caused due to the fault of the
measuring device, design of the experiment, or imperfect method of
observation. These errors can be reduced by improving experimental
conditions, repeating measurement using a different method or different
equipment.
• Random Error: The random error are those errors, which occur due to
random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions due
personal error by the observer. These errors can be reduced by conducting
repeat trials, using precise apparatus.
 CAUSES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR:
• The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative. Some of the sources of systematic errors are.
• Instrumental errors that arise from the errors due to imperfect design or
calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument, etc.
For example, the temperature graduations of a thermometer may be
inadequately calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at
STP whereas it should read 100 °C);
• Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure. To determine the
temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will
always give a temperature lower than the actual value of the body
temperature. Other external conditions (such as changes in temperature,
humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during the experiment may systematically
affect the measurement.
 CAUSES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR:
• The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative. Some of the sources of systematic errors are.
• Personal errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting
of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking observations without
observing proper precautions, etc.
• For example, if you, by habit, always hold your head a bit too far to the right
while reading the position of a needle on the scale, you will introduce an
error due to parallax.
 ABSOLUTE ERROR,
RELATIVE ERROR AND
PERCENTAGE ERROR
 ABSOLUTE ERROR,
• Suppose the values obtained in several measurements are , , ...., . The
arithmetic mean of these values is taken as the best possible value of the
quantity under the given conditions of measurement as :
•
• This is because, it is reasonable to suppose that individual measurements are
as likely to overestimate as to underestimate the true value of the quantity.
• The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement
and the true value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the
measurement.
• This is denoted by |∆a |. In absence of any other method of knowing true
value, we considered arithmetic mean as the true value.
 ABSOLUTE ERROR,
• Then the errors in the individual measurement values from the true value, are

• The ∆a calculated above may be positive in certain cases and negative in

some other cases. But absolute error |∆a| will always be positive.
 ABSOLUTE ERROR,
• The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean
absolute error of the value of the physical quantity a. It is represented by
∆am
• Thus,

• If we do a single measurement, the value we get may be in the range of

about

• This implies that any measurement of the physical quantity a is likely to

lie between
 RELATIVE ERROR AND PERCENTAGE ERROR
• Instead of the absolute error, we often use the relative error or the
percentage error (δa).
• The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error ( ) to the mean
value a mean ( ) of the quantity measured.

• When the relative error is expressed in per cent, it is called the percentage
error (δa).
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
• We measure the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. In successive
measurements, the readings turn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71s and
2.80 s. Calculate the absolute errors, relative error or percentage error.

• Ans (0.11 s , 0.04, 4%)

 COMBINATION OF ERRORS
• Error of a sum or a difference
• Suppose two physical quantities A and B have measured values A ± ∆A, B ±
∆B respectively where ∆A and ∆B are their absolute errors. We wish to find
the error ∆Z in the sum Z = A + B.
• We have by addition, Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B).
• The maximum possible error in Z
• ∆Z = ∆A + ∆B
• For the difference Z = A – B, we have Z ± ∆ Z = (A ± ∆A) – (B ± ∆B)
• = (A – B) ± ∆A ± ∆B
• or, ± ∆Z = ± ∆A ± ∆B
• The maximum value of the error ∆Z is again ∆A + ∆B
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
• The temperatures of two bodies measured by a thermometer are
t1 = 20 C ± 0.5 C and t2 = 50 C ± 0.5 C. Calculate the
temperature difference and the error theirin.

• Ans t′ = 30 C ± 1 C
 COMBINATION OF ERRORS
• Error of a product or a quotient
• Suppose Z = AB and the measured values of A and B are A ± ∆A and B ± ∆B.
• Then Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B) = AB ± B ∆A ± A ∆B ± ∆A ∆B.
• Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,
• 1±(∆Z/Z) = 1 ± (∆A/A) ± (∆B/B) ± (∆A/A)(∆B/B).
• Since ∆A and ∆B are small, we shall ignore their product. Hence the
maximum relative error
• ∆Z/ Z = (∆A/A) + (∆B/B).
• When two quantities are multiplied or divided, the relative error in the
result is the sum of the relative errors in the multipliers.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
• The resistance R = V/I where V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ±
0.2)A. Find the percentage error in R.

• Ans The percentage error in V is 5% and in I it is 2%. The total

error in R would therefore be 5% + 2% = 7%.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
• Two resistors of resistances R1 = 100 ± 3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4
ohm are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Find the
equivalent resistance of the (a) series combination, (b) parallel
combination. Use for
(a) the relation R = R1 + R2, and for

(b)

• Ans (300 ± 7 ohm, R′ = ± 66.7 1.8 ohm)

 SOLVED PROBLEMS
• Find the relative error in Z, if Z = A4B1/3/CD3/2

• Ans
• (The relative error in Z is ∆Z/Z = 4(∆A/A) +(1/3) (∆B/B) + (∆C/C) + (3/2) (∆D/D).)
 COMBINATION OF ERRORS
• Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power
• Suppose Z = A2,
• Then,
• ∆Z/Z = (∆A/A) + (∆A/A) = 2 (∆A/A).
• Hence, the relative error in A2 is two times the error in A.
• In general, if Z = Ap Bq/Cr
• Then,
• ∆Z/Z = p (∆A/A) + q (∆B/B) + r (∆C/C).
• Hence the rule : The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the
power k is the k times the relative error in the individual quantity.