Units and Measurements

The comparison of any physical quantity with standard unit is called

measurement.

 Physical Quantities :
A property of a material or system that can be measured by using
measuring instruments. There are two types of physical quantities.
1) Fundamental Quantity
2) Derived Quantity
 Fundamental Quantity:
The physical quantities which are independent (not
depend) on any other quantity for their measurement is known
as fundamental quantity. There are seven fundamental
quantities with two supplementary units.
Ex. Mass, Time, Amount of Substance, Electric Current
etc.

Fundamental quantity
sr.no Physical quantity Unit Symbol
1 Length meter m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second S
4 Electric current ampere A
5 Temperature kelvin K
6 Luminous intensity candela cd
7 Amount of substance mole mol

Supplementary quantities
1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steradian sr
  Derived Quantity :
The physical quantities which are dependent (depend) on
any other quantity for their measurement is known as Derived
quantity.
Ex.Velocity, Acceleration, Momentum, Work, etc.
 Unit :
The standard references used for measurement of physical quantity
are known as unit of that quantity.
 Fundamental units:
The unit which is used for measurement of fundamental
quantities is known as fundamental units.
Ex. meter, kilogram, second, ampere etc.
 Derived units :
The unit which is used for measurement of derived
quantities is known as derived units.
Ex. Newton, m/s, m/s2, etc.
 System of units:
The set of fundamental and derived units is known as system of
units. We used following system of units commonly.
1) F.P.S.
2) C.G.S.
3) M.K.S.
4) S.I.
a) F.P.S. (Foot- Pound – Second )
The full form of this is the foot-pound-second system of units.
This metric system uses foot as the standard unit of length; pound
is set as the unit for denoting mass and force. Lastly, second is
used to denote time.
 b) C.G.S. (Centimeter – Gram – Second )
The form of this is the centimeter-gram-second system of units.
This metric system uses the unit of centimeter to denote the
distance/length, gram is used as the basic unit to denote mass
/weight and seconds is used for denoting time.
c) M.K.S. (Meter - Kilogram - Second )
The full form of this system is meter, kilogram and second.
This metric system is used to denote the measurement of physical
quantities. Here meter is used for denoting length, kilogram is
used for denoting mass and seconds is used for denoting time.
d) S.I. (System of International)
The longer abbreviation of the units is International System of
Units. It’s the most recent and modern type of metric system used
throughout the world. It is often used as the standard unit of
measurement. It mainly contains 7 units of measurement, which
are:-
 Second (s) is used as a unit to denote the measurement of time.

 Meter (m) is the unit to denote the measurement of length.

 For measuring mass, kilogram (kg) is used as a unit.

 Electric current is measured by the unit of ampere.

 For measuring the temperature kelvin (k) is used as a unit.

 Mole is the unit used to denote the amount of substance.

 The latest entry was of candela, which is used for measuring

candela (cd).

 Scalar and vector quantity :

Physical quantities are mainly classified into two types i.e. scalar
and vector quantity.
 Scalar quantity :
The physical quantity which can be described by using
magnitude only.
Ex. meter, kilogram, second, ampere etc.
  Vector quantity :
The physical quantity which can be described by using
magnitude as well as direction.
Ex. Newton, m/s, m/s2, etc.
 Dimension:
Dimension of physical quantity are the power to which
fundamental quantity are raised to obtain one unit of that quantity. i.e.
finding the fundamental quantity include in the given quantity. Also
find the contribution of the fundamental quantity.
 Dimensional Formula:
The expression in which contribution of fundamental quantity is
representing as its power is known as dimensional formula.
 Applications of dimensional analysis:
To check the correctness of physical equation.
To determine the conversion factor between units of the same
physical quantity in different systems.

 To check the correctness of physical equation :

A physical equation is correct only if the dimensions of all
the terms on both sides of the equation are the same.
Consider following equation of motion:
1
S = ut + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

The dimension of S = [𝐿1 𝑀0 𝑇 0 ] ……(1)

The dimension of ut = [𝐿1 𝑀0 𝑇 −1 ] × [𝑇1 ]

= [𝐿1 𝑀0 𝑇 0 ] ……(2)

1
Here is dimensionless quantity.
2

The dimension of 𝑎𝑡 2 = [𝐿1 𝑀0 𝑇 −2 ] × [𝑇1 ]2

= [𝐿1 𝑀0 𝑇 −2 ] × 𝑇 2

= [𝐿1 𝑀0 𝑇 0 ] ……… (3)

 From eq (1), (2) and (3) it is clear that, the every term of above
equation have same dimension. Hence the equation is dimensionally correct.

 To determine the conversion factor between units of the same

physical quantity in different systems.
i. Consider the physical quantity work. The M.K.S. unit of
work is joule and C.G.S. unit is erg.
ii. Let’s consider 1 joule = x erg. Now find the value of x
through dimension analysis.
iii. The dimension formula of work is [𝐿2 𝑀0 𝑇 −2 ] therefore,
1 joule = x erg
i.e. 1[𝐿2 𝑀0 𝑇 −2 ] = x [𝐿2 𝑀0 𝑇 −2 ]
iv. In M.K.S. system the length is measured in meter mass is
measured in kilogram and time is measured second.
v. In C.G.S. system the length is measured in centimeter, mass
is measured in gram and time is measured second.
vi. Therefore, we can write,
1[𝑚2 𝐾𝑔0 𝑠 −2 ] = x [𝑐𝑚2 𝑔0 𝑠 −2 ]
[𝑚2 𝐾𝑔0 𝑠 −2 ]
∴ x= [𝑐𝑚2 𝑔0 𝑠 −2 ]

[(100)𝑐𝑚2 (1000)𝑔0 𝑠 −2 ]
x= [𝑐𝑚2 𝑔0 𝑠 −2 ]

x= (102 )2 × (103 )

x= 104 × 103

x= 107
 i.e. 1 joule = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 erg
 Error:
The difference between the true value and measured value is
known as the error.
 Types of errors:
In physics, there are three main errors are considered as follows:
1) Instrumental Error
2) Systematic Error
3) Random Error

1) Instrumental Error :
The error which arises due to faulty construction and
calibration of instrument is called as Instrumental Error. The
zero error is a very common type of error. This error is common
in devices like Vernier callipers and screw gauges. The zero error
can be either positive or negative. Sometimes the scale readings
are gradually disappeared due to continuous use, which can also
lead to a bad reading.
2) Systematic Error :
The error which arises due to faulty setting of instrument is
called as Systematic Error. The zero error is a very common
type of error. This error is common in devices like Vernier
callipers and screw gauges. The zero error can be either positive
or negative.
 3) Random Error :
The error which arises due to sudden change in
experimental condition is called as Random Error. These errors
cannot be controlled. Random errors are also known as accidental
error. Such error cannot be eliminated but they can be minimized.
 Estimation of Errors :
For Estimation of error in physics we use following steps:
1) Find the correct value :
If instrument have zero errors (i.e. positive error or
negative error) then it subtract from each reading.
Corrected reading (x) = measured value – (± error)
If error positive then correction is negative
If error negative then correction is positive
2) Find the mean value :
After finding correct value, we have to find the mean
value of corrected reading.
𝒙𝟏+𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑+⋯
𝐱 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 = 𝒏
3) Find the absolute error :
After finding mean value, we have to find the absolute
error. The difference between mean value and measured
value is called as absolute error.
∆𝒙 = 𝐱 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 - corrected value
Where ∆𝑥 is absolute error.
 4) Find the mean absolute error:
For more accuracy we again take the mean of absolute
error. The arithmetic mean of all absolute error is called as
mean absolute error.
|∆𝐱 𝟏 |+|∆𝐱 𝟐 |+|∆𝐱 𝟑 |+ ………….
Mean absolute error =
𝟑
5) Find the relative error :
Relative error is ratio of mean absolute error in the
measurement to mean value.
𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
Relative error =
𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
6) Find the percentage error :
The relative error is multiply by 100 then it known as
percentage error.
𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
Percentage error = × 100
𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞

 Significant figures :
The significant figures indicate how many meaningful digits are
present in a measurement. The significant figures of a given number
are those significant or important digits, which convey the
meaning according to its accuracy.
 Rules for significant figure :
1. Retain only one uncertain digit in the measurement.
2. All the non-zero digits are always significant.
 3. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are
significant figure.
4. All the zeros before non-zeros digits are not significant
figure.
5. All the zeros behind the non-zeros digits are not significant
figure and significant when the decimal point is present.
6. if the number of digit is more than the number of significant
figure ,the number should expressed in be expressed in the
power of 10,but the power of 10 is not significant.
Ex. 3 x 108 m/s have 1 significant figure.
 ancient astronomical instruments:
1) Chakra Yantra :
Chakra yantra was initially designed by Bhaskaracharya. It
is a circular disc along periphery of which angular graduations are
calibrated. Thus it resembles a protractor. Because of its circular
nature, it is called disc machine. This yantra was used of angular
marking of land and angular positioning of cities.
In a modified form a stick was pivoted at its center and
judging from movement of its shadow from sunrise to sunset,
time was measured.
2) Yasti Yantra :
i. Yasti means stick, hence this machine is also known as stick
machine. Bhaskaracharya had designed this yantra to
calculate height of terrestrial objects such as trees,
mountains.
 ii. It consists of a board on which a long stick is pivoted. This
enables upward, downward movement of the stick.
iii. The board is mounted at certain height from the ground
level such that the pivot will be at the eye level of the
observer.
iv. The observer has first to focus on the top of the object my
moving the stick in upward direction. The direction of stick
is line of sight. Its position is marked on the board.
v. The stick is then moved downward with observer focusing
at the bottom of the object.
vi. The position of the stick is marked on the board.
vii. A line parallel to the ground level is drawn on the board
through the pivot point.
viii. This is reference line. Now from certain points on line of
sights perpendiculars are drawn on the reference line, two
triangles are formed.
ix. The height of the tall object can be determined based on the
proportions of the triangles so formed.

3) Dhanur Yantra :
Dhanur yantra is a semicircular angle measuring device. It
consists of a semicircular disc has angular graduations along its
periphery. This resembles protractor.
4) Phalak Yantra :
 It consists of a board .It is provided with a pin and an index
arm. This yantra was used to determine time graphically by
observing sun's altitude.
 Vernier caliper :

The Vernier Caliper is mainly used to measure the distance

between objects and theirs internal and external dimensions including
height
1) Education Sector :
In educational sector, vernier caliper is used to measure
materials undergoing temperature changes, measure regular and
irregular objects.
2) science labs :
In science labs, it is used to measure apparatus present in
science labs Form error free experiments.
3) Medical applications:
In medical applications, vernier caliper is used to measure
tools used in surgeries and medical usages.
4) In the steel sector:
 In the steel sector, it is used to measure the length, breath, and
height of objects to make consistent product of the same dimensions.

5) Aerospace sector:-
In the Aerospace sector, Vernier calipers is used to measure
minute details in the aerial part to avoid accident in the air

 Micrometer screw gauge :

Some of the applications of a screw gauge are as follows:

1. To measure diameter:
Measure the diameter of a given wire and hence it's radius
with an accuracy of 0.001 cm, a screw gauge is used to measure the
diameter of circular objects, primarily wires.
2. To Measure thickness.
To measure the thickness of a glass slab or a metal sheet or a
piece of paper screw gauge is used. Uniform thickness of any shape
can be found using a screw gauge.
3. To Measure volume:-
To Measure the diameter of a given lead shot and determine
its volume.
4. To Measure volume:.
To Measure the volume of an irregular lamina of uniform
thickness.
 Question for Practice
1. Define physical quantity with suitable example.
2. Define the unit of physical quantity with suitable example.
3. Define fundamental and derived quantities.
4. Define the fundamental and derived units.
5. List all the fundamental physical quantities with supplementary units.
6. Define the dimensions of physical quantity.
7. State the dimensions of velocity and force.
8. Find the dimensions of momentum and energy.
9. Define error.
10. Explain main types of error.
11. Define absolute error, mean absolute error, relative error and
percentage error,
12. Define the significant figure.
13. State the significant figure of the following numbers.
a) 3000 c) 63.00 e) 1.6 x 10-19
b) 4030 d) 0.0349

14. Write the application of Vernier caliper.

15. Write the application of micrometer screw gauge
 Numerical for practices
1) The thickness of plate was measured by micrometer screw gauge of
least count 0.001 cm and readings were 2.431 cm. 2.440 cm, 2.438 cm.
Calculate percentage errors in the measurement of thickness of plate.
2) The outer diameter of spherical body was measured by Vernier Caliper
of least count 0.01 cm. The measurements were 2.51 cm, 2.54 cm, 2.53
cm and 2.54 cm. Find 1) Mean outer diameter 2) Mean absolute error
3) Relative error and 4) Percentage error in the measurement.
3) An object was weighed by a physical balance and measured readings
were 5.04 g, 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find 1) Mean value 2)
Absolute error 3) Mean absolute error 4) Relative error and 5)
Percentage error.
 Assignment 1

Q1) attempt following question (10)

1. Define the fundamental and derived units.

2. Define fundamental and derived quantities.
3. Define the dimensions of physical quantity.
4. Define the significant figure.
5. Find the dimensions of momentum, energy, velocity and force.

Q2) attempt following question (15)

1. State the significant figure of the following numbers.

a) 3000 c) 63.00 e) 1.6 x 10-19

b) 4030 d) 0.0349 f) 1001
2. The thickness of plate was measured by micrometer screw gauge of
least count 0.001 cm and readings were 2.431 cm. 2.440 cm, 2.438 cm.
Calculate percentage errors in the measurement of thickness of plate.
3. Define absolute error, mean absolute error, relative error .
4. Write the application of Vernier caliper.
5. An object was weighed by a physical balance and measured readings
were 5.04 g, 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find 1) Absolute error
2) Mean absolute error 3) Relative error.