Power System Fundamentals

Course code EEET 4057

Per Unit Analysis

Mrs. Vanika Sharma
UniSA STEM
University of South Australia
Email: [email protected]

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 Objectives

• System Modelling

o Generator Model

o Transformer Model

o Load Model

• Per Unit System

o Steps to Draw Impedance Diagram

o Example

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 System Modeling

Systems are represented on a per-phase basis

• A single-phase representation is used for a balanced system
o the system is modeled as one phase of a wye-connected network

• Symmetrical components are used for unbalanced systems

o unbalance systems may be caused by: generation, network
components, loads, or unusual operating conditions such as faults

• In both, per unit system measurements are used to analyze the

system.

Review of basic network component models

• generators
• transformers
• loads
• transmission lines 3
 Generator Models

Generator may be modeled in three different ways

• Power Injection Model - the real, P, and reactive, Q, power of the
generator is specified at the node that the generator is connected
o either the voltage or injected current is specified at the connected node,
allowing the other quantity to be determined

• Thevenin Model - induced AC voltage, E, behind the synchronous

reactance, Xd

• Norton Model - injected AC current, IG, in parallel with the

synchronous reactance

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 Transformer Model

Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer

R1 X1 R2 X2
N1 : N2

E1 E2
V1 Xm V2
Rc

More detailed and more accurate model includes magnetization branch (core loss due to
eddy current and hysteresis), copper losses, magnetic flux leakage reactance.

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 Transformer Model

Approximate circuit referred to the primary

REQ1 XEQ1

N1
V1 Rc Xm V2 = V2
N2

• We will use a simplified model, where magnetization branch and copper losses are
neglected. After reflecting the secondary side to the primary, the transformer model will
become just one series of reactance. X
TR

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 Load Models

Models are selected based on both the type of analysis and the load
characteristics
• Constant impedance, Zload
o Load is made up of R, L, and C elements connected to a network node
and the ground (or neutral point of the system)

• Constant current, Iload

o The load has a constant current magnitude I, and a constant power
factor, independent of the nodal voltage
o Also considered as a current injection into the network

• Constant power, Sload

o The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power component
independent of nodal voltage or current injection
o Also considered as a negative power injection into the network
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 Per Unit System

The advantages of the per unit system for analysis

• Gives a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various quantities

• The per unit impedance, voltages, and currents of transformers are the
same regardless of whether they are referred to the primary or the
secondary side.
o Different voltage levels disappear across the entire system.
o The system reduces to a system of simple impedances.

• The circuit laws are valid in per unit systems, and the power and voltages
equations are simplified since the factors of 3 and 3 are eliminated in
the per unit system.

• The per unit impedance of equipment of the same general type based
upon their own ratings falls in a narrow range regardless of the rating of
the equipment.
o Whereas their impedances in ohms vary greatly with the ratings. 8
 Per Unit System

Almost all power system analyses are performed in per- units

• In the per unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and
other electrical quantities are expressed on a per unit basis by the equation:

• It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per unit

system. The ones usually selected are voltage and power.

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 Per Unit System

• It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per unit

system. The ones usually selected are voltage and power.

♦ 3-phase power base, S3

■ common power base is 100 MVA

♦ Line-to-line voltage base, VLL

■ voltage base is usually selected from the equipment rated voltage

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 Per Unit System

• Other bases can be derived from fundamental bases. These bases are
known as derived or secondary bases.

Current base, IL Impedance base, Z

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 Example of Base impedance

Ex: Base voltage is 1.1 kV, base kVA is 106.

Find base impedance.

Impedance base, Z

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 Per Unit System

Equipment impedances are frequently given in per unit or percentages

of the impedance base
♦ The impedance base for equipment is derived from the rated power and the
rated voltage

Example
♦ Generally, old values are provided by the manufacturer of the equipment,
while new values of voltage and power base depend on the system where
the equipment has been installed. When these values differ, change of
base is required, i.e.

♦ When modeling equipment in a system, the per unit impedance must be

converted so that the equipment and the system are on a common base.

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 Example of Base Impedance

Example: If the reactance is 5 ohms, find the per unit value of impedance. Given
base 1 MVA and base voltage 11 kV.

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 Per Unit System

♦ Note that new power base is numerator while new voltage base is in the
denominator.
♦ The ratio of old and new voltage bases is squared. 15
 Example

A 30 MVA, 11 kV generator has a reactance of 0.2 pu referred to its

ratings as bases. Determine the per unit reactance when referred to the
base MVA of 50 and base kV of 33 kV.

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 Impedance Diagram

• Per unit analysis is mainly done to draw impedance diagram, which is

a diagram that contains only impedances expressed in per unit
values.

• All the power apparatus is replaced by their equivalent impedances.

• Most of such impedances may have negligible resistances and

therefore, have only reactance.

• We use a one-line diagram or single-line diagram to create a circuit

diagram that consists of only impedance (Impedance Diagram).
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 Steps to Draw Impedance Diagram

1. Choose an appropriate base power (generally MVA) for the whole

system.

2. Considering the system is divided by the number of transformers, choose

an appropriate voltage base in one of the sections.

3. Voltage base changes whenever we go through the transformer.

Therefore, the system containing power transformers generally has more
than one base voltage → Determine voltage bases of other sections in the
ratio of transformation.

4. Calculate per unit values of impedances for each section.

5. Connect them as the topology of the single line diagram.

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Example

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 Solution

• Start with Fundamental Bases

• Taking into consideration many transformers in the example, the regions

with different voltage bases are redrawn with different colours.

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 Defining regions

• 4 regions with different voltage bases.

• The voltage base at the location of the generator is already chosen,

let’s determine the other three voltage bases using nominal
transformation ratios of the transformers.

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Voltage Base

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 Generator and Transformer Impedance

For transformers, we use either LV voltage of transformer and LV Base or HV voltage of

transformer and HV Base, Either way, the result must be the same → Advantage of p.u. system
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 Transformer Impedance

Similarly for T2, T3 and T4

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 Motor and Load Impedance

For load

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 Line Impedance

For lines
• We already have line impedances in ohms, so calculate line base
impedance

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Impedance Diagram

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 Comments

• Once we have per unit values, we multiply those with base values to
obtain actual, quantities.

For example: if we get , then we can find actual

generator voltages:

This is a line voltage, as the base was line voltage. The phase voltage
can be calculated as:

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 Power in Per Unit

Per unit, power is 3-phase power but it doesn’t have 3 multipliers.

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Acknowledgment

Lecture notes by Dr. Zorica Nedic, Dr.

David Whaley and Mr Sasha Jakovljevic

Saadat, Hadi 2010, Power System

Analysis, 3, PSA Publishing.

Gupta, J.B. 2009, A course ion Power

Systems, SK Kataria Publishing

Lecture notes-updates by Vanika Sharma

 THANKS
FOR YOUR
ATTENTION!

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