Phonemics Symbols/ Phonetic Symbols

(vowels 20, Consonants 24, total 44 speech sounds)

Parts of speech

1 NOUNs

Nouns Types 2 (Singular and plurals), Kinds 5 (Common, Proper, Material/Mass, Collective, and Abstract)

Count and Uncount. (Victory and conflict)

Uncounts with S, mainly Subjects, Activities, games, disease

Subjects…. Acoustics, Aerobics, aerodynamics, etc

Games…… Billiards, Brawls, cards, darts, droughts, skittles, tidy, winks

Disease… Measures, mumps, rabies, Rickels, shingls,

(State) tension, happiness, Hesitation, confusion, illness, Islam, Poverty, freedom, youth, honest. (it may
be stage or feelings) (or honesty).

Collective n referring to a gp. it is the name of gp which is spoken together and it’s taken as whole is
called collective n. collective n may be CN or UN.

Crowd, team, delegation, army, police, century, assembly, mob, congregation, staff, year, month, hour,
minute, fruit, staff, vegetable, pair, couple, parade, series, bazar, family, academy, dozen, enemy,
constellation (gp of stars), caste, committee, nobility, age/abu gp of monkeys bacteria, conjany,
opposition, navy , media, grace (12 dozen), council, press, heap (gp of grain), govt, gang, herd, jury.

Singular and plural verb

N you use as a collective n, you can use either a singular v or plural v after it, you choose singular v of
you think of the n gp as a number of individuals.

Ex. Our little gp is complete again. A second gp are those parents who feel that they were too harsh

(others) enemy, family, public, etc

The names of many organizations are Collective ns, and can be used with a singular or plural verbs.

Ex. The BBC is spending him to Tuesday for the summer. The BBC are planning to use the new satellite
next month. England was leading 18-0 at half time. England are seeking alternatives for their B-team.

If you want to refer back to a collective n, you choose a singular pn or det if the previous v is singular,
and a plural pn or det if the previous v is plural.

Ex. The govt has Said it would wish to do this only if there was no alternative. The govt have made up
their minds that they are going to win.

(Usage Note) note that the words Bacteria, Data and media are now often used as collective Ns, that’s
with either a singular or plural v and no change on form. Some careful speakers think they should only
be used with a plural v b/c they have the rare singular forms bacterium, datum, and medium and are
therefore CNs.

Ex. Medieval Arabic data show that the length of the day has been increasing more slowly than
expected. Our latest data shows more firms are hoping to expand in the near future.

(Warning) although you can use a plural v after a collective n, these nouns don’t behave like the plural
forms of count Ns. For ex: you can’t use numbers in front of them. You cannot say…… three enemy were
killed. you have to say…. three of the enemy were killed.

(List of Collective Ns) other protectriate, flock etc. some collective Ns are also partitives for example you
talk about a flock of sheep and a herd of cattle.

(Numbers) the way in which the difference b/w singular and plural Ns are shown grammatically.

Singular N

Plural N. No numbers in front of them but the some general det(s) (some, many)

(With or without det(s)) some plural Ns use most commonly used with THE.

Ex. Things much more than the rains came.

(The list) authorities, pictures, water, foundations, odors, wilds, fruits, Racas, heavens, ruins, mains,
sights.

Plurals used with a possessive det(s) (my, her, etc) activities, likes, terms, wants, attentions, movements,
travels, feelings, reaction, troubles. Ex. It offended her feelings. My travels, her troubles.

(plurals without det(s)) airs, matters, appearances, refreshments, events, riches, expenses, solids,
figures, talks, goods, vermin.

Ex. Several of the men were covered in vermin. Plurals can be used with/without det.

Arms, green, morals, traces, basics, grands, papers, troops, brains, handcuffs, particulars, values, clergy,
HQs, people, proceals, losts, interests, poultry, rates, directions, looks, premises, specifics, essentials,
means, thanks, spirits, supplies, talks.

(Plurals refer to tools and other thing that people use) binoculars, field, glasses, scales, clippers,
nucracks, sciessors, compasses, pincers, secreteurs, dividers, pliers, dividers, shears, tongs, tweezers.

Plural rules
Rule 1 A) if a singular weak Ns ends in c+y then -y/-I and addition +es ex. Babies, ladies, ferries, parties,
fairies, cherries, diaries, factories, families, jellies, libraries, stories, trophies

B) if a singular weak Ns end in v+y or vowel sound (day, oy, uy, ey ) the plural is made by adding +s Ex.
Days, boys, guys, donkeys, galleys, valleys, chimneys, keys , monkeys, toys, trays, trolleys, turkeys.

(Note) proper Ns / names ending in c+y usually have plural in ys

Rule 2 ch, x, s, z (swan book), ss co-build book), sh, h (+es). Ex. churches, crashes, busses/buses, boxes,
buzzes, kisses, fuses.

Ns ending in a single z hace plurals in zzes.Ex. Quiz/quizzes, Fez/Fezzes

Rule 3 A) some Ns end in o have plurals in adding es if c+o Ex. Echo/echoes, potatoes, heroes, tomatoes,
negroes.

But memo – memos, kilos, photos, cellos, logos, pianos, commandos, eskimos, solos, sopranos.

B) Ns ending in vowels+o, have plural in +s Ex. Radios, zoos, stereos.

The following words can have plurals in s or es, es is more common. Ex. Buffalo(e)s, tornado(e)s,
mosquito(e)s, volcano(e)s.

Rule 4 if a Count N ends in consonant, such that, except (sxyz) its plural is made by adding +s Ex.
Computers, trains, dogs, chairs

Plurals from book focus on grammar

Rule 1 Ns that end in e, like home, shore, just add s to make plural. But notice that in the case of singular
Ns that end in ce se or ze like (face, niece, case, nose, size) adding an s makes another syllable. So, the
plurals (faces, nieces, slices, cases) all have two syllables, and the plurals (surfaces, diseases, trapezes)
have three.

Rule 2 Note in addition to rule 2 of collins pages

But notice the following plurals (Monarch- monarchs stomach- stomachs b/c the ch in these words
sounds like k, so you add s; not es:

Rule 3 A) Ns ending in oo just add s to form the plural, and many Ns ending in just single o do the same,
including short forms such as kilo and hippo. Ex. Avacado+s , kimonos, cellos, manifestos, cuckoos,
radios, embryos, thinos, rhinos, fiascos, kangaroos, hippos, kilos, studios, videos, yoyos, zoos.

B) some other well known O-Nouns add es Ex. Cargo – cargoes, noes, potatoes, tomatoes, dingoes,
echoes, embargoes, heroes, vetoes, tornadoes.

C) with some o-Nouns both plurals are acceptable.

Ex. Buffalo – buffalos/es, halos/es, mangos/es, mementos/es, mosquitos/es, zeros/es.

Rule 4 y rules (A/B) written/ edited in collins pages.

Extra Note the N storey, plural storeys in (Br.E). ; Story (spelled usually in AME, with Plural stories)

Extra the staff of an organization has the plural staffs, but the musical staff (the set of five lines in which
notes are written) has the plural staves.

Rule 5 A) some Ns that end in f have the plural ending ves; you change the f to v and add es

Ex. Calf to calves, elf elves, leaves, loaves, selves, sheaves, shelves, thieves, wolves.

B) But some Ns ending in f just add s Ex. Belief beliefs, chefs, chiefs, gulfs, massifs, proofs, reefs, roofs.
C) but with some Ns ending in f both plural endings are acceptable: dwarf dwarfs/dwarves,
hoofs/hooves, scarfs/scarves, wharfs/wharves.

Rule 6 A) these Ns ending in fe have ves for pluralization. Ex. Knife/knives, lives, wives.

B) but these Ns ending in fe just add s Ex. Cafe/cafes, safes.

Rule 7 Ns ending in ff and ffe just add s.Ex. Cliff/cliffs, staffs, cuffs, rebuffs, sheriffs, tariffs, gaffes, giraffes.

Rule 8 plurals of compound Ns A) many Compound Ns are written as one word, and their plural is
formed in the regular way: classroom classrooms, handphone/s, dishwasher/s, screwdrivers.

B) when the compound N is written as two words, or as two words joined by a hyphen, you add s to the
second word: book club/s, photo albums, fire engines, mobile phones, shopping centers, word-
processors

An exception is a compound consisting of a N+particle, in which S is added to the N: passer-by- passers-

by, runners-up.

But notice ...stand-in stands-in where the first element is not a N but a v

C) with most compound Ns of the three words or more you add s to the first word, which is usually a N:
commander-in-chief to commanders-in-chief, lily-of-the valley to lilies-of-the valley, cul-de-sac to culs-de-
sac, maid-of-honour to maids-of-honour. Lady-of-honour to ladies-of-honour, lady-in-waiting to ladies-in-
waiting, son-in-law to sons-in-law.

Note a cut-de-sac is a dead end, that is, a street that has a closed end and does not lead anywhere. It is a
French compound, but in French it means the bottom of a bag.

1 But in some cases the first word is not a N, and S comes at the end of the whole compounds. Forget-
me-not to forget-me-nots, never-do-well to never-do-wells.

Using Ns in the plural

Plural Ns can be used on their own in general statements. Ex. I don’t like cats.

Or with some in specific situations; some acts as the plural of an/a. Ex. I heard some cats fighting during
the nights.

Or with a number. Ex. My mother owns three cats.

Or with det(s), quantity words and possessive forms: Ex. I won’t have those cats in the bedroom!

We don’t allow our cats on the armchairs. I fed mum’s cats in this neighborhood.

9 A) Plural Ns that have no singular form. (cattle, folk, people, the police, vermin)

B) person people. (persons) more formal plural

C) you can use people and folk as Singular Ns to describe as an individual race or nation; they have the
plural (Peoples and Folks).

Rule 10) words for things that come in pairs are plural Ns. There are two kinds of pairs:
Things that have two corresponding parts joined together: Ex. Binoculars, braces, glasses, goggles, jeans,
pants, pliers, scissors, shears, shorts, spectacles, tights, tongs, trousers.

Note: in AM Eng the pair word equivalent to braces is suspenders

Things that consist of a set of two usually identical items that are used together: boats, chopsticks,
gloves, pyjamas, sandals, shoes, skis, slippers, sneakers, socks, stockings, trainers.

Plural of some is some.

A pair of scissors, pairs of scissors.

There are several Ns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called
(mutated (or mutating) plurals). Ex. Children people, mice (mouses from mouse), barracks, Banacks,
deer). Extra penre (of price) = pennies (wins)

(Latin and Greek forms)

Nucleus nuclei, syllabus syllabi (Latin) syllabuses, focus foci, fungus fungus (latin) funguses, cactus cacti
(latin) cactuses is acceptable, thesis theses, crises crises, phenomenon phenomena, index indices
(indexes is acceptable), appendex appendices (appendixes is acceptable), criterion (latin) criteria,
(media, data and alumi) also included. And other

Latin (antenna antennae/antennas, formula formulae/formulas, vertebra vertebrae, bacterium bacteria,

curriculum curricula/curriculums, datum data, medium media.

Greek (basis bases, crises crises, oasis oases, stigma stigmata/stigmas).

French Bureau bureaux/bureaus, gateau gateaux/gateaus, tableau tableaux/tableaus.

Same form for singular and plural

Bison, deer, greenfly, grouse, mouse, reindeer, sheep, cod, fish, goldfish, halibut, mullet, salmon,
shellfish, trout, white boat, aircraft, hover craft, space craft, dice, cross roads, fruit, gallows, grapefruit,
space craft, mews, off spring, series, species, barrgeois, charis, corpse, patois, precise, rendezuous, carp,
heron heron/herons, buffalo buffalo/buffalo (e)s, herring herrings/herring.

Extra related fish fish but fishes is possible when you are talking about different kinds of fish, for ex:

We are studying the various fishes of the Indian ocean.

Notice dozen dozen/dozens, million million/millions, billion billion/billions, scare 20 score/scores,

hundred hundred/hundreds, thousand thousand/thousands.

Note these words have the plural from without S when a number comes before then, for ex. Two dozen
roses, three score years, six million dollars, seven billion pounds.

But you say, for ex.

She won dozens of prizes. Did you receive any complaints? Yes, hundreds. Thousands of insures filled the
air.
Noun which are rarely used alone

Det(s), qualifiers (of+) prep ph. (it is understood (topic) and ignored.

Sharing the same quality ( adj as headword) Ex. Poor people (the poor) N/Head word but adj

Note that you never add s to the head word, even though it always refers to more than one person.

(Note productive feature) do it to any adj

(N-V agreement) when adj used as a head word plural verb is used. Ex. The rich have ….

(For being more specific) to refer to a more specific gp of people, you can put a sub modifier or another
adj, in front of head word. Ex. …..highly educated, …..the urban poor.

If you mention two gps, you can sometimes omit (the).

Ex …..a study that compared the diets of rich and poor in several nations.

With a few words such as unemployed and dead, you can say how many people you are referring to by
putting number in front of them. Ex. These are 3 million unemployed in this country.

(Quantities) when you want to refer to the quality of something rather than to the thing itself, you can
use the appropriate adj(s) with (the). Ex. Don’t you think that you are wanting the impossible. He is still
exploring the limits of the people.

(Colors) all the colors adjs can also be used as head words.

Ex……patches of blue. …. Brilliant paintings in red and greens and blues.

Clothing of a particular color can be referred to simply by using the color adj. Ex. The men were grey. ….
the fat lady in black.

(Usage note) nationality adjs which are end in ch,sh,se, or ss can be used in a singular way, unless there
is separate N for the people. Ex. The French french people, the poles polish people.

Gender 4 masculine g, feminine g, common g (all for persons)

Neuter g lifeless things. Included material, abstract

Common G ex. Child, off spring, student, enemy, friend, spouse, artist, infant, baby, cousin, orphan, boss,
neighbor, piolet, partner, look, prisoner, patient, professor, police, employee, prime minister, president,
acrobat.

Focus on Grammar Nouns

(Forms) sing/plural, with an article (a,an/the), with zero article, with a det, phrase, compound.

(Uses) sub of a v, obj of a v, obj of a prep, complement after a linking v, obj complement, adjectival
before another N.

(Types Ns come in two main types)

1) Proper N (names of particular people, animals, places, objects buildings, Countable Names e.g.
Germans, Muslims. Uncountable names e.g. mandarin, coca cola, Christianity.

2) (Common N) Count (concrete, abstract), Uncount (concrete, abstract), collective Nouns, Common-
gender Ns, masculine Ns, feminine Ns, Neuter Ns.

(Nouns in context) Ns may be singular plural, plurals usually with s but some plural Ns don’t end with s.

Ns can be used with articles the/a/an. Some Ns such as home, school can be used without an article.
Dets such as possessive, quantifiers and demonstrative can be used with Ns.

Ex. “Well, you can take them for a walk up the hill or round the park later. It’ll be good for them to get
away from Rome”, said her mother. They haven’t had an outing for a white, so they do need some
exercise. This weather is ideal.

Ns need not be single words; they may be compounds (consisting of two more words). or they may be
phrases (usually called N phrases).

Ex. Kay picked up her shopping bag, opened the front door, and stepped out on to the footpath. A van-
driver stopped for her as she used the pedestrian crossing. It was a lordy wan day as she headed for the
stop on the corner.

A N can be the sub or obj of a v, or the obj of prep. a N can be a complement after a linking v or after the
obj of a transitive v. a N can be used attributively, like an adj, before another N.

Ex. The sun shone down. Kay enjoyed its warmth as she ran along to the end of the street. The shop was
actually a small supermarket now, but everybody still called it “the shop” or “the corner shop”.

Proper Ns, common Ns and some are the both.

Ns can be count and uncount. Count with a/an or made plural. Uncounts are not normally made plural,
and can be used without an article. Count and uncount Ns can both be abstract.

Some Ns for occupations distinguish b/w masculine and feminine gender, but most are common-gender,
collective Ns represent a gp of people: they may take a singular or plural v.

Ex. Mrs long had been manageress of the corner shop for many years, ever since first manager, mr green,
had died.

The staff was always changing, so the public were appreciative of the continuity provided by mrs long.

Mass ns, abstract ns are not made plurals. They are uncounts as a general rule

A n consisting of several words N phrase

A n, made up of two words often two Ns, is Compound N.

Function of a N in a sentence, have several grammatical functions

Can be sub, obj of a v, obj of prep, the complement of a linking v, the obj complement after a transitive v,
and an adj used before another N.

Ns as complement after linking Vs: a N can be a compound after a v such as be or become.

Ex. I became an actress quite by accident. Are you a doctor? I feel a fool. Be a man! Lychees make a
pleasant dessert.

(Note) a V that takes a complement, such as be or become is called a linking v.

Ns as object complements after trans vs. a N can also be a complement after a trans v, that is a v that
takes an obj. the complement is attached to the obj. Ex. She called me a fool. And you call yourself an
expert! We elected her captain. The others made me their spokesperson. The judges voted James the
winner.

Ns used adjectively.

Frequently in Eng. You find a N used like an adj before another N; the first N describes or defines the
second N.

Ex. Rain clouds were approaching. We are planning to reviews the school curriculum. An internet search
will give you the answer. The Singapore wealth is normally very humid. There were coffee stains on very
surface.

A verb that takes a complement after an object is called a complex transitive verb

Vs such as elect, vote, make, which take an object complement, can be used actively or passively.

Ex. we voted her the winner. Active

She was voted the winner. Passive

Note a lot of well-established compound nouns are formed from two Ns in this way, with the first N
defining or describing the second: Ex. book case, coffee cup, hand bag, soupspoon, taxi rank, swimming
costume, key board, dinning room. (More defined in unit 11 of the book)

Types on Ns

Ns can be broadly classified into two main gps : Proper Ns and Common Ns ( uncount and count ,
concrete and abstract)

Both concrete and abstract Ns can be countable or uncountable. Ex. happiness (abstract and uncount)

Trick (abstract but uncount), finger (concrete and count), margarine (concrete but uncount)

(Beliefs such as communism are uncount, coca-cola trade name of certain products are uncount).

Certain proper Ns (with capital letters) are uncount

A person of a certain nationality, such as German is count.

The language of a certain country, such as German is uncount.

mass nouns are uncount nouns in many (called concrete).

In general contexts you can use them without a determiner. In specific contexts, some is often used; it
has the same function as a/an does with count nouns. Ex. cheese, fruit, bread, food, meat, butter, or
margarine.
quantity words +of are frequently used as quantifying determiners or quantifiers with mass nouns. Ex.
plenty of space, a lot of crockery, loads of cutlery, bed linen.

as well as a quantifying determiner, you can use (unit) words, such as (bottles, slice, packet) or measured
quantities i.e. gram and liter, + of with mass nouns. Although the mass noun is not used in the plural,
these steps and quantities can be made plural and used with numbers.

Ex. eight bottles of wine, four loaves of bread, several kilos of fruit, twenty slices of ham a joint of
meat ,400 grams of cheese, two liters of milk, half a kilo of butter, a bag of salad, and a packet of coffee.

some mass nouns can be used with a/a like countable nouns, or made plural, when you are referring to
individual portions; so, you can say two cups of coffee are two coffees.

after a negative, any takes the place of some before a mass noun (eg I don’t need any sugar).

notice that you can use possessives, demonstratives, and adjectives with uncountable nouns. Ex.

a coffee, a tea, two coffees, two sugars in mine, two spoonfuls of sugar, thats coffee etc

as with countable nouns, the can be used before mass nouns, when it is clear from the context what the
speaker or writer is referring to Ex. the shopping, the bread, the meat, the milk, the butter, the salad).

Uncountable Ns

we noticed that countable nouns are items. by contrast, the uncount nouns can be regarded as items.
uncountable nouns are typically nouns that don’t form plurals. they can be divided into two main types
concrete uncountable nouns and abstract uncountable nouns.

concrete uncountable nouns represent types of food, material; these are material are mass nouns.

Ex. jam paint scenery water glue ice furniture wine electricity hay toothpaste.

abstract uncountable nouns represent qualities or concepts as a general rule, you don't use article a/an,
with uncountable nouns. Ex. gratitude safety fame warmth despair hatred punctuation sleep chaos
grammar speed work.

how uncountable nouns are used: can be used on their own in general statements ie. i don't like
cheese, can be used with some in a specific situation; some takes the place of a/an. you use with
countables, can be with the, they can also be used with other determiners, quantity words and
possessive forms, Ex.

that keys much cheese my hair Granddad’s health.

countable nouns used as countable nouns it is quite common for uncountable nouns also to be
countable nouns for example in the sense of:

a variety of a material, food etc

Ex. the fastenings are made of metal uncount n, gold is a precious metal, metals such as iron and steel
are used in industry countable, I love cheese UN, is this a dutch cheese? dutch cheese are fairly mild C, i
enjoy a small glass of wine at lunchtime UN, this is an Australian wine, I prefer French wines C, we get a
lot of wind in the autumn UN, there is a cold northerly wind today. in summer we get warm southerly or
southwesterly winds C,

A portion or helping of something

Ex. i have made a pot of coffee. UN, waiter! another coffee! i ordered two coffees and three tears.

Bear is made from fruit of the hop plant UN, i feel like a nice cold beer. shall i get beers for everyone C,

an object made of a connected with a material

don't waste paper UN, i went out to buy a paper. we read about the fire in the papers C, fire is a good
servant but a bad master C, a welcoming fire was burning in the grate. notice said no fire C, how long ago
was iron discovered? C, we have bought a new electric iron. the best irons have a steam esteem option
C. the pond was covered with ice UN, would you like an ice, there are strawberry or chocolate ices for
sale C, the floor was covered with broken glass UN, mum poured the wine into glasses. we need one
more glass C, the buildings are all made of wood UN, the path led through a wood. the country used to
be covered with woods and forests C.

an individual PC of something

Ex. helen has lovely wavy hair UN, mum pulled out a grey hair. Dad has lots of grey hairs CN, chalk is a
soft type of rock UN, miss lee has a box of coloured chalks. does she have a purple chalk C.

it is possible to use a piece of and many other similar expressions before uncountable nouns: a piece of
advice ,a word of advice, a drop of blood a loaf of bread a piece of bread a slice of bread a stick of chalk,
a way of cheese, a bar of chocolate ,a length of cloth, a piece of cloth, a wisp of cloud, a cloud of dust, a
speek of dust, a piece of furniture, a pone of glass, a blade of grass, a block of ice, a blade of grass ,a
lock of hair, a strand of hair, a spoonful of honey a piece of information a jar of jam, a piece of music a
piece of news a piece of paper a sheet of paper a drop of rain a shower of rain a grain of rice a pinch of
salt a fall of snow a flack of snow a bar of soap a cake of soap a lump of sugar a drop of water a pool of
water a gust of wind.

you use such expressions in order to refer to a single unit of the mass represented by an uncountable
noun Ex. add a pinch of salt to the pastry mixture, that's a nice tuneful piece of music.

you can make the expressions plural and use numbers with them for example dove cut three slices of
bread, i watched her put four lumps of sugar in her coffee.

Fruit

the noun fruit is unusual it's generally regarded as an uncountable noun Ex. fruit,a bowl of fruit

you can use a piece of fruit to refer to a single apple beer banana guava and so on

Ex. I usually just eat a piece of fruit for lunch

but when you are talking about different kinds of fruit, you can use fruit as a countable N: Ex. is a tomato
a vegetable or a fruit, they set guavas mangoes and other tropical fruits.

fruit is sometimes treated as plural:

Ex. the tree produces small shiny purple fruit which are poisonous.

furniture clothing crockery cutlery luggage stationary

just as a piece of fruit refers to a single apple beer banana and so on, so as a piece of furniture refers to a
single chair table bed and so on:

Ex. several pieces of furniture have been damaged, including the grandfather cloth.

Similarly, piece of clothing can be any of the clothes you wear, a piece of cutlery stationary luggage
crockery.

mathematics news measles,aerobics bowls

although these nouns look like plurals; but are uncounts and are used with a singular verb:

mathematics maths Bre, math Amr

countable nouns used as uncountable nouns

some countable nouns can be turned into uncountable nouns, for example fruits or vegetables or other
foods that can be divided into pieces or portions, are turned into a mass by cooking or beating.

Ex. a melon C,a piece of melon UN, three potatoes C ,a bowl of mashed potatoes UN. Fish C, last bit of
fish UN.

Some abstract nouns endings. Ness: Abstract nouns ending in ness are usually words for qualities.
Coldness. Greatness. Usefulness. Weakness.

The ending ness means the state of being cold, great, weak, useful and so on.

You form ness Ns by adding two adjectives. Boldness. Darkness. Dryness. Darkness. Eagerness.
Forgetfulness. Friendliness. Greatness. Happiness, hardness, laziness, loneliness, loudness, madness,
numbness, redness, sadness, shyness, sickness, silliness, sweetness, thickness, ugliness, weakness,
willingness.

ION many Ns ending in ION are activity words. They are related to vs. the ending ION often means the
ending of something. Ex. action, the process of acting, instruction the process of instructing, rejection
the act of rejecting.

Nouns. Ending in ION are formed in various ways from Latin stems from which the verbs also come, so
formation rules are not possible:

Act Action Admit admission. ETC. Explore exploration, permit, permission, repeat, repetition, divide,
division. Persuade persuasion solve solution tempted temptation.

Y/TY/ITY are words for qualities and states. They are related to adjectives:

Honesty, the quality of being honest, loyalty, the quality of being loyal, activity the state of being active.
Nouns ending in Y/TY/ITY are mostly formed in various ways from French or Latin stems from which the
adjectives also come, so formation rules are not possible:
Able Ability active activity equal equality brutal brutality Courteous Courtesy equal equality, Grave
gravity, Honest honesty, Jealous jealousy, Jolly jollity, Loyal loyalty, major majority, Mature maturity,
Minor minority, Modest modesty, Noble nobility, Popular popularity, Real reality, Severe severity, Timid
Timidity.

And There are many other Abstract nouns ending in y/ty/ity with the meaning of quality, state or activity.
Some are formed straight from English words.

Bravery. Delivery. Discovery. Eternity. Final Fantasy. Ferocity. Flattery. Forgery, liberty, Majesty, misery
Mockery, Mystery, Poverty, Quality, Quantity, recovery, Robbery, Scenery, Snobbery, Treachery, Trickery,
Unity, Variety.

Ance,ence : Two other common endings for abstract nouns expressing a state or process are anc ence

Some are related to verbs

Annoy. Annoyance. Appear appearance assure assurance attend attendance clear clearance disappeare
disappearance exist existence guide guidance hinder hindrance inherit inheritance insist insistence
insure. Insurance occurs, occurrence, Perform performance. Persist, persistence, prefer preference,
Refer, reference, utter utterance.

Others are most closely associated with an adjective.

Adolescent adolescence, benevolent benevolence, brilliant brilliance, Confident confidence, Convenient

convenience, Defiant defiance, dependent dependence different difference diligent, diligence
disobedient. Disobedience. Elegant elegance. Disobedient disobedience. Elegant elegance, eloquent
eloquence, Evident evidence, Excellent excellence, Extravagant extravagance, Fragrant fragrance.
Ignorant ignorance, Impatient impatience, Important importance, Inconvenient inconvenience,
independent independence, Obedient obedience. Patient Patients Permanent. Permanent. present
presence, prominent prominence, prudent prudence. Radiant Radiance. Relevant relevance. Reluctant
Reluctance. Resident Residence. reverent Reverence evident residence, significant significance, tolerant
tolerance, vehement vehemence, vigilant vigilance.

Hood The ending hood is added chiefly to nouns to express the state of being a certain thing: Childhood
state of being a child. Adulthood, brotherhood, priesthood, sisterhood, manhood, fatherhood,
womanhood.

The ending hood is also added to certain adjectives. For example, likelihood means the situation of being
likely, falsehood, livelihood likelihood Unlikelihood.

Note. A) Nouns ending in Y keep the Y before hood. Baby. Baby hood.

B) Adjectives ending in y change y to I before hood Likely likelihood,

c) but only. Livelihood. Livelihood because it is not formed from old word.

MENT the ending ment is added mainly to verbs and means the doing of something or the state
produced by the verb: management the activity of managing, amazement the state being amazed.
accompaniment, adjustment, adornment, amusement, amazement, assessment, enlightenment
equipment. Fulfillment. Merriment. Movement punishment statement treatment.
In case of last letters Y to I and adding ment: accompany, accompany iment . Merriment.

Our: Nouns ending in our have mostly come directly from nouns in Latin, French or older English. They
are again words for qualities, states and activities:

behavior, candor. Clamour. Color. Demeanour disfavour, flavor Glamour, honour labor, odour rigour ,
rumor, splendor, valour vigour

Nouns ending in tude have mostly have mostly came directly from Latin nouns. They represent states of
mind and qualities. Aptitude, attitude, fortitude, gratitude ingratitude lossitude aptitude, Latitude,
longitude, magnitude, platitude, servitude, solitude.

Note. Many of the abstract nouns on these pages have an uncountable sense only; for example,
friendliness. Comprehension, Modesty, Motherhood amazement

But others can be used both as countable and uncountable nouns. For example, illness, weakness,
action, conclusion and discussion instruction, intention, ability, occurrence, reference, difference,
falsehood, adjustment, movement.

Some are normally countable. For example, decision, hindrance, platitude. Some have both abstract and
concrete meanings. For example, decoration, adornment, equipment.

Proper NS cleared topic

Nouns with zero articles:

School, home, town college, work in certain sitauitions

They behave like proper

Standard places and institutions typically used with prep

To church, in prison, in town, in bed, from work in town, at school. (to, from, at)

Collective n is cleared

Some of the collective Ns can be used with of + a plural N.

Ex. A crowd of fans. A party of cyclists. A gang of art thieves. A class of school children. board of
directors. A family of mice. firm of builders. team of researchers. A body of volunteers. Group of
marchers. a panel of judges. A troupe of actors a horde of savages.

There are some special collective nouns for groups of animals, birds, and. Fish. For example. An army of
ants. A flock of birds. A herd of cattle. A board of chickens a litter of Cubs. A school of dolphins /whales,
A herd of elephants, A Google of geese, a school of herrings a stud of horses, a swarn of bees, a litter of
kittens, a pride of lions. a troop of monkeys, a watch of nightingales. A litter of purples a flock of sheep, a
pack of wolves.
Note: You can use flock for several kinds of birds, for example geese and pigeons.

You can use herd for various kinds of cattle, for example bison and buffalo.

School can be used for porpoises as well as dolphins and whales.

As with collective nouns for groups of people, collective nouns for animals may take a singular or plural
verbs, depending on whether they are considered as a unit, or as behaving individually:

For example, the swarm of bees was new clinging to a tree trunk. a herd of cattle were slowly crossing
the road in front of us.

There are some useful notes for us with groups of things.

A wad of Bank of notes, a String of breeds, a peal of bells, a pile of books, a series of books, a hail of
bullets, a pack of cards, a stack of chairs, a set of dishes, a clutch of eggs, a Chain of events, a block of
flats, A bunch of flowers, A bunch of grapes, A range of hills, a Row of houses, A bunch of keys, a list of
norms/names. A Pile of newspapers, A range of numbers, A pile of plates, a Suite of rooms. A bucket of
roses, A fleet of ships, A galaxy of stars, a flight of steps, a heap of stones. A Nest of tables, a set of tools,
a clump of trees, a cluster of trees, a flotilla of yachts.

Singular verb is normal with these expressions.

Ex. The suite of rooms was for perfect for our purpose. A clump of trees was visible on the skyline.

But a plural verb is always possible when circumstances demand. For example, the series of books were
published at the rate of two per year.

Gender

Masculine Feminine Common gender

Chairman chairwoman Chairperson/chair
Fireman - Firefighter
King Queen Monarch, sovereign
Landlord landlady -
Manager manageress manager
Master mistress -
Millionaire millionairess -
Poet poetess poet
Policeman policewoman Police officer
Prince princess -
Duke duchess -
Sculptor sculptress sculptor
Spaceman spacewoman Astronaut
Steward stewardess (Flight) attendant
Waiter waitress -
Wizard Witch -
Author authoress author
Fiancé Fiancée -
Brother Sister sibling
 Son Daughter child

Note: Feminine forms of nouns ending in ess disappearing from use, women prefer to be called
sculptors, actors and authors rather than sculptress actress authoress. There are many other nouns for
people that belong to the common gender. For example, accountant, Acrobat, architect, artist, baby
dancer, dentist, doctor, editor, engineer, lawyer, officer, president, Prime Minister, People reporter,
scientist, singer, student, teacher, etc.

For animals.

Animals Masculine Feminine

Cat Tom (cat) Cat
Chicken Cock/cockle/roaster hen
Deer (large) Stag hind
Deer (small) Buck doe
Duck Drake duck
Fox (dog) fox vixen
Goose Gander goose
Horse Stallion mare
Leopard Leopard leopardess
Pig Boar sow
Sheep Ram ewe

Note A) Informally, you can use they, their, ETC. For example, a good teacher knows how to deal with the
descriptive pupils in their class.

B) Some people Object to using the plural they, their them to refer to a singular noun (teacher). In order
to avoid the problem, you can often make the noun plural: Good teachers know how to deal with the
descriptive pupils in their classes.

C) with everybody common gender nouns such as person and child, the plural they, their, them is very
frequent and quite acceptable. Ex. Some careless person has left their bag behind. A child could hurt
themselves badly on that broken swing.

Special kinds of Ns 5 (Sub n, obj n, Compound N, Possessive N, Reflexive N)

3 Compound N: they are formed by joining 2/ more than 2 shorter words which give us entirely different
meaning.

There are three types of Compound Ns.

As one word: powerhouse, goldsmith, whiteboard.

As two word: high school house wife

Hyphenated: mother-in-law
Go build. A single noun is often not sufficient to refer clearly and unambiguously to a person or a thing.
When this is the case, a compound noun. Can be used. A compound known is a fixed expression which is
made-up of more than one word as which functions in the clause as a noun. For example, some people
write out a new address book every January.

Here is a list of some common countable compound nouns: Address book. Fairy tale. Bird of prey. Forth
lift truck. Art Raid, Guided missile alarm clock Lilly of valley assembly lime. Looter-on, Baby sitter, old
hand, bank account, backseat driver. One parent family, Blood donor parking meter, Bride-to-be. Passer-
by, Bring-&-buy scale. Pen-friend. Burglar alarm. Runner-up. Can opener sleeping bag come-on
swimming-up cover-up X-ray drawing pin Youth hostler, estate license Zebra Hoster driving license T-shirt
contrast lens traveler’s cheque Comrade in arms.

Here is a list of some common uncount compound nouns: air conditioning, law and order. Writing paper.
Lost property. Air traffic control barbed wire. mail order. Birth control, make-up, blood pressure, mineral
water. Bubble bath nail varnish. Capital punishment, Central heating, Natural History, Old age chewing
gum, Common sense, Remote control, Pocket money, Cotton wool, Science fiction, Data processing show
Business Do- it- yourself, dry-cleaning, Social Security work, show language, Family planning fancy race
soda H2O, fast food, stainless steel fast aid, table tennis food poisoning, talcum powder, further
education, toilet paper, general knowledge turn-over, hay fever, tracking paper, heart failure,
unemployment benefit. Higher education value and tax, Hire purchase income tax. Washing-up liquid,
junk food. Water skiing.

Common singular compound Ns: age of consent, general public, public sector, arms race, generation
gap, rank and file, brain drain, greenhouse effect, solar system color power, human race, sound barrier,
cost of living, labor market, space age, death penalty, long jump welfare state. Diplomatic Corp, Mother
tongue, woman's movement, dress circle, open air drying-up, public or private sector. Fire brigade.

Common plural compound nouns: Armed forces, Industrial relation. Social services. Baked beans.
Inverted comma. Social studies. Civil rights licensing laws. Swimming trunks, current affairs. Luxury
goods, Vocal cord, French fries, Modern languages, Winter sports. Grassroots. Natural resources, Yellow
Pages, High heels, race relations, Human Rights, Road works.

(Common of compound nouns) Most compound nouns consist of two nouns or adj and a noun. For
example, I listened with anticipation to the radio news bulletin. ……. A big dining room. She came in and
sat down at the tea table.

However. A few compound nouns are related to phrasal verbs. These are often written with a hyphen.
For example, the president was directly involved in watergate cover up.

Plural forms. Plural phrasal nouns cover-up cover-ups.

Others. Police stations.

A few Compound nouns are less directly related to phrasal verbs and consist of a count noun and an
adverb. In these cases, the plural form of the count noun is used before the adverb when the compound
noun is plural. For example, I like birds of prey and Hawks Particularly, the veil places birds -to- be at a
distinct advantage.
Some French and Latin compound noun. Nouns borrowed: Have no normal plural forms. For example,
agenda provocations. Nouveaux riches.

Compound nouns= Modifiers.

Internet work old :

Compound Words

Modifier Head Compound

N+ N Football
Adj N Black board
V N Breakwater
Prep N Underwater
N Adj Snow white
Adj Adj Blue-green
V Adj Tumbled down
Prep Adj Over-ripe
N V Browbeat
Adj V Highlight
V V Freeze-dry
Prep V Under act
N Prep Love-in
Adj Prep Forthwith
V Prep Take out
Prep Prep Without

There are three forms of compound words.

The closed form) in which the words are melded together, such as fire-fly, second hand, soft ball,
childlike, cross town, red hand, key board, make up, notebook.

Hyphenated form) The hyphenated form such as daughter-in-law, master-at-arms, over- the- counter, six-
pack, six-year-old, mass-produced.

The open form) such as post office, real estate, middle-class, full moon, half-sister, attorney general.

modified words by an adjective a little school, the yellow butter -_is different from a compared words a
high school, the peanut butter

Modifiers precede a noun with the help of (-). Past- time teacher, fifty- yard-wide,Fire resistant curtains,
high-speed chase.

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when compounded with other
modifiers the highest priced car, the shooter term loan, but there is not always the case. The most
talented youngster. Adverbs, Words ending in LY; are not hyphenated when compounded with other
modifiers. A highly rated rated bank, A particularly refunded ticket, publicly held securities.
Sometimes hyphenated modifiers lose their hyphens when they became compound nouns: For example,
a clever decision-making process was evident in their decision making. The bluish gray was slowly
disappearing from the bluish-gray sky.

There is not always so, however,;your high-rise apartment building is also known as high rose when
modifying a person with his or her age, the compounded phrase is hyphenated; Any -six- year- old -son.

However, when the age come after the person, we do not use a hyphen. my son is 6 years old. He is
however, a six- year- old.

Compounds with prefix) With a handful of exceptions, compounds created by addition of a prefix are not
hyphenated. Ex. Antroom, Antisocial binomial biochemistry, coordinate counterclockwise extraordinary
infrastructure, interrelated macroeconomic metaphysical microeconomics, Midtown Minibus/bike
multicultural, neoromatic, nonvident overanxious post war, preconforence pseudo intellectual reconify
semiconductor. Socio economic subpas super tanker, transatlance, unnatural, underdeveloped.

Compound Modifiers and nouns) 2 year education, Bull’s eye, One- walk vacation, database, A-frame,
African American, English speaking person, ex-wife, all-city-tournament, half-sister, High- level official,
Life like, Italian American(club), Secretary- treasurer, T-square, X-ray, Jack- in- Box, first-rate
accommodation, three-filed, grant-accent, V- Formation, Worldwide inflation, well-made clothes.

4 possessive n apostrophe s / genitive case

5 Reflexive Ns

N+ing) A) Sports names: Angling, caravanning, para gliding, surfing, black berrying, Electroneering, soft
lifting, weight lifting, boating, hang-glidding, sightseeing, window- shopping, bowling,
helisiing ,skateroaring , Wind surfing, canoeing, yachting, snor kelling , mountaineering , ( shopping,
boating both Ns are unassociated to verbs).

B) Count Ns having ing forms to Ns: Beginning, feeling, meeting, settling, turning, being, finding,
offering, showing, warning, building, hearing, painting, sitting, drawing, meaning, saying, suffering.

Predicate nominative or predicate noun)

1)The predicate noun or predicate nominative is a word that comes after a linking verb and refers back to
the subject of the sentence. It gives another name or designation to the subject.

The following sentences end with a predicative noun. For example, my car is a Saturn, my cat’s name is
Dicksens. car and Saturn are the samething; and cat’s name and dicksens are also the same thing.

2)Pronoun as predicate nouns) When a pronoun is put in the position of a predicate noun it should be in
subjective rather than objective case, that's I rather than me, he rather than him.

This is particularly true in more formal situation. It's I, It's he.

Pronouns and determiners

Pronoun stands alone, represent or refer to Ns, whereas Dets identify and quantify Ns.
Types of PN personal Pns (1subj pn, 2obj pn,3 reflexive pn, 4possessive pn), 5demonstrative Pn,
6indefinite pn,7 interrogative pn, 8 relative pn.

Types of dets 1 possessive dets, 2 demonstrative dets, 3 quantifying dets ( relating to plural Ns few a few
fewer many several, both), relating to UNs, little much less, relating to plural or UN.CN all , some none of,
enough, a lot of, lots of, more, most, plenty of, relating to singular count Ns another,every, each, one of,
either, neither, relating to singular, plural, UNs such,any, other, 4 interoggative dets, what, which, whose,
5 the articles a/an/the.

Nos, cardinal, ordinal, fractions, multiplier,

other dets: only, other, such.

Pronounce and dets (in context) Pronouns stand in place of nouns, for example, personal pronouns
substitute for proper nouns or common nouns. That have just been mentioned. It can refer to a situation
as well as to a thing or an animal (or Baby whose sex is unknown).

Dets are used before nouns. Like adjs, the personal pns have possessive forms, called possessive dets.
They are also possessive forms that stand alone, called possessive pns. Ex. hers.

Something, anything, everything, and nothing are indefinite pns, the matching dets some, any, every
numbers are included among the quantifying dets.

Demonstrative dets can be used without a following n as demonstrative pns.

Wh-words are Interrogative dets and pns and some act also as relative pns, introducing relative clauses.
that is another relative pns,

The definite article the and indefinite article a/a are included in Det class.

Others) Pns dets are words with the task either of identifying the things or people you mean, or of
quantifying how many or how much of them you mean.

Pns are substitutes for ns. They do this job of n and n phrases by standing in place of them. Pns usually
refer back to a n or n phrase already mentioned for example, my sister n phrase has been clearing out
our family home. She pn called me yesterday. I have just found a lot of books n phrase in the basement.
What shall I do with them p? those leather-bound volumes n phrase look quite valuable. Which pn do
you mean? Those pn, I said, pointing to a separate pile.

Pns are shortcuts. They allow us to avoid repeating ns and n phrases.

Pn stand in place of ns they perform the same function as ns: subj of a v, obj of a v, obj of a prep. (ex. to
whom is the letter addressed to? Complement of a linking v or complement (attached to the obj of
transitive or transitive v. ex. Right, Team-- This is it! Hello! It's me! How dare you called me? That.
Who's that?

Note in question Who is that? The subject is that and the complement is who. For more information, see
the section on WH questions in the chapter sentence.

Dets) they are specialized kind of adj. They are always followed by n, n phrase or pn. For example, my
sister has been clearing our family home. She had found a lot of books in the basement. Some of the
books had belonged to our parents. Most of them had been given to us as children. We could donate the
children’s books to a primary school.

what do determiners do? Some determine or make definite the people or things you mean, for example
the articles and the possessive and demonstrative dets, for example my sister is clearing out the
basement of our family home. Those leather -bound volumes look quite valuable.

We all such dets identifiers.

Some specify quality for example. There were a lot of books in the basement, there were about fifty
bundles of magazines, we could give half the books to charity.

We call such dets quantifiers.

Many dets acte as pronouns.

Det+n This school was built in 1996, Pn without a n This was built in 1996.

Personal pronouns (subject pronouns, and object pronouns

Especial uses of pn it. Ex. it can refer to whether. It's very windy today. It can refer to time. It's too late to
telephone Germany. It can refer to situations. Is it OK? It's very inconvenient. It is used for putting
emphasis on a particular word in the sentence. For example, I like bees. It's wasp I am frightened of. It
was I who called the ambulance- the others did not want to. It's used for identifying yourself and other
people. Hello. Hi. Peter. It's Tom here, It's me, ahmed.

Note: when you are simply identifying a person, you can use the object form of the personal pronoun.
Hello mom, it's me. I know it's her. Was it really him? But if you are identifying somebody by who-clause,
you need the subject form of the personal pn before who: Ex. It was I who locked the door. It was she
who answered the telephone. It was he who was making all the noise.

(Reflexive Pns): they’re used as Obj of the v: I hut myself, he had a fall and knocked himself out.

As obj of a prep: she was sitting by herself, you worry about yourself too much

As the indirect of a v: he poured himself a drink, we found ourselves a couple of chairs.

As the emphasizer of a n or personal pn: I didn’t see the accident itself, but I heard the crash, she has
trained the horse herself, we ourselves usually have a large lunch and a small evening meal, I haven’t
met the twins themselves, but I know their parents.

Reflexive verbs Verbs that are regularly used with a reflexive pronoun are called reflexive verbs. The
following groups are often used with the reflexive pronoun cut. Enjoy, express, help hurt. For example, I
have just cut myself on that broken wineglass, The children enjoyed themselves tremendously at Key’s
party, you must learn to express yourself more clearly and concisely, Please help yourselves to the
refreshments, Oh dear! I do hope you haven't hurt yourself?

The following verbs are always used with the reflexive pronoun busy, content, pride. For example, I
couldn't relax, so I bulset myself with dusting and polishing, Dick contented himself with calling her a
rude name under his breath, Mom had always prided herself on her dress dress.
Some vs have particular uses that require that require reflexive pns, for example. Harry has never
applied himself deficiently to his school work, after the shock I needed a minute to compare myself,
Doctors must distance themselves from their cases to some extent, what a mess! the organizers have
excelled themselves this times! She's never really had to exert herself to get what she wants, the
stranger came forward and introduced himself, we prepared ourselves for a treat, I'm driving, so I must
restrict myself to one very small glass of wine, don’t strain yourself, but it would help if you could unload
the dishwasher, I’d Started to teach myself Malay.

But notice the following vs, which don't a reflexive pn: For example, having a lost got up, George washed,
shaved and dressed, we ran off and hid in the garden.

Prepositions and reflexive pns: You use a reflexive pn as the object of a prep typically if the proposition
is closely linked or customarily prep after a v, n, or adj. Ex: You're talking nonsense-Just listen to yourself,
A glance at myself in the mirror, please look after yourself properly! He had mistaken image of himself as
an important executive, a photo of yourself, Proud of myself, angry with ourselves.

But when the prep is part of an adverbial phrase, reflexive pns are unidiomatic: I like to have a dictionary
beside me, when I'm writing, keep your heart pills by you all times, Sally held the torch out in front of
her, He sensed a slight movement behind him, you have it in you to become a good pianist if you
practice, Sorry I haven't any money on me.

but notice the Idiomatic constructions using ref pns: Dad was beside himself with rage, Helen was
standing by herself in a corner, did you wake that all by yourself,

An alternative to buy+ reflexive pronoun is on + preposition determiner +own. For example, Helen was
standing on her own in a corner, did you make that all in your own?

Possessive determiners and prepositions.

Possessive Dets alike adjs cause these are followed by a n

Possessive pns they are not used before a n.

One’s is used as possessive form ... one must always do one’s best.

one must do his best, one must do their best,

Own is also used: his own interest, our own bedroom.

Indefinite Pns there are two sets of indef pns.

The indefinite pns to people and to things. They are singulars, plurals

Anybody, everybody, someone, no-one, They, them, themselves,

Ex: Somebody left their coat behind, when you get a present from someone, do you always remember to
thank them, everyone, needs a friend, don’t they?

The any-forms also often rrplace the some-froms after if:

Ex: If anyone is willing to help me clear up, please stay behind after the party, If anything is not to your
satisfaction, please inform the management,
The interrogation pronoun, who is like an indefinite pronoun in some ways, and you can use them, they
their and themselves to refer to it. For example, you can say for example who has forgotten their school
bag?

You can put adjectives after the indefinite pronouns, for example. We have done everything possible to
hel, I have nothing special to do today, Did you meet anybody interesting at the party? somebody
important is coming to our school today, Nothing definite has been decided.

Demonstrative pronouns and determiners.

Demons dets and demons pns(cleared topics)

Those + defining clauses or phrase is often used to refer to a group of people: Ex: those who live in
cities. are accustomed to noise, I pity those without any chance of a proper education,

Those can also refer to a contrasting group of people or things. Ex: Passengers from Singapore check in
at desk 5, those for other destinations at desk 7, The grapes in the first box were delicious, but those in
the second box were also mouldy.

Note that on telephone by British English, this on telephone by American Eng.

(Interrogative Pns and dets)

What: it can be used independently as a pn or before a noun as a det. What asks for thg to be identified
from an unlimited range of possibilities.

Which: it can be used independently as a pn or before a noun as a det. Which asks for a thing or person
to be identified from a known gp.

Whose: it’s the possessive from of who; it can be used independently as a pn or before a noun as a det.
Whose asks for the owner of sthg to be identified.

who: who is a pn only refer to a person or people. The use of the obj form whom is usually optional but
is essential after a prep.

Interrogative determiners: You use the question dets what, which and whose before Ns to ask for people
and things to be identified. They are called interrogative determiners are interrogative adjectives. Ex:
what time is it? What size of shoes do you wear? What color is her hair? Tell me what sports you enjoy
most.

Others: which school, which way, which textbooks,which teacher, which bus , whose footprints, whose
cat,

The dets what, which and whose are used with both singular and plural Ns: what time suits you best,
which hat matches my dress? Whose work is the neatest? What colors are in the natural flag? Which
students are coming on the tour? Whose feet make the most noise?
What asks for a choice from the Whose range or class of things? Which ask for a choice to be made from
a known group of things? For example, what time shall I come? I can make you an appointment for.
11:15. 1340 or 1515? Which time suits you best?

What arrangements have you made for transporting guests to the reception? None so far…It's a chance
b/w a coach and a fleet of taxis which from /form of transport is more suitable for the occasion, do you
think?

Interrogative pronouns: The determiners what, which, and whose can also stand alone as interrogative
pronouns. These are two other interrogative pronouns. Who and whom. For example, who wants to
come with me? Who are you? Who or whom were you telephoning? To whom shall I send you
application? Tell me who or whom I should contact for an interview. Whose is this umbrella? Whose are
these gloves? What is the time? I don't know what to do! Which would you prefer, an ice cream or a
drink? People who are experts on wine can tell which is which just by tasting.

Note to tell which is which is to distinguish one form another.

The interrogative pronouns who and whom refer only to a person or people. The interrogative pronoun
which can refer to one or more people or animals or things from a group. For example, who wants an ice
cream? Whom or who are you taking to the dance? You can choose a combination of any two colors-
Which do you want? There are three candidates-which is the most suitable for the job?

Who can be used as the as subject or object of a verb or the object of preposition. For example, who or
whom are you inviting to your party? Who or whom are you talking about?

But you must use whom if the preposition comes before the interrogative pronoun: For example, for
whom are you knitting that sweater?

Who, whom, whose, which and what may refer to plural nouns: Ex: Who are those people wearing red
caps? For whom was this textbook written? Whose is this classroom? Which of these trees are the
fastest growing? What are those creatures?

Note: when an interrogative pronoun refers to a plural noun, and is the subject of a clause or sentence, it
needs a plural verb. For example, many breeds of dog have nice natures, but which make the best guide
dogs?

B/c which asks for a choice from a group, it's often followed by Of+a pronoun or noun phrase beginning
with an identifying determiner. For example, which of the textbooks has the ministry recommended,
which of you already have driving licenses? We can't decide which of the contestants most deserves first
prize, which of my many accomplishments shall I list in my CV?

Interrogative dets and pns

Dets singular or plural pronouns singular or plural

Sub or obj (what which whose) sub: what which whose who obj: what which whose whom/who

(Relative Pronouns) there are four wh-relative pns: who, whom, whose and which. They look the same
as interrogative pronouns, but instead of asking questions they introduce an extra piece called a relative
clause added to a sentence. The purpose of this extra piece is to identify the things our people you
mention by adding the fact about them. For example, if somebody says “There is the waitress”, you may
want to ask “which waitress?” and the answer may be something like “the waitress who took our order”
for example, where’s the waiter who served us?, Suitcases which you can wheel along are the best kind,
Those who still haven't paid must pay today. I'll find out the address to which you must send your
application, The police have arrested the woman in whose house the incident occurred.

The relative pronouns who can be used as the subject or object of a verb. Pronoun whom is used only as
object. For example, the police want the woman who telephoned them last night to contact,Three or five
people who or whom the police want to interview, Is there anyone who or whom you haven't met
before?

The relative pronouns who and whom can also be the object of a preposition. But if the proposition
comes before the pn, you must use whom. For example, I don't know the girl who or whom you were
dancing with, I don't know the girl who or whom you were dancing with, the electrician to whom the job
was assigned is on holiday.

The relative pronouns who and whom refer to a person or people. The relative pronouns which refer to a
thing or things. The relative pronoun whose can refer to a person, people, think or things. For example,
people who use their mobile phones while driving should be penalized, this was something for which I
wasn't prepared, there was nobody to whom she could turn for help.

The relative pronoun that: the relative Pn that can often be used with instead of who, whom which. For
example. Where is the waiter who served us? or where is the waiter that served us?, People who smoke
are damaging their health or people that smoke are damaging their health, Those who still haven't paid
must pay today or those that still haven't paid must pay today, The police have found the man whom or
who they wanted to interview or the police have found the man that they wanted to interview, The
manager is the person who or whom you should complain to or The manager is the person that you
should complain t or here is the shop which sells computer equipment or Here is the shop that sells
computer equipment, suitcase which you can wheel long are the best kind or suitcase that you can
wheel along are the best kind.

Note prefers that to which in AmEng, allows that or which both in Br,Eng

But you cannot use that as an alternative to a wh-relative pronoun when a preposition comes before the
relative pronoun: Ex. here a list of the pupils for whom you are responsible, Miss Lee is a teacher in
whom we can all trust, I’ll find out the address to which you must send your application, Chess is a game
for which you need a lot of patience.

Relative pn: people (personal) sub who or that, obj who whom or that , possessive whose,

Things (non personal) sub which or that, obj which or that, possessive whose.

Note: You can check if you have used who, whom or whose correctly by dividing the sentence into two
sentences putting the part that goes into the relative clause in parenthesis, using personal pronouns, and
noticing if you use the subject pronouns, object pronouns, or possessive determiners. For example, there
is a waiter who took our order. There is the waiter (he took our order), There is the waiter who or whom
my sister knows. There's a waiter (my sister knows him), There is the waiter whose accent you like. There
is the waiter (you like his accent).

Notice a difference in the grammatical description of interrogatives and relatives. We saw in in the
section on interrogative determiners and pronouns that in a question such as whose parents have
denoted this money? the combination whose parents is regarded as interrogative determiner + noun.

But when the combination whose parents forms part of a relative construction, whose is regarded as a
pronoun, because it refers back to a previous noun, for example. The child whose parents denoted this
money haven't been identified. Some people disapprove of using the relative whose to refer to things,
and they use of which instead, for example outside my bedroom are two trees, the branches of which
touch my window.

(omitting the relative pronoun) who, whom, Which and that can be left out when they are the object of
a verb or preposition: For example, a patient is the person whom or who or that a doctor is looking after,
We met some people whom or who or that we’d known in London, The tool that or which you use for
making holes is called a punch, We were glad to have those board games that or which you lent us for
our coming trip, The address that or which you have to write to is printed on the back;

But if a preposition comes before the letter pronoun, you cannot choose that, and you can't leave out
the relative pronoun. You must use whom or which, after the preposition, for example, the man with
whom that girls had made e-mail contact cannot be traced, the performances for which we wanted seats
were unfortunately booked up, isn’t that the politician about whom there was all that fuss a year ago?
Here's the address to which you have to write.

Relative clauses that add information: There is another kind of relative clause that does not identify,
define or describe person or thing, but adds information about them, or continues the narrative: For
example, Helen, who comes before the New Zealand, has joined our class for a term, My great- uncle ,
whom I’ve never met, is coming to visit us, I'd like to thank my parents, to whom I owe everything, I had
to queue for two hours in the rain, which wasn’t much fun,

Notice that you need a comma before and after this kind about these relative clauses can be found in the
section on relative clauses in the chapter (Conjunction and clauses).

(The conjunction when, where and why) you may notice that the conjunctions when and where are
sometimes used rather like relative pns, b/c they introduce a fact that identifies, or adds information
about, a time or place: Ex: I was thinking of the time when the frying pane went on fire, I put the
hammer back in the place where I’d found it. I waited for you till midnight, when I gave up and walked
home, we drove to the railway station, where we collected Jane.

And the conjunction why can be used like a relative pn after reason: Ex: that’s the reason why I can’t
leave the house today.

more on the above in the chapter (conjunctions and clauses on relative Causes)
Me us you you him her it them

Noun/pronoun cases nominative, objective, possessive

2 Possessive pronoun my, you, his, her.

Possessive adj (x)

In swan) if before n then can be determiners not possessive adj.

Possessive pn usually used alone mine etc

And also modify n my her his

Extra accusative use of pn/case

Dative use of pn/case He met me ...accusative he gave me the meat dative.

3 Reflexive pn reffering back to the sub.

You Can also use reflexive pns to indicate or emphasize that the indirect obj of a v is the same person or
thing as the subj of the v. emphatic pn.

Warning reflexive pns are not usually used with actions that people normally do to themselves, such as
washing, or shaving so don’t usually say he shaves himself every morning.

You can, however, sometimes use these with action for emphasis, or to indicate surprising event, such as
a child or invalid doing sthg that they were not previously able to do.

Used as obj of prep: if the subject of a clause and the object of a preposition refer to the same person
and to the clause does not have a direct object, you use a reflexive pronoun after the preposition. For
example, I was thoroughly ashamed of myself, Barbara stared at herself in the mirror, we think of
ourselves as member of the local community, they cannot cook for themselves.

However, if the class does not have a direct object, you usually use a personal pronoun after the
preposition. For example, I will take it home with me. They put the book between them on the kitchen
table, she went out, slamming the door behind her.

Note that if the clause has a direct object and it is not obvious that the subject of the clause and the
object of preposition refer to the same person, you use reflexive pronoun. For example, managing
director gave the biggest surprise to himself.

4 Demonstrative pns: this that these those.

5. Indefinite pn, pronoun which is used to point out. Unspecified person or imperson, such as person,
place, thing, time. (Collins) But (general way)

Singular indef pn any some either, neither, every, a lot of none, plural any some all both few many a lot
of/several.

You always use singular v with indirect pn. ...is anyone here? Everybody recognizes the important of
education. Nothing is certain in this world.
Gelpc compound formation of indef pn someone somebody somewhere something sometimes nothing
etc

Used with personal pronouns: Although you use singular verbs with indefinite pronouns, if you want to
use a pronoun to refer back to an indefinite pronoun, you use the plural pronouns they, them, their, or
themselves. For example. Ask anyone, they will tell you there is no way of telling somebody why they
have failed. Everyone put their pants/pens down, everybody is enjoying themselves.

s is also added for possession, but not with pronouns referring to things. The value of something.
Something’ value (x).

The qualifiers: when you want to give more information about the person or thing referred to by an
indefinite pronoun, you can do so by using a qualifier, for example prepositional phrase or repetitive
clause.

Ex. I change the plan and made the talks open to everyone over twelve, He would much rather have.
Somebody who had a background in the humanities.

Use of adjs: placement: after indef pn and before them and this you don’t use a det ex. an important
someone ...some one important

Someone practical, everthing possible, nothing wrong

Used with else: If you have already mentioned a Person or thing and you want to refer to a different
person or a thing or an additional one, you can use else after an indefinite pronoun, for example,
somebody else will have to go out there, she couldn't think of anything else.

Note that if you want to indefinite association or possession with an indefinite pronoun in else, you add s
to else for example, did you take this photograph or was it someone else’s photograph? No one has
control over one else’s career.

Sub obj indirect obj obj of clause obj of prep?

Structure used with some and every: The indefinite pronouns beginning with some and every are most
often used in affirmative clauses. They are sometimes used as the subject of a negative clause. For
example, he could tell that something wasn't right. Everyone had not arrived yet.

Note that the indefinite pronouns beginning with some, cannot be used as the object of a negative
clause, unless they are followed by a qualifier, usually a prepositional phrase or a relative clause.

Flood example. He wasn't someone I admired as a writer. I wouldn't forget something that I finished
Reading only Half an hour ago.

structure you used with any: Indefinite pronouns beginning with any can be used as the object or
indirect object of. Proposition or a negative clause.

For example. I couldn't kill anybody Doctor Marlow. You still haven't told me anything. Take a good look
and tell me if you see Anything different. I haven't given anyone their present yet.

There are often used as the subject of both negative and affirmative questions. Note that they are not
used as a subject of a negative statement. That's you. Don't say” anybody can't come in”.
for example. Does anybody agree with me? Won't anyone help me? If anything, unusual happens Could
you call me on this number?

Note that when you are making an affirmative statement, anyone and anybody are used.

Ex.