CONCRETE GROUND FLOORS & PAVEMENTS

FOR COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL USE

PART TWO : SPECIFIC DESIGN

ISBN 0908956142

TM 38
Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand
Level 6, 142 Featherston St, Wellington
PO Box 448, Wellington
Tel: (04) 499 8820
Fax: (04) 499 7760
E-mail: [email protected]
©Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand 2001
Contents
PREFACE 5 CHAPTER 5: REINFORCEMENT 67
5.1 Introduction 68
CHAPTER 1: MATERIALS 7
5.2 Reinforcement General 68
1.1 Introduction 8
5.3 Unreinforced slabs 68
1.2 Sub-grade 8
5.4 Jointless Continuously Reinforced Slabs 69
1.3 Sub-base 12
5.5 Shrinkage Compensating Concrete Floors 70
1.4 Slip layer 12
5.6 Post-Tensioned Floors 70
1.5 Concrete 13
5.7 Fibre-Reinforced Concrete Floors 71
CHAPTER 2: LOADINGS 15
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN EXAMPLES 73
2.1 Introduction 16
6.1 Conventionally reinforced slab
2.2 Dead loads 17
subject to forklift and uniform loads 74
2.3 Live loads 17
6.2 Conventionally reinforced slab
2.4 Seismic Loading 19 subject to pallet racking loads 80

CHAPTER 3: CONCRETE GROUND FLOOR 6.3 Post-tensioned Floor slab 87

THICKNESS DETERMINATION 21
CHAPTER 7: COMPUTER DESIGN SOFTWARE 89
3.1 Introduction 22
7.1 Introduction 90
3.2 Methods of analysis: general comments 22
7.2 CCANZ Slab on ground 90
3.3 Sub-grade 23
7.3 SAFE 90
3.4 Sub-base 23
7.4 STRAND 6 91
3.5 Slip Layer 24
7.5 PCA-Mats 91
3.6 Load factors 25
7.6 RIGID 5 92
3.7 Modulus of Rupture of Concrete 25
7.7 FEAR 92
3.8 Selection of Concrete Properties 27
3.9 Conventionally Reinforced Slabs: CHAPTER 8: CRACKS AND SURFACE DEFECTS 93
Calculation of stresses due to 8.1 Introduction 93
wheel or rack loading 27
8.2 Cracks 94
3.10 Methods of analysis:
8.3 Surface Defects 96
Shrinkage Compensating Concrete Floors 57
3.11 Methods of analysis: CHAPTER 9: CONCRETE TESTING 99
Post-tensioned Floors 59 9.1 Introduction 100
3.12 Methods of analysis: 9.2 Testing Principles 100
Fibre Reinforced Floors 59
9.3 Personnel 100
3.13 Analysis of Cold Store Floors 61
9.4 Sampling 100
CHAPTER 4: JOINTS 63 9.5 Tests on Fresh Concrete 101
4.1 Introduction 64 9.6 Tests on Hardened Concrete 104
4.2 Joints for the continuous pour method 64
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF STANDARDS 114
4.3 Joints for Post-Tensioned Slabs 66
4.4 Joints for Shrinkage Compensating REFERENCES 115
Concrete Slabs 66

Except where the Copyright Act allows, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system in any form, or transmitted by
any means, without the prior permission in writing of the Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand .
The information provided in this manual has been prepared with all due care; however the Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand accepts
no liability arising from its use. The contents of this publication is not intended to replace the services of professional consultants on particular
projects
Preface
This design guide has been developed as a companion document to two other publications
produced by the Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand. The others being:
• New Zealand Guide to Concrete Construction, and
• Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial & Industrial Use, Part 1.
The Part 1 design guide provides information on the design, construction and specification of
industrial concrete floors on ground. A simplified design procedure is presented that limits the
applied loading to light or medium loads. Table 1 summarises the definition of these loads.

Table 1 Loading limitations for the Part 1 Design Guide

Loading Class Limits of loading

Light pallet racking 4 levels (one on floor) of 0.76 tonne unit loads, 4.5 tonnes end frame
mezzanine floor design load 3.5 kN/m2
shelving end frame of 4.0 tonnes
forklift capacity 2.0 tonnes
Medium pallet racking 4 levels (one on floor) of 1.0 tonne unit loads, 6 tonne end frame
mezzanine floor design load 5.0 kN/m2
shelving end frame of 5.4 tonnes
forklift capacity 3.0 tonnes

This publication (Part 2) provides guidance on the determination of the thickness of a concrete
floor supported on the ground, for any combination of applied loads. It also looks at the design of
post-tensioned, expansive cement, fibre reinforced, and cold store floors. The document provides
reference to Part 1, but does not repeat information already contained in Part 1. Designers should
refer to Part 1 for issues such as:
• Construction
• Specification
• Effects of Chemicals on Concrete Pavements
• Determination of the Amount of Shrinkage Reinforcement
• Effects of Various Factors on Abrasion Resistance
• Joints and Joint Layout
• Durability Issues Associated with Concrete Properties
• Surface Finishes
In this Part 2 publication, only limited information is provided on concrete both in its plastic and
hardened state. This information is contained within New Zealand Guide to Concrete Construction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This handbook was published by the Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand (CCANZ).
The Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand wishes to acknowledge the varying assistance of
the following in the preparation, providing comments, and review of this document.
In alphabetical order: Andreas Baptist, Golden Bay Cement; Darrin Bell, Compusoft Engineering; Ian
Brown, Milburn New Zealand; Derek Chisholm, BRANZ; Andrew Dallas, Allied Concrete Ltd; John
Evans, Demden Ltd; Sue Freitag, Opus International Consultants Ltd; Jason Ingham, University of
Auckland; James Mackechnie, University of Canterbury; Len McSaveney, Golden Bay Cement; Jeff
Marchant, Construction Techniques Ltd; Lindsay Mayo, Lesa Systems Ltd; Jubran Naddaf, Stresscrete;
Jeff Smith, Ready Mix Concrete Ltd.

5
 1

materials


8
1 materials

Chapter 1
Materials
1.1

INTRODUCTION
The main materials the designer and contractor will need to consider and work with in the success-
ful construction of an industrial floor slab are illustrated in Figure 1.1 and are:
• The sub-grade
• Sub-base
• Slip membrane/vapour barrier
• Concrete
• Reinforcement (refer Chapter 5)

Figure 1.1 Elements of a floor

In this chapter we explore some of these materials. This design guide has been developed as a com-
panion document to two other publications produced by the Cement & Concrete Association of
New Zealand. The others being:
• New Zealand Guide to Concrete Construction1
• Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial & Industrial Use, Part 12
Information already contained in these two documents is not repeated in this publication, but, when
appropriate, supplementary information is provided that is specific to the construction of industrial
floors.

1.2 SUB-GRADE

1.2.1 ASSESSMENT OF SUB-GRADE AND SOIL CONDITIONS

A soil investigation of the site should be conducted to determine the properties of the soil below the
building. The properties of the soil at depth tend to dictate the settlement characteristics, while the
near surface characteristics dictate the likely stresses in the concrete pavement. The soil investigation
should identify:
• The presence of layers that might be prone to consolidation, excessive compression or decay.
• The depth of the water table.
• The presence of fill or waste material.
• The elastic properties of the soils.
• The presence of expansive materials.
• The modulus of sub-grade reaction of the sub-grade.
It is important to identify the uniformity of soil properties across the site. The rigidity of a concrete
pavement means that the applied loads are spread over a wide area and therefore strong support of
the sub-grade is not required. However, it is important that the support provided by the sub-grade
is reasonably uniform.
Where sub-grade conditions are not reasonably uniform, this should be corrected by a sub-grade
preparation practice such as selective grading, mixing of soil at abrupt transitions, cement or lime
stabilisation, and moisture/density control of sub-grade compaction.

1.2.2 ASSESSMENT OF MODULUS OF SUB-GRADE REACTION

Appendix F of Part 12 provides some information on the assessment of the sub-grade properties.
A substantial amount of pavement research shows that the stresses in a concrete slab supported on
the ground are predicted reasonably well when the modulus of sub-grade reaction (k) is used to
model the underlying soil. Although k does not reflect the effect of compressible soil layers at some
depth in the sub-grade, its use is appropriate for wheel loads and other concentrated loads because
soil pressures under a slab of adequate thickness are not excessive. However, if it is anticipated that
heavy distributed loads may be applied to the floor, the amount of settlement should be computed
to determine if excessive settlement is expected.
The modulus of sub-grade reaction is measured by a plate loading test on top of the compacted
sub-grade or, if a sub-base is used, on top of the sub-base. A detailed description of the load test is
given in ASTM D1196, Non-Repetitive Static Plate load Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement
Components for Use in Evaluation and Design of Airport and Highway Pavements. However, this test is
not specifically orientated to the determination of the modulus of subgrade reaction using a 760mm
diameter plate for the test. ACI 360, Design of slabs on grade3, provides details of this test a brief
summary of which follows.
Remove loose material from the surface of the grade or subgrade. Place a thin layer of sand or
plaster of Paris over this area to assure uniform bearing under the load plates. Then place three
25mm thick steel plates 760, 610, and 460mm in diameter, stacked concentrically pyramid fashion
on this surface. Rotate the plates on the bearing surface to assure complete contact with the
subgrade.
Position three dial gauges on the 760mm diameter plate, 120 degrees apart, to record the plate
deflection. Apply a proof load to produce a deflection of approximately 0.25mm. Maintain this load
until the settlement is stabilised; then release the load and reset the dial gauges to zero.
After this preparation, the test is performed by applying a series of loads and recording the
settlement of the plates. Generally, three load increments are sufficient. The load should be
maintained until the rate of settlement is less than 0.025mm per minute. The data is then plotted
and the modulus of subgrade reaction calculated at an applied pressure of approximately 70kPa, or
a deflection not greater than 1.27mm24. k is computed by dividing the unit load by the deflection
obtained. The units of k are given in MN/m2/m, kPa/mm or MN/m3.
A modified plate-bearing test is often used that utilises a 305mm diameter plate. The modified
modulus of sub-grade reaction obtained by this test needs to be divided by 2 to determine the
equivalent modulus for a 760mm plate test.
The modulus of sub-grade reaction may also be estimated from correlations with the CBR value,
refer Figure 1.23, although there is no reliable correlation between CBR and k as they are
measurements of different soil characteristics.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 9
 1 materials

Figure 1.2 CBR vs Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)

(MN/m3)
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10 100
CBR (%)

Approximate values for CBR in silts and sands can be obtained using the scala penetrometer test.
Correlations suggested by Stockwell4 are shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Scala penetrometer estimation of CBR

CBR (%)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10 100
mm per blow with scala penetrometer

When it is not feasible to perform soil tests, estimates for values for k, based on soil descriptions are
summarised in Table 1.15.

10
 Table 1.1 Typical CBR and k values for various soil descriptions

Description Unit dry weight Field Modulus of

(kg/m3) CBR, % sub-grade reaction
k (MN/m3)
Coarse-grained gravelly soils
Well-graded gravels or gravel-sand mixtures, little or 2000 - 2240 60 - 80 82 or more
no fines. Excellent foundation, none to very slight
frost action potential, excellent drainage
characteristics.
Poorly graded gravels or gravel-sand mixtures, little or 1760 - 2080 25 - 60 82 or more
no fines. Good to excellent foundations, none to very
slight frost action, excellent drainage.
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures. Good to 2160 - 2320 40 - 80 82 or more
excellent foundation, slight to medium frost action,
fair to poor drainage.
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures. Good 1920 - 2240 20 - 40 54 - 82
foundation, slight to medium frost action, poor to
practically impervious drainage.
Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures. Good 1920 - 2240 20 - 40 54 - 82
foundation, slight to medium frost action, poor to
practically impervious drainage.

Coarse-grained sand and sandy soils

Well-graded sands or gravelly sands, little or no fines. 1760 - 2080 20 - 40 54 - 82
Good foundation, none to very slight frost action,
excellent drainage.
Poorly graded sands or gravelly sands, little or no fines. 1600 - 1920 10 - 25 54 - 82
Fair to good foundation, none to very slight frost
action, excellent drainage.
Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures. Good foundation, 1920 - 2160 20 - 40 54 - 82
slight to high frost action, fair to poor drainage.
Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures. Fair to poor 1680 - 2080 10 - 20 54 - 82
foundation, slight to high frost action, poor to
practically impervious drainage.
Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures. Fair to good 1680 - 2080 10 - 20 54 - 82
foundation, slight to high frost action, poor to
practically impervious drainage.

Fine-grained soils - silts and clay

Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or 1600 - 2000 5 - 15 27 - 54
clayey fine sand or clayey silts with slight plasticity.
Fair to good foundation, medium to high frost action,
fair to poor drainage.
Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravely 1600 - 2000 5 - 15 27 - 54
clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays. Fair to poor
foundation, medium to high frost action, practically
impervious.
Organic clays to medium to high plasticity, organic 1440 - 1680 4-8 27 - 54
silts. Poor foundation, medium to high frost action,
poor drainage.

Fine-grained soils - silty and clay

Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy 1280 - 1600 4-8 27 - 54
or silty soils, elastic silts. Poor foundation, medium to
high frost action, fair to poor drainage.
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, organic silts. Poor to 1440 - 1760 3-5 14 - 27
very poor foundation, medium frost action, practically
impervious.
Organic clays of medium to high plasticity, organic 1280 - 1680 3-5 14 - 27
silts. Poor to very poor foundation, medium frost
action, practically impervious.
Peat and other highly organic soils. Not suitable for
foundation, slight frost action, fair to poor drainage,
very high compressibility.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 11
 1 materials

1.2.3 STABILISED SUB-GRADE

In some instances considerable benefit can be obtained from
stabilising the sub-grade, or using cement bound sub-base. Appendix
F of Part 12 of this guide provides a summary of these benefits.

1.3 SUB-BASE
A sub-base enhances the local performance of the slab-subgrade
system. The modulus of sub-grade reaction (k) used in slab design
should reflect this sub-base enhancement where appropriate. Under
concentrated point loading, such as from rack legs, the presence of a
sub-base modifies the local elastic behaviour of the ground and
therefore has an influence on the stresses induced in the slab. For
bulk storage with distributed loading conditions, the sub-base offsets
the effect of local variations in ground conditions, but the behaviour
of the slab is governed more by the overall response of the ground,
particularly long term settlement, which is not influenced by the
sub-base. For concentrated point loads only, the design values of the
modulus of sub-grade reaction can be enhanced as shown in Figure
3.1 when a sub-base is used.
Even where the sub-grade is excellent, a sub-base will generally be
required to provide a work surface for construction traffic. A
minimum depth of 150mm is generally considered appropriate for
this purpose.
The sub-base may also act as a capillary break, preventing moisture
rising above the ground water table by capillary action and reaching
the underside of the concrete slab. Capillary rise is greater in fine-
grained subgrades.
The sub-base should be stable graded granular material of maximum
size not exceeding 75mm. It should be fully compacted and blinded
with sand or fine crushed material, so that the top surface can be laid
and screeded to the specified tolerance. A reasonably smooth surface
is necessary to prevent damage to the slip membrane and to
minimise friction restraint.

1.4 SLIP LAYER

A slip layer is used to reduce friction between a slab and sub-base. If
it is a membrane, it may also serve as a barrier for ground moisture
penetrating the building, and prevent loss of moisture and fines
from the fresh concrete into the sub-base.
250 micron and 300 micron plastic sheets are most commonly used
for slip membranes.
Adjoining sheets of membrane should he lapped by at least 150mm
and secured with adhesive tape to prevent displacement after laying;
care needs to be taken to avoid wrinkles.
In post-tensioned work two layers of plastic sheet are often used to
reduce the coefficient of friction between a slab and its sub-base to a
minimum. In conventional slab design contraction joint spacing may
be increased, or the reinforcement reduced, by the use of two layers
of plastic sheets and by careful preparation of the blinding. 125
micron sheeting may be used for greater economy in double layer

12
applications, but greater care is needed to prevent handling damage and to avoid wrinkles.
An impermeable slip membrane below a slab means that drying can only take place from its top
surface, which can increase the risk of curling. Perforated membranes have sometimes been used to
reduce this risk, but potential grout loss and increased frictional resistance need to be considered.

1.5 CONCRETE
The NZ Guide to Concrete Construction1 provides an excellent summary of the properties of
concrete. It covers the impact of cement, aggregates, water, admixtures, and environmental
conditions on the behaviour of concrete.
Part 12 of this guide covers issues associated with concrete properties which are specific to industrial
floors, such as drying shrinkage, abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance, freeze thaw resistance, and
resistance to chemical attack.
The modulus of rupture is an important parameter in the design of a slab on ground. However,
beam test to determine this variable can be expensive, so it is usual to use correlations with
compressive strength (f ’c). Usually the f ’c required for durability will be higher than that required
for structural purposes. Table 1.2 provides some guidance for selection of the minimum f ’c based on
abrasion resistance considerations.

Table 1.2 Minimum concrete strength for abrasion resistance

Minimum characteristic
Member and type of traffic strength, f’c (MPa)
Floors in commercial areas subject only
to pedestrian and/or light trolley traffic 25
Floors subject only to light pneumatic-tyred traffic (vehicles < 3t gross) 25
Floors in warehouses and factories subject to medium or heavy:
• pneumatic-tyred traffic (> 3t gross) 30
• non-pneumatic-tyred traffic 40
• steel-wheeled traffic ≥40 (to be assessed)

Abrasion in concrete floors can take the form of general loss of the surface and therefore exposure
of the aggregate, or breakdown of the surface at cracks and joints. Many industrial warehouses

Joints damaged by solid-tyred reach Loss of surface by abrasion

trucks

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 13
 1 materials

utilise solid tyred reach trucks. The small, hard wheels on these
vehicles are particularly damaging on unarmoured joints and
uncontrolled cracks.
The selection of an appropriate concrete mix design is an important
aspect of the construction of a floor slab. However, probably the
most common reasons for unsatisfactory end product are
shortcomings in the placing, finishing, and early care of slabs. The
specification for the project should either provide, or require, a
methodology statement and a team meeting prior to the work
starting. The methodology statement should define who does what,
when, how, where, and define accountability and client expectations.
The performance of the mix in terms of plastic cracking, top down
setting, and bleed should be discussed at a pre-pour meeting that
includes the designer, concrete supplier, contractor and placer.
Early age care should include protection from restrained early age
thermal contraction, saw cutting, and curing.

14
 2

loadings

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design
 2 loadings

Chapter 2
Loadings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides some guidance on typical loads and load cases used in the design of an
industrial floor slab supported on the ground. The designer should consult with the building
owner/equipment suppliers to determine more accurately the expected loads from equipment.
In determining the design load combinations, some consideration of potential future use of the
building should be made. The trend, particularly in warehouses, has been to make greater utilisation
of the available floor space, resulting in heavier floor loads.
In this section we consider:
• Dead Loads
• Live loads, including:
• Wheel loads
• Post loads, typically from storage racks
• Distributed loads.
• Seismic loads

Table 2.1 Characteristics of Typical Forklift Trucks

Average Wheel Spacing (mm)

Single Wheels Dual Wheels

Front Axle Load Approx. Rated Capacity TC TC

(tonnes) (tonnes) WS WC

4 2 750 WC TC
6 2.5 800
8 3.5 850
10 4.5 900 1450 250
20 9 1050 1750 300
30 13 1150 2000 350
40 17 2200 400
50 22 2350 450
60 26 2450 500
70 30 2550 550
80 35 2600 550
90 40 2600 550

Notes:
(Averages taken from 1983 survey of manufacturer’s data)
For pneumatic-tyred vehicles only;
Tyre inflation pressure range = 650 to 750 KPa;
Load contact area assumed per tyre = wheel load divided by inflation pressure;
Maximum front axle load for most forklifts is equal to 2.3 times the rated capacity.
Table 2.2 provides some typical data for reach trucks.

16
Figure 2.1 2.2 DEAD LOADS
Pallet transporter
The self-weight of the slab is typically the main dead load.
As the slab’s weight is supported directly by the ground,
the induced bending moments in the slab are negligible,
and can be ignored. This load case becomes more
significant when considering uplift under seismic loading,
and tensile forces induced from restrained shrinkage and
thermal contraction.

2.3 LIVE LOADS

2.3.1 WHEEL LOADS
Wheel loads typically applied to an industrial floor slab
derive from trucks or mobile materials handling
Figure 2.2 equipment. Commercial vehicles that use the highway are
Counterbalance forklift subject to statutory load limits, and axle configuration. A
guide to axle loads for these vehicles is found in the
AUSTROADS Pavement Design Guide6.

2.3.1.1 Mobile materials handling equipment

This section provides a brief introduction of typical
materials handling equipment.

Pallet transporters
Refer Figure 2.1. These are predominantly pedestrian or
rider pallet trucks. The load capacity is usually limited,
with a maximum of approximately 2 tonnes. The load
Figure 2.3 concentration can be high due to the small size of the
Reach truck wheels.

Counterbalance forklift
Refer Figure 2.2. These forklifts are fitted with telescopic
masts, with the load always carried ahead of the front
wheels. The load capacity can be as high as 22 tonnes, but
in an industrial building the forklift capacity is normally
below 4.5 tonnes. In warehouses, a typical pallet weight
would be 1 tonne, so usually forklifts with a 2.5-3 tonne
capacity are used.
The rear wheels are used for steering. These forklifts
typically require minimum aisle widths of 4m to allow the
forklifts to manoeuvre in front of the loads. Lift heights
are limited by stability and do not normally exceed 8.5m.

Reach trucks
Refer Figure 2.3. These trucks have the facility of a moving
telescopic mast or pantographic load extender. The trucks
front load, but are able to transport the load in a retracted
position within the wheelbase. Their manoeuvrability, and
ability to “reach out” to pick up loads, allows narrow
working aisles averaging 2.3-2.7m.
Reach trucks typically have a load capacity of 2 tonnes,
and lift heights that do not normally exceed 8.5m.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 17
 2 loadings

Table 2.2 Load data for a typical reach truck

1.6 t rated capacity 2.0 t rated capacity

Approx weight of reach truck (tonnes) 3.0 4.0

Weight on each front load wheels when carrying load (tonnes)* 1.5 2.0

Weight on each front load wheels when unloaded (tonnes)* 0.6 0.8

Weight on rear drive wheel when carrying load (tonnes) 0.86 1.0

Weight on rear drive wheel when unloaded (tonnes) 0.9 1.3

Weight on rear caster wheels when carrying load (tonnes)* 0.4 0.4

Weight on rear caster wheels when unloaded (tonnes)* 0.5 0.6

* The load refers to the load on each wheel. There are two wheels so the "axle" load is twice the tabled load.

Figure 2.4 Very narrow aisle (VNA) trucks

VNA truck Refer Figure 2.4. VNA trucks can be used in very narrow aisles
that are only marginally wider than the truck (approximately
1.9m). Often a truck guidance system is used, which could be
steel rails or a low voltage wire chased into the floor.
These specialist trucks all have the capability of stacking or de-
stacking a load at right angles to the direction of travel by
utilising a traversing rotating load carriage or a rotating
traversing mast. As the VNA trucks are designed to have high
longitudinal and lateral stability, basic loads of 2 tonnes can be
lifted on telescoping masts to 12m.

Order pickers
Refer Figure 2.5. Order pickers have a load and aisle width
specification similar to those of elevating cab VNA lift trucks,
except that lift heights are usually limited to 9.5m. Order pickers
carry a non-lateral moving empty pallet onto which the
Figure 2.5 operator places items taken from bulk stacks.
Order pickers
Stacker cranes
Refer to Figure 2.6. Stacker cranes are restrained between floor
and top mounted rails but are capable of transferring by means
of special rail links, or bridges, to selected aisles. With lateral rail
restraint, stability is not so limited as with other VNA
equipment and 2 tonne loads can be lifted to 30m in aisle
widths as narrow as 1.2m.

Contact pressures – wheel loads

For pneumatic-tyred forklifts, the contact pressure is equal to
the tyre inflation pressure. Typically this is in the range of 650-
750 kPa. Table 2.1 summarises characteristic front axle loads
taken from a 1983 manufacturers data7. Spot checks indicate
that this information is still relevant today.
The tyres of reach trucks are typically small and solid. The tyre
contact pressure is dependent upon the composition of the
material used, and the manufacture of the truck should be
consulted. Reference 5 provides some information useful for

18
Figure 2.6 preliminary design purposes. Contact pressures of 5.6 MPa
Stacker crane are reported for a two tonne reach truck and 9 MPa for
polyurethane tyres on a pallet transporters.

2.3.2 Storage System Loads

Numerous storage systems have been developed to cater for
various warehouse uses. Figure 2.7 (see page 20) illustrates a
variety of storage systems promoted by one New Zealand
manufacturer.

Pallet racking
Pallet racking systems are designed to accommodate pallets
that typically have a maximum weight of 1 tonne. The
height of the racking system is usually dictated by either the
building height, lifting restrictions of forklifts, or seismic
design considerations.
The racking systems are placed in aisles as single racks, or
more commonly as back to back racks. Typically the spacing
between the legs in the longitudinal direction is
approximately 2.7m while in the transverse direction they are
typically between 800 and 1200mm. The base plates are small
and bolted to the floor.
Where specialist lifting equipment is available, the racks may
be utilised in double depth, or with very narrow aisles, refer
Figure 2.7.
Other more specialist racking options are illustrated in
concept in Figure 2.7.

Block stacking
In some facilities material is simply stacked in multiple layers
onto the floor.

2.4 SEISMIC LOADING

Racking systems are often simply bolted to the floor. During an earthquake uplift forces can
develop, which the floor slab must be designed to accommodate. The magnitude of these forces can
be calculated using the NZ Loadings Standard NZS 42038. To minimise the uplift forces the slab is
required to resist, the racking system may be designed to have yielding base plates. The manufacture
of the racking system should be consulted to determine the seismic design philosophy utilised in the
proposed racking system.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 19
 2 loadings

Figure 2.7
Various storage systems

20
 3

concrete ground floor thickness determination

3 ground floor thickness

Chapter 3
Concrete Ground Floor Thickness
Determination
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a concrete slab supported on the ground requires decisions on many issues including:
• Joint spacing
• Joint detailing
• Surface finish
• Durability
• Reinforcement
• Pavement thickness
This chapter focuses on the determination of floor thickness. The other issues are covered in
Wheel load
subsequent chapters. The normal sequence for the
design procedure for concrete industrial
pavements is illustrated in Table 1.1 of Part 12.
Compression
Prior to the calculation of the floor thickness, the
Tension
designer would have considered the loading,
subgrade conditions, required concrete strength,
and surface finish.
The main variables in determining the thickness of a slab on ground are-
• Concrete strength, in particular the tensile strength. As the tensile strength increases, the required
thickness reduces.
• Soil properties – generally the softer the soil, the thicker the required pavement.
• Applied loading – as applied load and contact pressure increase, the required pavement thickness
increases.
• The combination of different loads.
• Number of load repetitions. Above a threshold stress, as the number of repetitions increases, the
pavement thickness needs to increase to prevent fatigue failure.
• The position of the applied load relative to the edge of the slab.
• The presence or absence of load transfer between adjacent slabs.
• The frictional resistance on the base of the slab.
• The reinforcement method, i.e. bars, steel fibres, or post-tensioning.
It is important to note that the presence of reinforcing in the form of mesh or conventional
reinforcing bars does not influence the required thickness. Reinforcement is typically provided to
control drying shrinkage cracking, refer Chapter 5.

3.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS –GENERAL COMMENTS

In this section the analysis of conventionally reinforced slabs on ground is discussed. The
modifications of this analysis technique when considering shrinkage compensating concretes, post-
tensioned, and fibre reinforced floors are described in sections 3.10, 3.11, and 3.12, respectively.
Unlike suspended concrete floors, a conventionally reinforced slab on ground is designed on the
basis of limiting the induced flexural stresses in the concrete to a factored level below the ultimate

22


flexural tensile strength. No use is made of bar or mesh reinforcement to resist flexural loads. The
reinforcement is provided to control cracking and shrinkage stresses only.
Most analytical methods for slab on ground design are based on the assumption that the soil is an
elastic medium. Most methods assume that the soil can be modelled as a series of springs, with the
force in the spring being proportional to the vertical deformation. For these models the soil is
defined in terms of the modulus of subgrade reaction (refer to section 1.2.2).
A more accurate representation of the soil can be made by assuming that the soil is an elastic half
space. This is the approach taken in the Cement & Concrete Association of Australia’s publication
Industrial Floor Slabs and Pavements9. Although the assumption of an elastic continuum more
accurately models reality, comparative analysis9 showed that there is relatively little difference
between the spring and elastic continuum models. Computations using the two soil models
produced maximum bending moments within the slab that are within 1% of each other.
In this design guide, the analysis method presented is based on the soil being represented as a series
of springs.

3.3


SUB-GRADE

Concrete slab

Sub-base

Sub-grade
Slip layer
The sub-grade is the material that ultimately supports the
load. A soil investigation should determine the strength
and settlement properties of the sub-grade from which the
adequacy of a slab on ground can be ascertained.
The design method based on sub-grade reaction caters
essentially for the safety against rapidly applied stresses
near the surface. It does not take account of settlements
due to soil consolidation under average live plus dead loading. To estimate the magnitude of such
settlements, reference should be made to soils experts with respect to appropriate site investigation,
soil testing and interpretation.
Long term settlement can be as much as 20 to 40 times greater than the elastic deflections which are
the basis of the slab design. The measure of the elastic sub-grade compressibility is termed the
modulus of sub-grade reaction (k) and usually involves elastic compressions of not greater than 1 to
2 mm. k is a measure of the pressure required to deform the sub-grade a unit distance.
Some estimation of the value of k is required to input into the design. Comparatively large
variations in k are found to have only a minor effect on the performance of the ground slab, and
therefore a precise estimate of its value is not necessary. Indeed, because the formation is frequently
just below the existing ground level, and therefore often in variable materials, a uniform reliable
value of k may not be obtainable from site tests. Table 1.1 gives an estimate of the value of k which
enables assessments to be made against common descriptions and simple investigation measures.
It is emphasised that the value of k does not reflect long term or differential settlements which have
no reliable correlation with the elastic properties of the sub-grade.

3.4 SUB-BASE

Concrete slab

Sub-base

Sub-grade
Slip layer
While the presence of a sub-base layer is needed to provide
a level and firm working platform on which to construct
the slab, advantage can be taken of its structural properties
which increase the apparent value of k for use in the design
of slabs for concentrated point loads. In the absence of test
results, Figure 3.1 gives an approximate assessment of the
effect of sub-base on the apparent value of k, refer also to
section 1.3.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 23


24


3 ground floor thickness

Figure 3.1 The effect of granular sub-base thickness on modulus of sub-grade reaction, k
(after Packard24)

K ON TOP OF SUB-BASE (MN/m3)

3.5
163

136

109

82

54

27

100
54
MN
/m

SLIP LAYER
3

Figure 3.2 Typical values for coefficient of friction

Plastic soil (a)

Blended washed sand

and gravel (b)
Granular subbase (c)

Sand layer (d)

Polythene sheeting (e)

150

Concrete slab

Sub-base

Sub-grade

0
27
M N/m
3

K on s
82 MN/m

14 M
N/

27 MN

ub-gra

200
m
3

54 MN/m
3

/m3
3

de = 1
4

SUB-BASE THICKNESS (mm)

Slip layer

First movement

0.5
Coefficient of friction, µ
1.0
MN/m
3

Cement bound sub-base

Granular sub-base

250 300

A slip layer allows the concrete slab to respond to

shrinkage, as well as temperature variations, such that
excessive tensile stresses are not induced in the concrete.
Various surface preparations are used which give diverse
frictional restraint, and some of these are illustrated in
Figure 3.2. More information on the five selected sub-bases
is provided in appendix D of Part 12.

Values of the coefficient friction for a 215mm-thick slab on different bases and sub-bases. More
information on the five selected sub-bases (a to e) is in Appendix D of Part 1.

Average subsequent movement

1.5 2.0
Recent testing25 revealed that the coefficient of friction increases with increased contact pressure.
Base sliding tests were conducted on a rig comprising of a 135mm slab on polymer damp proof
membrane (DPC) over 25 mm of sand on hardfill. The sand was carefully placed to ensure it was
smooth, and one and two layers of DPC were tested. The increase in coefficient of friction with
increasing contact pressure was believed to be caused by the indentation of sand grains into the soft
material of the membrane. Table 3.1 summarises the results of this testing. These should be
considered as lower bound values which can be achieved in laboratory conditions.

Table 3.1 Base sliding friction for slabs on the ground

FoundationType Contact Pressure kPa Peak coefficient of friction Mean coefficient of friction

Single layer of DPC 3.0 0.42 0.38

6.6 0.53 0.49

Two layers of DPC 3.1 0.21 0.18

6.2 0.45 0.40

3.6 LOAD FACTORS

To ensure consistency with the New Zealand Concrete Design Standard (NZS 3101)13, ultimate limit
state design requires the use of load factors and strength reduction factors. In this guideline it is
recommended that the load factor of 1.5, recommended in the C&CA publication TR55010, be used.
Consistent with TR550, a strength reduction factor (φ) of 1.0 is recommended for flexural strength.
The factors of safety achieved by using these assumptions are consistent with international design
procedures for industrial floors on ground.
When checking punching shear or bearing strength, this guide recommends the use of the relevant
provisions of NZS 3101. For consistency, it is recommended that the strength reduction factors
defined in NZS 3101 are used for these design considerations.
In this guideline the issue of fatigue has been separated from that of load factors by introducing a
reduction factor to the modulus of rupture, which is dependent upon the expected number of
repetitions. In many references, 5 and 12, fatigue is addressed by increasing the load factor, or by
introducing a ‘dynamic load factor’.

3.7 MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF CONCRETE

The design of pavements is based on the flexural strength of concrete. The method of determining
the modulus of rupture for a particular concrete mix is described in Chapter 9. The size of the beam
specimen is dependent upon the aggregate size, but is typically 100 x100 x 400mm long. The
specimen is bent with third point loading to determine the maximum extreme fibre stress at failure.
For concrete, the flexural test gives a considerably higher value of tensile strength than the splitting
test (refer Chapter 9), and there is not a direct relationship between them.
Neither is there a fixed relationship between compressive and tensile strength. This has been widely
investigated and a number of authorities have proposed bands within which such a relationship
maybe expected to fall. One such band is illustrated in Figure 3.3

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 25
3 ground floor thickness

Figure 3.3 The relationship between compressive and tensile strengths

AVERAGE TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

6

5
Range of flexural tests

3
Range of indirect tests
2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

Although the design of pavements is based on the modulus of rupture, it is usual practice to
determine the relationship between the flexural and compressive strength for the given concrete and
to control the quality of the concrete on the project in terms of compressive strength.
The modulus of rupture of concrete can be estimated from Equation 3.1, which provides a
relationship between the compressive (standard cylinder) strength and modulus of rupture. This
equation is that recommended in reference 5, after conversion from cube to cylinder test specimen
compressive strength. Within the typical range of compressive strengths specified for floors (25-45
MPa) the value obtained from Equation 3.1 is within 5% of that using the value of 0.8√f ’c specified
in NZS 3101. However, the use of Equation 3.1 is recommended as it has been suggested11 that the
0.5 power exponent used in NZS 3101 is too low and underestimates the modulus of rupture at
high compressive strengths.

fr = 0.456k1k 2 (f’c )0.66 MPa [Equation 3.1]

Where:
f ’c = the specified 28 day cylinder compressive strength (MPa)
k1 = time to first application of maximum load,
= 1.0 for 28 days, and
= 1.1 for greater than 90 days
k2 = load repetition factor, =1.5(0.73-0.0846(log(N)-3) for N= 8,000 to 400,000 refer also
to Table 3.2, but should not be less than 0.75 or greater than 1.0

Table 3.2 Load repetition factor k2

Load repetitions Load repetition
(N) factor k2

Unlimited 0.75

400,000 0.77

300,000 0.78

200,000 0.81

100,000 0.84

50,000 0.89

30,000 0.90

10,000 0.96

<8,000 1.0

26
3.8 SELECTION OF CONCRETE PROPERTIES
The designer needs to specify the required concrete strength. This is normally specified in terms of
the compressive strength, although it is recognised that there may not be a strong correlation
between this variable and the attribute the designer is trying to achieve. Compressive strength is
specified as it is relatively simple to test.
The major durability consideration for an industrial pavement is normally abrasion resistance and
joint protection. However, depending on the environment of the pavement, corrosion of the
reinforcement, freeze thaw, chemical resistance and permeability may need to be considered. All
these tend to be controlled by specifying an appropriate compressive strength. The strength required
for durability will often be higher than that required for structural purposes and would therefore
govern design.
Recommendation on the selection of concrete properties for abrasion, corrosion, freeze thaw, and
chemical resistance are provided in Part 12 of this design guide. Review of appendix E of Part 12 will
illustrate the importance of finishing technique and curing method on the abrasion resistance of
concrete floors. The importance of these variables should be reflected in the specification for the
project.

3.9 CONVENTIONALLY REINFORCED SLABS:

CALCULATION OF STRESSES DUE TO WHEEL OR RACK LOADING

3.9.1 Point loads – interior of a slab

The stress in the slab beneath a point load located away from
the edge of the slab can be approximated using Westergaard’s
equation (Equation 3.2). Alternatively the thickness required
to limit the concrete stress to a specified value under a given
load can be determined by trial and iteration.

P 
σ i = 2.70(1 + µ ) 2 4 log  + 1.069 x10 6 kN/m 2
l
µ [Equation 3.2]
h   b  
Where
µ = Poisson ratio of the slab, typically 0.15
P = the applied load, tonnes
h = the thickness of the slab, mm
l = radius of relative stiffness, refer eqn 3.3, mm
b = equivalent radius of loaded area, refer Equation 3.4, mm

0.25
 Eh3 x103 
l= 
( )
mm [Equation 3.3]
12 1 − µ 2 k 
 
Where:
E = Modulus of elasticity of the concrete slab, refer NZS 3101, MPa
k = modulus of sub-grade reaction, refer section 3.3, MN/m3

b = (1.6r2 + h 2 )0.5 - 0.675h for r < 1.72h

[Equation 3.4]
or b = r for r ≥ 1.72h

Where:
r = radius of loaded area, mm, refer Figure 3.4

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 27
3 ground floor thickness

28
2A
assumed5.

r = ab / π

Or:

moment/stress
-20%

-10%

0%

Load case 10%

20%

30%

40%
50%
60%

70%

80%
0
a

ri
a

1
b
a

r = 2ab / π

L distance
C
r

for Ζ < 2h, combine loads and r =

Figure 3.4 illustrates the definition of the loaded radius. When the centre line distance between two
contact areas is less than twice the slab thickness, an effective contact area as shown in Figure 3.4 is

Figure 3.4 Definition of the loaded radius (r) for various load positions and for multiple
contact areas

Interior load Load on edge of slab

for Ζ > 2h, individual loads and r =

where h = slab thickness

for Ζ < 2h, combine loads and r =

for Ζ > 2h, individual loads and r = ri

Figure 3.5 Moment/Stress diagram for interior load case

Percentage of peak

Radius of relative stiffness l

Radial stress

2
b

ri
Load on corner of slab

ri 2 + π i

Tangential stress

3
r

(a + z)b / π
ab / π

2Ζr

The reduction of stress away from the load application point is illustrated in Figure 3.5. This has
been derived from Westergaards original paper15 and strictly relates to a concentrated point load.
The definition for radial and tangential stress is that used by Westergaard and is illustrated in
a

b
r = ab / π

4
Tension in top of slab

Tension in bottom of slab

Mradial,σ radial

Mtangential ,σ tangential

5 6


Figure 3.5. The tangential stress results in cracking that radiates out from the load application point
with the cracks initiating on the bottom of the slab (for gravity loads). The radial stress results in
circular crack patterns. Figure 3.5 show that the sign of the radial stress reverses 1.0l from the load
application point.
Figure 3.6 shows how to combine stresses from various load points.

Figure 3.6 Combination of stress from various load points

INTERIOR LOADS

EDGE LOADS

slab edge

C
D

D
C

B
∑ σ A = σ A + σ A,Br + σ A, Cr + σ A,Dt + σ A,Et

or ∑ σ A = σ A + σ A,Bt + σ A,Ct + σ A,Dr + σ A,Er

where
σ A,Ct = stress at A due to tangential stress
from a load at C
σ A,Cr = stress at A due to radial stress from
a load at C

∑ σ A = σ A + σ A,Br + σ A, Cr + σ A,Dt

where the distribution of radial stresses along

the edge are given by figure 3.7

The design thickness of a slab subject to loads which are distant from the edge of the slab is
appropriate when the superposition of stresses calculated using Equation 3.2 and Figure 3.5,
multiplied by a load factor of 1.5, give calculated stresses less than the modulus of rupture
(Equation 3.1).

3.9.2 POINT LOADS – EDGE OF A SLAB

Where:
σ e = 5.19(1 + 0.54µ)

µ =
P =
h =
l =
b =
P
h 
The stressed induced beneath a point load located on the edge of
the slab can be approximated using Kelly’s equation (Equation
3.5).

l

the thickness of the slab, mm

 b 
2  4log   + log
 b
  x106 kN/m 2
 25.4  

Poisson ratio of the slab, typically 0.15

the applied load, tonnes

radius of relative stiffness, refer Equation 3.3, mm

equivalent radius of loaded area, refer Equation 3.4, mm
[Equation 3.5]

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 29
3 ground floor thickness

The reduction of stress away from the load application point is illustrated in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 Moment/Stress diagram for edge load case

Percentage of peak
moment/stress
-20%
Load case -10%
2B Tension in top of slab
0%
Tension in bottom of slab
10%
Radial stress along edge
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Radius of relative stiffness l

Equation 3.5 assumes that there is no load transfer between adjacent slabs along the shared edge.
Load transfer along the shared edge can occur if dowels are provided or aggregate interlock occurs,
ie, a saw cut joint that is expected to open up less than 1mm. When load transfer occurs, the stress
calculated by Equation 3.5 should be multiplied by 0.85.
Westergaards original papers provide little guidance to designers on how near to the edge a load
point needs to be before it is classed as an edge load. It is suggested that when the centre of the load
point is greater than l away from the edge, the load be classed as an interior load (Equation 3.2).
When the load is closer than 0.5l it should be classed as an edge load (Equation 3.5), and for load
points between these a linear transition is assumed. Refer Figure 3.8. For a 35 MPa, 150mm thick
slab supported on ground with a CBR of 10, and 150mm of hardfill, l = 606mm, implying that if
the load is closer than 300mm to the edge, Equation 3.5 should be used.

Figure 3.8 Definition of edge and interior load cases

0.5l 0.5l
Edge load case Transition Interior load case

l = radius of relative stiffness [Equation 3.3]

The design thickness of a slab subject to loads which are on the edge of the slab is appropriate when
the superposition of stresses calculated using Equations 3.5 (edge loads) and 3.2 (interior loads),
and Figures 3.5 and 3.7, multiplied by a load factor of 1.5, give calculated stresses less than the
modulus of rupture (Equation 3.1).

3.9.3 POINT LOADS – CORNER OF A SLAB

For the interior and edge load application positions, the maximum
tensile stress occurs at the bottom of the slab below the load application
point. When the load is applied at a corner, the maximum tensile stress
occurs in the top of the slab a distance from the corner. The
slab’s behaviour is analogous to that of a cantilevered beam.

30
The maximum tensile stress in the slab when the corner is loaded can be approximated using
Picket’s equation (Equation 3.6).

P (r / l) 0.5  [Equation 3.6]

σ c = 41.2 1 −  x 106 kN/m 2
h  0.925 + 0.22(r / l) 
2

Equation 3.6 assumes that there is no load transfer along the edge. Childs and Kapernick17 found
that if load transfer was provided by means of dowel bars, for example, the corner stress in curled
slabs was reduced by approximately 30% and the edge stress by 15%, making the edge load case
more critical in some instances. When edge load transfer occurs at the corner of a slab, the stress
calculated by Equation 3.6 should be multiplied by 0.7.
The design thickness of a slab subject to loads which are on the corner of the slab is appropriate
when the superposition of stresses calculated using Equations 3.6 (corner loads), 3.5 (edge loads)
and 3.2 (interior loads), and Figures 3.5 and 3.7, multiplied by a load factor of 1.5, give calculated
stresses less than the modulus of rupture (Equation 3.1).

3.9.4 PUNCHING SHEAR RESISTANCE

Punching shear failure is possible when the pavement is subjected to concentrated loads. It is rarely
significant to slab design, but can become the critical consideration when heavy loads with small
base plates are applied to thin slabs. Posts located near to isolation joints or where two posts are side
by side are more critical.
An approach to the assessment of punching shear may be carried out using an analogy of a column
supporting a suspended slab. The design equations for this are given in NZS 310113. For consistency,
it is recommended that the strength reduction factor (φ) as defined in NZS 3101 be used in this
calculation. This apparent conservatism is justifiable as punching shear rarely governs the design.
Using this model the first approach would be to assume the post load is evenly transferred to the
sub-grade. If the calculations indicate that the pavement thickness is insufficient, it is suggested that
the designer make a second assessment whereby a proportion of the post load is directly transferred
to the sub-grade. This proportion is a function of the pavement thickness and the sub-grade
stiffness14.

3.9.5 CONCRETE BEARING PRESSURE UNDER POINT LOADS

The ultimate bearing strength of concrete is defined in NZS 310113. For consistency, it is
recommended that the strength reduction factor (φ) as defined in NZS 3101 is used in this
calculation; however bearing capacity rarely governs the design.

3.9.6 EDGE THICKENING

For wheel loading and post loading, the slab thickness required for edge loading may be greater than
that required for interior loading. A guide for the required edge thickening width is given in Table
3.3. However, to minimise restraint and the development of shrinkage cracking, it is preferable if a
level bottom surface of the base is provided.

Table 3.3 Distance e* from edge of base at which base thickening should commence
General description of supporting soil Edge distance e*

Very weak 20h

Weak 15h

Medium 10h

Stiff 8h

Very Stiff 6h

* Refer Figure 3.9 h = thickness required for interior loading

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 31
3 ground floor thickness

Figure 3.9 Edge thickening at joints where required.

Sealant
Abutting pavement
h
or other structure

Edge-thickening
where appropriate
= =

e
(refer to Table 3.3)

3.9.7 Uniformly distributed loads

Stress due to uniform loading

The critical bending moment due to uniform loading is
determined by a discrete-element slab analysis, as used by Panak
and Rauhut20. This technique is well documented21-23 and gives
results for this type of problem as accurate as those obtained by
the more expensive and time-consuming finite element
techniques.
The bending moment in the slab is determined for a given aisle width and radius of relative stiffness
(l), which is a measure of the ratio of the stiffness of the slab to the stiffness of the sub-grade. Figure
3.10 indicates that, for a given radius of relative stiffness (l) there is a maximum bending moment at
a certain aisle width.

Figure 3.10 Critical bending moment for a loading of 1 kN/m2

2.00
2.00 Radius of relative
Radius of relative(mm)
stiffness
BENDING MOMENT – kN m/m run for 1 kN/m2 loading

stiffness (mm)
BENDING MOMENT – kN m/m run for 1 kN/m2 loading

1.00 1800
1.00 1800
1580
idth 1580
ew 1425
0.50 wlidatihsl
e
sltic a 1425
0.50 l aCi ri
tica
Cr i 1200
1200

0.20
0.20 950
950

0.13 800
0.13 800
675
675
0.05 570
0.05 570
450
450

0.02
0.02 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
AISLE WIDTH (m)
AISLE WIDTH (m)

This aisle width is known as the critical aisle width and the bending moment as the critical bending
moment; any deviation from this critical aisle width would produce a smaller bending moment. The
critical bending moment is usually the negative moment causing tension in the top of the slab at
mid-aisle, but in the case of large aisle widths may be the positive moment. The critical bending

32
moment is shown in Figure 3.10 for a 1 kN/m2 uniform loading. This Figure assumes that the aisle
is loaded on both sides. If the aisle is loaded on only one side, the bending moment from Figure
3.10 should be halved. The design moment is the bending moment from Figure 3.10 multiplied by
the loading in kN/m2 and by the load safety factor. The required tensile strength of the concrete is
the design moment divided by the elastic section modulus. The elastic section modulus for unit
width is h2/6.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the shape of the bending moment diagram for various combinations of slab
thickness, soil modulus, and aisle width as evaluated by Panak and Rauhut20.

Figure 3.11 Transverse bending moments for a uniformly loaded slab

(a) THICKNESS OF THE SLAB (c) AISLE WIDTH VARIED

VARIED

15.24m
-17.8 k = 54 MN/m3 4.57m
q = 72kPa
-13.35 k = 54 MN/m3 3.05m
Bending moment KNm/m

-13.35 h = 178mm
1.52m
q = 72kPa
-8.9 -8.9
279mm 1.52m

Bending moment KNm/m

178mm 3.05m
-4.45
-4.45
119mm 4.57m
0
0
4.45

4.45

Aisleway 8.9
(b) MODULUS OF SUB-GRADE 3.05m
REACTION VARIED

-17.8
h = 178mm
q = 72kPa
-13.35
Bending moment KNm/m

14 MN/m3
-8.9
54 MN/m3

-4.45 109 MN/m3

4.45

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 33
3 ground floor thickness

The grade of concrete required to withstand a given design bending moment for a given depth of
slab may be found from Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12 The compressive strength of concrete required to withstand the design bending
moments for different depths of slab

Depth of slab mm
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
150
Concrete
Strength f’cc
35
100

25
80
Design bending moment – kN m/m

60

50

40

30

20

10

For uniform loading, the slab and sub-base have virtually no load-spreading ability. To avoid shear
failure, the loading on the slab may have to be limited to the bearing capacity of the underlying
soils. Loads may also have to be limited to avoid unacceptable settlement or consolidation.

3.9.8 Deflection under uniformly distributed loads

Methods based on the modulus of sub-grade reaction have been
proven to be effective and accurate design tools for the
evaluation of the stresses in a floor supported on the ground.
However, they are not suitable for the estimation of settlements
of the slab when the loaded area is large.
The depth of influence of a load applied to a soil is a function of
the size of the loaded area. Figure 3.13 illustrates the sub-surface
pressure bulbs of individual racking system leg loads, and the
combined effect of all the legs. In this example the combined bulb penetrates a soft peat layer, and in
this situation the sub-grade may perform satisfactorily for localised loads, but the softer soil at depth
may compress under the combined influences of all the localised loads. Settlement of floors due to
compression of bands of weak material at depth may be considerably greater and non uniform, than
the elastic settlement under individual localised loads. Careful consideration of settlements will be
required when mechanical handling equipment requires tight surface flatness tolerances.

34
Figure 3.13 Diagram showing the increase in depth of influence due to spread of load

Stiff clay Bulbs of pressure of

individual leg loads

Peat

Stiff clay Bulb of pressure due to

combined effect of all
leg loads

The deflection of the base at the centre of the uniformly distributed load can be estimated from
Equation 3.79:

pW(1 − υs 2 )ws
s= [Equation 3.7]
Es

Where:
p = magnitude of uniformly distributed load (MPa)
W = width of loaded area, m
εs υ s = long term Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the soil
ws = dimensionless deflection factor calculated from Figure 3.14

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 35
3 ground floor thickness

Figure 3.14 Central deflection below distributed loading on interior of slab

1.8
1.7
1.6 W
h
1.5
Ec
1.4
1.3 H Es ,υs
1.2
1.1
1.0

0.9
0.8
H (m) = 20
0.7
0.6 10
0.5
0.4 5
0.3 2.5
0.2

0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Characteristic length, Lc (m)

The characteristic length Lc is calculated from

 E  0.33
Lc = h  c  [Equation 3.8]
 Es (1 − υ s2 ) 

Where:
h = slab thickness, m
Ec = Young’s modulus of the concrete, MPa
H = depth of equivalent uniform layer of soil, refer Figure 3.14 and reference 9.
For more information refer to reference 9.

3.9.9 Uplift Loads

Under the influence of seismic actions, it is possible for the feet of racks to exert uplift forces onto
the slab. Many industrial racking systems are designed with yielding base plates that limit the uplift
force on the slab. Commonly the uplift is limited to 10kN, though the seismic design philosophy
may vary with different manufacturers. The slab designer should consult with potential racking
system suppliers to determine an appropriate philosophy for the project.
The formulae developed by Westergaard remain valid while the slab is in contact with the ground. If
uplift occurs, Westergaard’s analysis is no longer applicable and the required thickness of the slab
will need to be determined by computer or rational analysis. Uplift for a single load point occurs
when the displacement under the load point exceeds the self-weight settlement of the slab. The
following tables have been derived to determine the load at which uplift occurs for various
combinations of modulus of sub-grade reaction, concrete compressive strength, and slab thickness,

36
when the load is applied a reasonable distance from the slab edge. The information is provided as
guidance for determining when Westergaard’s analysis is still an appropriate analysis tool.

Table 3.4 Single point load uplift force where displacement equals self weight settlement.
Loaded radius =70mm, f’c=25MPa

Critical Uplift force, kN

f’c=25MPa Soil modulus of sub-grade reaction, MN/m3

Thickness, mm 15 37 54 68

100 7.07 4.18 3.37 3.79

125 12.33 7.82 7.04 5.28

150 19.42 12.74 10.78 8.79

175 28.53 17.63 15.51 13.06

200 39.81 25.44 21.29 18.59

250 69.5 43.5 36.32 33.36

300 109.57 68.18 56.38 53.55

Table 3.5 Single point load uplift force where displacement equals self weight settlement.
Loaded radius =70mm, f’c=35MPa
Critical Uplift force, kN

f’c=35MPa Soil modulus of sub-grade reaction, MN/m3

Thickness, mm 15 37 54 68

100 7.51 4.44 4.02 3.58

125 13.1 8.25 7.48 6.12

150 20.63 13.53 11.45 9.72

175 30.31 18.73 16.47 14.29

200 42.3 27.03 22.62 19.92

250 73.85 46.22 38.59 34.74

300 116.4 72.45 59.91 54.78

Table 3.6 Single point load uplift force where displacement equals self weight settlement.
Loaded radius =70mm, f’c=45MPa
Critical Uplift force, kN

f’c=45MPa Soil modulus of sub-grade reaction, MN/m3

Thickness, mm 15 37 54 68

100 7.87 5.03 4.16 3.72

125 13.72 8.76 7.27 6.36

150 21.63 13.8 11.44 10.19

175 31.78 20.26 16.79 14.98

200 44.34 28.27 23.42 20.88

250 77.41 49.35 40.86 36.41

300 122.06 77.78 64.39 57.42

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 37
3 ground floor thickness

3.9.10 TABLES OF CALCULATED SLAB THICKNESS FOR INTERNAL LOADING

CONDITION
The following tables provide the calculated slab on ground thickness for various rack and wheel
loading geometries, and soil/concrete strengths. Refer to Chapter 6 for examples using these tables.
The following assumptions have been made in determining the tables:

Assumptions-
• The slab is founded on 150mm of granular hard fill above a sub-grade with the tabled CBR
• Fatigue is not a consideration for rack loading, ie. the expected number of load repetitions is less
than 8,000.
• The relationship between CBR and modulus of sub-grade reaction, modified for the presence of
the hardfill for the rack loads only, is as defined in section 3.4
• The loaded area from the base plate of racks A = 15,400mm2 giving an equivalent radius of
loaded area for the interior load case r = 70mm. r = A / π
• For back-to-back racks the combined radius of the loaded area for the two adjacent load points is
100mm.
• The longitudinal spacing of the racking system legs is 2.7m.
• For forklift loads, single wheel axles are assumed, with wheel spacing as defined in Table 2.1, and
tyre pressures of 700kPa.
• The load factor is 1.5. Note the load P in the following tables is the unfactored or ‘working load’,
to which a load factor of 1.5 has been applied to determine the slab thickness.
• Tensile stresses due to restrained shrinkage are negligible.
• Load applied after 90 days.
• The tables show the calculated thickness rounded to the nearest 5mm. This is sufficient accuracy
to show the influence of different load combinations and concrete strengths. However, for
construction purposes it is normal to specify the floor thickness in increments of 25mm.
• The tables give the required thickness for f ’c of 25, 35, and 45MPa. The selection of the
appropriate design compressive strength is in many instances determined from durability
requirements. With the minimum required f ’c selected, the tables can be used to determine the
required pavement thickness.
• For the edge and corner load cases, the terms ‘dowels’ and ‘no dowels’ are used. Dowels should be
interpreted to mean that load transfer occurs across the joint by either mechanical devises such as
dowels, or by aggregate interlock. However aggregate interlock will not occur if the joint opens
up by more than 1mm. No dowels should be interpreted to mean that no load transfer occurs
between adjacent slabs.

Notes on the above assumptions-

• When the load application area is small, the presence of the stiff granular hardfill increases the
apparent modulus of sub-grade reaction of the foundation material. However, as the loaded area
increases, the significance of the stiffening enhancement diminishes. In the following tables, the
150 mm layer of compacted granular material was only considered for the racking system load
case. For wheel loads the presence of the hardfill has been ignored when determining an
appropriate modulus of sub-grade reaction.
• Tensile stresses in the slab caused by restrained drying shrinkage are assumed to be negligible.
This is a common assumption but is strictly only true when joints are provided at regular centres,
and are not constrained. Drying shrinkage tensile stresses can be evaluated by estimating the
magnitude of the frictional forces that develop along the soil/slab interface. If the calculated
stresses indicate that these forces are not insignificant, then either the thickness can be calculated
by superimposing the drying shrinkages stresses, or the stresses can be reduced by reducing the
coefficient of friction or increasing the number of joints.

38
Table 3.7 Slab thickness for interior loading, single racks, with 150mm of hardfill
Slab thickness (mm) for f’c28=
Sub-grade k modified for
CBR % hardfill MN/m3 Load P (kN) Distance x (mm) 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

800 160 145 130

40
1200 155 140 125

800 200 175 160

2 20.5 60
1200 190 170 155

800 230 205 190

80
1200 220 195 180

800 155 140 125

40
1200 150 135 120

800 190 170 160

5 46 60
1200 185 165 150

800 220 200 180

80
1200 210 190 175

800 150 135 125

40
1200 150 130 120

800 190 170 155

10 65 60
1200 180 165 150

800 220 195 180

80
1200 210 190 175

800 150 130 120

40
1200 145 130 120

800 185 165 155

20 80 60
1200 180 160 150

800 215 195 180

80
1200 210 190 170

800 140 125 115

40
1200 135 120 110

800 180 160 145

80 160 60
1200 175 155 140

800 210 185 170

80
1200 200 180 165

Refer start of this section for assumptions and notes

2.7 2.7

P P P
x

P P P

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 39
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.8 Slab thickness for interior loading, back to back racks, with 150mm of hardfill
Slab thickness (mm) for f’c28=
Sub-grade k modified for
CBR % hardfill MN/m3 Load P (kN) Distance x (mm) 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

800 225 200 185

40
1200 210 190 175

800 280 250 230

2 20.5 60
1200 270 240 220

800 330 295 270

80
1200 315 280 260

800 215 190 175

40
1200 205 185 170

800 265 240 220

5 46 60
1200 250 225 210

800 310 280 255

80
1200 295 265 240

800 210 190 170

40
1200 200 180 165

800 260 235 215

10 65 60
1200 250 225 205

800 300 270 250

80
1200 290 260 240

800 210 185 170

40
1200 200 180 165

800 260 230 215

20 80 60
1200 250 220 205

800 300 270 250

80
1200 285 260 240

800 200 180 160

40
1200 195 170 155

800 250 225 205

80 160 60
1200 240 215 200

800 290 260 240

80
1200 280 250 230

Refer start of this section for assumptions and notes.

2.7 2.7
x
x

40
Table 3.9 Slab thickness for interior wheel loads for various forklift capacities & load repetitions with CBR=2 %

Slab thickness (mm) for f’c28=

k unmodified for Rated capacity Load
CBR % hardfill MN/m3 (Tonnes) Repetitions 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

>400,000 160 140 125

200,000 150 130 120

2.5 100,000 150 130 115

50,000 140 125 115

<8,000 130 115 105

>400,000 180 160 145

200,000 175 150 140

3.5 100,000 170 150 135

50,000 165 145 130

<8,000 150 135 120

>400,000 205 180 160

200,000 195 170 155

2 15 4.5 100,000 190 165 150

50,000 180 160 145

<8,000 170 150 135

>400,000 285 250 230

200,000 270 240 215

9 100,000 265 235 210

50,000 260 225 205

<8,000 240 210 190

>400,000 350 310 280

200,000 335 290 265

13 100,000 325 285 260

50,000 315 275 250

<8,000 290 255 230

Refer start of this section for assumptions and notes.

The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 41
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.10 Slab thickness for interior wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=5 %

Slab thickness (mm) for f’c28=

k unmodified for Rated capacity Load
CBR % hardfill MN/m3 (Tonnes) Repetitions 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

5 37 >400,000 145 125 115

200,000 140 120 110

2.5 100,000 135 120 105

50,000 130 115 105

<8,000 120 105 95

>400,000 170 145 130

200,000 160 140 125

3.5 100,000 155 135 120

50,000 150 130 120

<8,000 140 120 110

>400,000 190 165 150

200,000 180 155 140

4.5 100,000 175 150 135

50,000 170 145 130

<8,000 155 135 120

>400,000 260 230 210

200,000 250 220 195

9 100,000 245 215 190

50,000 235 205 185

<8,000 220 190 170

>400,000 320 280 255

200,000 305 265 240

13 100,000 295 260 235

50,000 285 250 225

<8,000 265 230 205

Refer start of this section for assumptions and notes.

The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.

42
Table 3.11 Slab thickness for interior wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=10 %

Slab thickness (mm) for f’c28=

k unmodified for Rated capacity Load
CBR % hardfill MN/m3 (Tonnes) Repetitions 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

>400,000 140 120 110

200,000 135 115 105

2.5 100,000 130 115 105

50,000 125 110 100

<8,000 115 100 90

>400,000 160 140 125

200,000 155 135 120

3.5 100,000 150 130 120

50,000 145 125 115

<8,000 135 115 105

>400,000 180 155 140

200,000 170 150 135

10 54 4.5 100,000 165 145 130

50,000 160 140 125

<8,000 150 130 115

>400,000 250 220 200

200,000 240 210 190

9 100,000 235 205 185

50,000 225 195 175

<8,000 210 180 160

>400,000 310 270 240

200,000 290 255 230

13 100,000 285 250 225

50,000 275 240 215

<8,000 255 220 200

Refer start of this section for assumptions and notes.

The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 43
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.12 Slab thickness for interior wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=20 %

Slab thickness (mm) for f’c28=

k unmodified for Rated capacity Load
CBR % hardfill MN/m3 (Tonnes) Repetitions 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa

>400,000 135 120 110

200,000 130 115 105

2.5 100,000 125 110 100

50,000 120 110 95

<8,000 115 100 90

>400,000 155 140 125

200,000 150 130 120

3.5 100,000 145 130 115

50,000 140 125 110

<8,000 130 115 100

>400,000 175 155 140

200,000 165 145 130

20 68 4.5 100,000 160 140 130

50,000 155 135 125

<8,000 145 125 115

>400,000 245 215 195

200,000 235 205 180

9 100,000 225 195 180

50,000 220 190 170

<8,000 200 175 155

>400,000 300 260 235

200,000 285 245 220

13 100,000 275 240 215

50,000 265 230 210

<8,000 245 210 190

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.

44
3.9.11 Tables of calculated slab thickness for edge loading condition

The following tables provide the calculated slab on ground thickness for various rack loading
geometries, and soil/concrete strengths where the load is applied at the edge of the slab. The
assumptions made in determining the tables are identical to those defined in section 3.9.10.

Table 3.13 Slab thickness for edge loading, single racks, with 150mm of hardfill
Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=
Sub-grade
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % Load P Distance x
[k,MN/m3] [kN] [mm] No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

800 195 180 175 165 160 150

40
1200 190 175 170 155 155 145

2 800 240 220 215 200 200 185

60
[20.5] 1200 230 215 210 195 190 180

800 275 255 250 230 230 215

80
1200 265 250 240 225 220 205

800 190 175 170 160 160 145

40
1200 185 170 165 155 155 145

5 800 235 215 210 195 195 180

60
[46] 1200 225 210 205 190 190 175

800 270 250 240 225 225 210

80
1200 260 240 235 220 215 200

800 190 175 170 155 155 145

40
1200 185 170 165 150 150 140

10 800 230 215 210 195 190 180

60
[65] 1200 225 210 200 190 185 175

800 265 245 240 225 220 205

80
1200 260 240 235 215 215 200

800 190 170 170 155 155 140

40
1200 185 170 165 150 150 140

20 800 230 215 205 190 190 175

60
[80] 1200 225 205 200 185 185 175

800 265 245 240 220 220 205

80
1200 260 240 230 215 215 200

800 180 165 160 145 145 135

40
1200 175 160 155 140 140 130

80 800 225 205 200 185 185 170

60
[160] 1200 220 200 195 180 180 155

800 260 240 235 215 215 200

80
1200 255 235 230 210 210 195

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes; refer Table 3.7 for definition of x.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 45
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.14 Slab thickness for edge loading, back to back racks, with 150mm of hardfill
Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=
Sub-grade 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % Load P Distance x
[k,MN/m3] [kN] [mm] No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

800 285 255 255 230 230 210

40
1200 270 240 240 215 220 200

2 800 365 330 325 300 300 270

60
[20.5] 1200 340 310 305 280 280 255

800 430 390 385 355 355 325

80
1200 400 365 360 330 330 300

800 260 240 235 215 215 195

40
1200 250 230 225 205 205 190

5 800 335 300 300 270 270 245

60
[46] 1200 315 290 285 260 260 235

800 395 360 355 325 325 295

80
1200 370 340 335 305 305 280

800 255 230 230 205 210 190

40
1200 245 225 220 200 200 185

10 800 320 290 290 265 265 240

60
[65] 1200 310 280 275 255 255 230

800 380 345 345 310 315 285

80
1200 360 330 325 300 300 270

800 250 225 225 205 205 185

40
1200 240 220 215 195 200 180

20 800 315 285 285 260 260 235

60
[80] 1200 305 275 275 250 250 230

800 370 340 335 305 305 280

80
1200 355 325 320 295 295 270

800 235 215 210 190 190 175

40
1200 230 210 205 190 190 170

80 800 300 270 265 240 245 220

60
[160] 1200 290 265 260 235 240 215

800 350 320 315 290 290 260

80
1200 340 310 305 280 280 255

Refer to section 3.9.10 for assumptions and the next page for notes.

46
A:
x x Notes:
Slab edge • For the assumption outlined in section
3.9.10, arrangement A is critical and
governs the required thickness.
• The thickness required for arrangement
C can be determined from Table 3.13,

2.7
single racks for edge loading:
• where no dowels are used, use the
‘No Dowel’ column of Table 3.13;
• where dowels are used, load transfer
between the two slabs will occur. The

2.7
transfer back and forth cancels any
stress reduction so that the no dowel
column in Table 3.13 should be used
to determine the required thickness.

B: Slab edge

x
x

2.7 2.7

C:
x

Joint
x

2.7 2.7

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 47
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.15 Slab thickness for edge wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=2 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 195 180 170 155 155 140

200,000 185 170 165 150 150 135

2.5 100,000 180 165 160 145 145 130

50,000 175 160 155 140 140 125

<8,000 165 150 145 130 130 115

>400,000 225 210 200 180 180 165

200,000 215 200 190 175 170 155

3.5 100,000 210 195 185 170 170 155

50,000 205 185 180 165 160 145

<8,000 190 170 165 150 150 135

>400,000 255 235 225 205 205 185

200,000 240 220 215 195 195 175

2
4.5 100,000 235 215 210 190 190 170
[15]
50,000 230 210 200 185 180 165

<8,000 210 195 185 170 170 155

>400,000 370 335 320 295 290 265

200,000 345 320 305 280 275 255

9 100,000 340 310 295 275 270 245

50,000 325 300 285 265 260 235

<8,000 305 275 265 245 240 220

>400,000 450 415 395 365 360 330

200,000 430 395 430 345 340 310

13 100,000 420 385 370 335 335 305

50,000 405 370 355 325 320 295

<8,000 375 345 330 300 300 270

Refer to section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance. 25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired
abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8. The use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer
along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

48
 Table 3.16 Slab thickness for edge wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=5 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 180 165 155 145 145 130

200,000 170 155 150 135 135 120

2.5 100,000 165 150 145 130 130 120

50,000 160 145 140 125 125 115

<8,000 150 135 130 115 115 105

>400,000 210 190 185 165 165 150

200,000 200 180 175 160 155 140

3.5 100,000 195 175 170 155 155 140

50,000 185 170 165 150 145 135

<8,000 175 155 150 135 135 120

>400,000 235 215 205 185 185 170

200,000 220 200 195 175 175 160

5
4.5 100,000 215 200 190 170 170 155
[37]
50,000 210 190 185 165 165 150

<8,000 195 175 170 155 150 135

>400,000 335 305 295 265 265 240

200,000 320 290 280 255 250 230

9 100,000 310 285 270 245 245 225

50,000 300 275 260 235 235 215

<8,000 275 250 240 220 220 200

>400,000 415 380 360 330 330 300

200,000 395 360 345 315 310 280

13 100,000 385 350 335 305 305 275

50,000 370 340 325 295 290 265

<8,000 345 310 300 270 270 245

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes. The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8. The
use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 49
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.17 Slab thickness for edge wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=10 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 175 155 150 135 135 125

200,000 165 150 145 130 130 115

2.5 100,000 160 145 140 125 125 115

50,000 155 140 135 120 120 110

<8,000 140 130 125 110 110 100

>400,000 200 185 175 160 160 145

200,000 190 175 165 150 150 135

3.5 100,000 185 170 160 145 145 130

50,000 180 160 155 140 140 125

<8,000 165 150 145 130 130 115

>400,000 225 205 195 180 180 160

200,000 215 195 185 170 170 150

10
4.5 100,000 210 190 180 165 165 150
[54]
50,000 200 180 175 160 160 140

<8,000 185 170 160 145 145 130

>400,000 325 295 280 255 255 230

200,000 305 280 265 240 240 220

9 100,000 300 270 260 235 235 215

50,000 285 260 250 225 225 205

<8,000 265 240 230 210 210 190

>400,000 400 365 350 315 315 285

200,000 380 345 330 300 300 270

13 100,000 370 335 320 290 290 265

50,000 360 320 310 280 280 250

<8,000 330 300 285 260 255 230

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes. The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8. The
use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

50
 Table 3.18 Slab thickness for edge wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=20 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 170 155 145 130 130 120

200,000 160 145 140 125 125 115

2.5 100,000 155 140 135 120 120 110

50,000 150 135 130 115 115 105

<8,000 140 125 120 110 110 95

>400,000 195 180 170 155 150 140

200,000 185 170 160 145 145 130

3.5 100,000 180 165 160 140 140 125

50,000 175 160 150 135 135 120

<8,000 165 145 140 125 125 110

>400,000 220 200 190 175 175 155

200,000 210 190 180 165 165 145

20
4.5 100,000 205 185 175 160 160 145
[68]
50,000 195 175 170 155 155 135

<8,000 180 160 155 140 140 125

>400,000 315 285 275 250 250 225

200,000 300 270 260 235 235 210

9 100,000 290 265 255 230 230 205

50,000 280 255 245 255 220 195

<8,000 260 235 225 200 200 180

>400,000 390 355 340 305 305 275

200,000 370 335 320 290 290 260

13 100,000 360 325 315 285 280 255

50,000 345 310 300 270 270 245

<8,000 320 290 280 250 250 225

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes. The above table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8. The
use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 51
3 ground floor thickness

3.9.12 Tables of calculated slab thickness for corner loading condition

The following tables provide the calculated slab on ground thickness for various rack loading
geometries, and soil/concrete strengths where the load is applied at the corner of the slab. The
assumptions made in determining the tables are identical to those defined in section 3.9.10.

Table 3.19 Slab thickness for corner loading, single racks, with 150mm of hardfill
Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=
Sub-grade
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % Load P
[k,MN/m3] [kN] No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

40 215 175 190 160 175 145

2 [20.5] 60 265 220 240 200 220 180

80 310 260 280 230 255 210

40 205 170 185 150 170 135

5 [46] 60 260 215 230 190 210 175

80 305 250 270 225 250 205

40 205 165 180 145 165 135

10 [65] 60 255 210 230 185 210 170

80 310 250 270 220 245 200

40 200 165 180 145 165 135

20 [80] 60 255 210 225 185 205 170

80 310 245 265 220 245 200

40 195 155 170 140 155 130

80 [160] 60 245 200 220 175 200 160

80 290 235 260 210 235 190

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

2.7 2.7
Slab edge

*
800 – 1200

*
* included only if increases critical stress

52
 Table 3.20 Slab thickness for corner wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=2 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 195 160 170 140 160 130

200,000 185 150 165 135 150 125

2.5 100,000 180 150 160 130 150 120

50,000 175 145 155 130 145 115

<8,000 165 135 145 120 135 110

>400,000 225 185 200 160 180 150

200,000 215 175 190 155 175 140

3.5 100,000 210 170 185 150 170 140

50,000 205 165 180 145 165 135

<8,000 190 155 170 135 155 125

>400,000 250 205 220 180 200 165

200,000 240 195 210 170 195 160

2
4.5 100,000 235 190 205 170 190 155
[15]
50,000 225 185 200 165 185 150

<8,000 210 170 185 155 170 140

>400,000 345 285 310 250 280 230

200,000 330 270 295 240 270 220

9 100,000 325 265 290 235 265 215

50,000 315 255 280 225 255 210

<8,000 295 240 260 210 240 195

>400,000 420 345 375 305 340 280

200,000 400 330 365 290 325 265

13 100,000 395 320 350 285 320 260

50,000 380 310 340 275 310 255

<8,000 355 290 315 255 290 235

Refer to section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

This table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.
The use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 53
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.21 Slab thickness for corner wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=5 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated
25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 185 155 165 135 150 125

200,000 180 145 160 130 145 120

2.5 100,000 175 145 155 125 140 115

50,000 170 140 150 120 135 110

<8,000 160 130 140 115 130 105

>400,000 215 178 190 155 175 140

200,000 205 165 180 150 165 135

3.5 100,000 200 165 180 145 160 135

50,000 195 160 170 140 155 130

<8,000 180 150 160 130 145 120

>400,000 240 195 210 170 195 160

200,000 230 185 200 165 185 150

5
4.5 100,000 225 180 200 160 180 150
[37]
50,000 215 175 190 155 175 145

<8,000 200 165 180 145 165 135

>400,000 330 270 295 240 270 220

200,000 315 260 280 225 255 210

9 100,000 310 250 275 225 250 205

50,000 300 245 265 215 240 200

<8,000 280 225 250 200 225 185

>400,000 400 325 355 290 325 265

200,000 385 310 340 275 310 255

13 100,000 375 305 335 270 305 245

50,000 365 295 320 260 295 240

<8,000 340 275 300 240 275 220

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

This table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.
The use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

54
 Table 3.22 Slab thickness for corner wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=10 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 185 150 165 130 150 120

200,000 175 145 155 125 140 115

2.5 100,000 170 140 150 125 140 115

50,000 165 135 145 120 135 110

<8,000 155 125 140 110 125 100

>400,000 210 170 185 150 170 140

200,000 200 165 180 145 165 135

3.5 100,000 195 160 175 140 160 130

50,000 190 155 170 135 155 125

<8,000 180 145 160 125 145 115

>400,000 235 190 205 170 190 155

200,000 225 180 200 160 180 150

10
4.5 100,000 220 180 195 155 175 145
[54]
50,000 210 170 190 150 170 140

<8,000 200 160 175 140 160 130

>400,000 325 265 285 230 260 215

200,000 310 250 275 220 250 205

9 100,000 305 245 270 215 245 200

50,000 295 235 260 210 235 190

<8,000 275 220 240 195 220 180

>400,000 395 320 350 280 315 260

200,000 375 305 330 265 300 245

13 100,000 370 295 325 260 295 240

50,000 355 285 315 250 285 230

<8,000 330 265 290 235 265 215

Refer to section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

This table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.
The use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 55
3 ground floor thickness

Table 3.23 Slab thickness for corner wheel loads for various forklift capacities and load repetitions with CBR=20 %

Slab thickness, mm, for f’c28=

Sub-grade Rated 25 MPa 35 MPa 45 MPa
CBR % capacity Load
[k,MN/m3] [Tonnes] repetitions No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels No Dowels Dowels

>400,000 180 150 160 130 145 120

200,000 175 140 155 125 140 115

2.5 100,000 170 140 150 120 135 110

50,000 165 135 145 120 135 110

<8,000 155 125 135 110 125 100

>400,000 210 170 185 150 170 135

200,000 200 160 175 140 160 130

3.5 100,000 195 160 170 140 155 130

50,000 190 155 165 135 150 120

<8,000 175 140 155 125 140 115

>400,000 230 190 205 165 185 150

200,000 220 180 195 160 180 145

20
4.5 100,000 215 175 190 155 175 140
[68]
50,000 210 170 185 150 170 135

<8,000 195 160 175 140 155 125

>400,000 320 260 285 230 260 210

200,000 305 245 270 220 245 200

9 100,000 300 240 265 215 240 195

50,000 290 235 255 205 235 190

<8,000 270 215 240 190 215 175

>400,000 390 315 340 275 315 250

200,000 370 300 325 260 300 240

13 100,000 360 290 320 255 290 235

50,000 350 280 310 245 280 225

<8,000 335 260 285 230 260 210

Refer section 3.9.10 for assumptions and notes.

This table includes no consideration for abrasion resistance.
25 MPa concrete is unlikely to provide the desired abrasive resistance for the tabled forklifts, refer section 3.8.
The use of dowels, or similar, to achieve load transfer along the edge is recommended for vehicle load cases.

56
3.10 METHODS OF ANALYSIS – SHRINKAGE COMPENSATING CONCRETE
FLOORS
Shrinkage compensating concrete can be produced using expansive cements or expansive
components. The expansion occurs after the concrete has hardened, with the aim being that the
concrete expands an amount equal to, or slightly greater than the anticipated drying shrinkage.
Subsequent long term drying shrinkage will reduce these expansive strains but ideally a residual
expansion will remain in the concrete, which can, with appropriate reinforcement, eliminate
shrinkage cracking. Figure 3.15 gives a diagrammatic representation showing the sequence of
movements of a reinforced slab, cast on ground containing shrinkage compensating admixture.
Figure 3.16 illustrates conceptually the expansion/shrinkage characteristics of shrinkage
compensating concrete.

Figure 3.15 Diagrammatic representation showing sequence of movements of a reinforced

concrete slab, cast on the ground containing shrinkage-compensating admixture

Stage 1 – Immediately after casting

The state of stress before expansion

Stage 2 – After several days’ curing

Stresses and movements after expansion has occurred due
to the action of the shrinkage compensation admixture
Net expansion
Induced compression Restraint by reinforcement

Slippage
Subgrade frictional strain

Restraint by subgrade

Stage 3 – After several months’ drying out

Stresses and movements after shrinkage has occurred
Note the tendancy to counteract shrinkage compensation caused by
subgrade friction
Induced tension which could lead to cracking
Slippage

Subgrade frictional strain

Restraint by subgrade

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 57
3 ground floor thickness

Figure 3.16 Typical length change characteristics of shrinkage-compensating and Portland

cement concretes

MOIST CURE AIR DRY

7 DAYS
Shrinkage

Expansion
compensating
concrete
Length concrete

0
Contraction

Portland cement
concrete

Shrinkage reducing admixtures, which are also available, do not cause an initial expansion. This
section only considers the effects caused by shrinkage compensating admixtures or cements.
An excellent guide for the use of shrinkage compensating concrete is ACI 223-9826. This practice
guide is limited to shrinkage compensating concrete made using expansive cements.
The determination of the appropriate thickness for a floor slab using shrinkage compensating
concrete is identical to that for conventionally reinforced slab outlined in section 3.9. The main
advantage in using shrinkage compensating concrete is the reduction or elimination of joints and
shrinkage cracking in the interior of the floor slab. The design of floors using these materials focuses
on the positioning of joints, detailing to accommodate the expansion, and the required
reinforcement.
The expansion of the concrete places the reinforcement into tension. Upon drying and shrinking,
there is sometimes a small residual compression left in the concrete. This residual stress is ignored
when determining the slab thickness.
Expansion and long-term drying shrinkage characteristics of the available expansive additives vary.
The designer needs to ensure that the correct type is used for the given slab size. The larger the slab
the more critical it is to chose the correct additive to achieve the desired result.
Success of this system is dependent upon the careful consideration of a few key issues; in brief these
are-
It is important to ensure that the base below the floor is as smooth as practical. Two layers of
polythene are used to ensure that the coefficient of friction on the base is minimised.
The floor must be isolated from the structure to allow free expansion and shrinkage movement. This
is easily achieved with polystyrene between floor slab and columns.
Care should be taken to ensure adequate and consistent mixing of the additive in accordance with
the supplier’s recommendations. Additional care is necessary if more than one batching plant is
used, particularly if there are differences in the source of any of the component materials.
Wet curing is critical with some types of expansive cements to ensure optimum hydration.
It is recommended that the supplier of the expansive additive be consulted during the design phase
of the project.
Refer to Chapter 5 for the reinforcement of slabs constructed using shrinkage compensating
concrete.

58
3.11 METHODS OF ANALYSIS – POST-TENSIONED FLOORS
Post-tensioning is the application of a permanent compressive force to the concrete, achieved by
casting ducts in the slab and installing steel strands which are tensioned after the concrete has set.
This additional compressive force in the concrete can be used to offset both shrinkage stresses and
the applied load stress. The magnitude of residual compression is a function of the applied force,
friction losses, shrinkage, creep, steel relaxation and anchorage losses. Each tendon typically consists
of 3 or 4 strands in a sealed duct. The strand used is typically 12.7 mm diameter with a jacking load
of 149 kN (0.8 UTS) per strand, resulting in residual post-tensioning stress of up to 2 MPa after
losses. Typical losses are:
• Jacking and anchorage losses 4%
• Concrete Creep 2%
• Concrete Shrinkage 14%
• Steel Relaxation 2.5% (Low relaxation strand)
Friction between the strand and duct causes further losses which are a function of the tendon
length, and result in the tensile force varying along the tendon.
Concrete shrinkage commences almost immediately after pouring, so the post-tensioning force
must be applied incrementally as the concrete strength increases. The initial post-tensioning force of
15%-20% of the design force is applied within 1-2 days of pouring and must be sufficient to
overcome friction between the slab and sub-grade. A low coefficient of sub-grade friction is assured
by providing two layers of polythene under the slab.
The full design post-tensioning force cannot be applied until the concrete reaches full strength. The
ducts are grouted after stressing is completed.
The thickness determination of a post-tensioned slab uses the method outlined in section 3.9.
However, the residual post-tensioning stress significantly enhances the tensile strength of the slab
section, with the resulting allowable tensile stress being:
Modulus of Rupture + Residual Post-tensioning Stress
Success of this system is dependent upon the careful consideration of a few key issues. In brief these
are:
• It is important to ensure that the base below the floor is as smooth as practical. Two layers of
polythene are used to ensure that the coefficient of friction on the base is minimised.
• Additional test cylinders are taken to monitor the early age strength gain of the concrete. It is also
important to cure these cylinders on site in conditions that are similar to those encountered by
the floor slab.
• The floor must be isolated from the structure to allow free shrinkage movement. This is easily
achieved with polystyrene between floor slab and columns.

3.12 METHODS OF ANALYSIS – FIBRE REINFORCED FLOORS

Fibres can be categorised into two main groups, steel fibres and alkali resistant polypropylene fibres.
Polypropylene fibres are added to concrete to provide resistance to plastic cracking. They do not
provide effective strength for resistance against drying shrinkage or applied load stresses.
Steel fibres provide additional structural strength and robustness to the concrete slab. Steel fibres
come in various shapes and aspect ratios, each with its own performance properties.
In this section we only consider steel fibres.
The thickness determination of steel fibre reinforced floors typically uses a Meyerhof analysis rather
than Westergaard’s. Meyerhof ’s16 work is based on yield line theory, which is appropriate when the
slab has ductility – the ability to maintain moment capacity for rotations beyond the ultimate
capacity. Fibre reinforced slabs have this ability while conventionally reinforced slabs do not. In this
section, some background information is provided on the analysis of slabs using Meyerhof analysis.
In depth discussion is not provided as the industry norm for fibre-reinforced floors is for the fibre

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 59
3 ground floor thickness

or ready mix supplier to provide a dose/thickness advisory service. Excellent software packages exist
for the design of fibre reinforced floors.
Figure 3.17 illustrates the yield line pattern for a point load acting in the interior portion of a slab.

Figure 3.17 Failure line diagram

P
for a slab on soil and the Circular crack
assumed soil pressure
distribution under the slab c
t
The pressure distribution may be
r0
assumed to have a form represented
by a straight line between the peak
p0
value and the position of the
r0
circular crack. p
t 0

For flexure Meyerhof gives the following m

equation for the collapse load:
c m
  2a   dθ
Po = 6 1 +  r   Mo [Equation 3.9]
  L  r

Where:
L = radius of elasticity
a r = contact radius of load

P [Equation 3.10]
ar =
πΓ

Where:
P = wheel load
Γ = tyre pressure

  Re, 3   f ct bh 2 
M o = 1 +   x   [Equation 3.11]
  100   6 

Where:
fct = flexural strength of unreinforced concrete
b = 1m
h = thickness of the slab
Re,3= equivalent flexural strength ratio

Design values for Re,3 are obtained by beam tests in accordance with the test procedure laid down in
TR345 for a deflection of up to 3mm on a 450mm span beam. This test method is based on the
Japanese standard (JSCE-SF4).
The values for Re,3 are specific to the shape, strength, and aspect ratio and dosage of the steel fibre.
The manufacturer should be consulted to obtain appropriate values. Some suppliers of fibre
concrete have design software packages which will allow the thickness to be determined for various
load positions and combinations.
Reduced slab thickness, increased spacing between joint, better crack control and possible economic
savings in cost and time of construction of the slab, are all potential benefits of the use of steel fibres
in slabs on ground.

60
3.13

Construction Type 1



150
75

250

300
Typical
thicknesses

Varies

Construction Type 2

Typical
thicknesses

150

250

300

Varies

Construction Type 3

150

250

300
Typical
thicknesses

Varies




ANALYSIS OF COLD STORE FLOORS
Cold store floors are normally laid on top of polystyrene, which provides thermal insulation. The
thickness determination of these concrete floors uses the approach identified in section 3.9, however
the soil modulus requires modification to allow for the polystyrene.
Figure 3.18 illustrates three typical profiles for a cold room floor.

Figure 3.18 Typical cold store floor construction

Steel fabric (if used)

Concrete base slab

Steel fabric (if used)

Steel fabric (if used)

Sub-base

Imported fill material

Sub-grade

Sub-base

Imported fill material

Sub-grade

Concrete base slab

Imported fill material

Sub-grade
Wearing slab
Slip membrane

2 layers insulant

Vapour barrier

Frost heave
prevention in screed
Slip membrane

Wearing slab

Slip membrane
2 layers insulant
Vapour barrier
Frost heave prevention
in base slab
Slip membrane

Wearing slab

Slip membrane

2 layers insulant

Vapour barrier

Slip membrane

Sub-base incorporating
ventilation pipes for
frost prevention

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 61
3 ground floor thickness

The determination of the thickness of the wearing slab involves:

• Establish the modulus of reaction of the sub-grade.
• Establish the enhancement to the modulus of sub-grade reaction of the fill material, refer Figure
3.1
• Establish the enhancement to the modulus of the base slab and heater mat protection by
assuming an equivalent thickness of cement bonded subbase, refer Figure 3.1
• Establish the reduction of modulus of reaction of the heater mat screed due to the insulant layer.
Refer Table 3.24
• Determine thickness in accordance with section 3.9
Designers should note that concrete will not gain strength below 0ºC. 90 day concrete strengths are
commonly used for many industrial complexes, and this assumption is made for the tables in
section 3.9, however, this may not be appropriate for a freezer floor. The use of 90 day strengths in
the design should be carefully considered in relation to the time at which the cold store is reduced to
0ºC.

Table 3.24 Typical properties of various insulating materials

Equivalent Westergaard
Modulus (MN/m3) as a function
of insulation thickness, m
Product name Manufacturer Type of insulation
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Styrofoam IB 120 60 40 30 24 Dow Extruded

polystyrene

Styrofoam SP 264 132 88 66 53 Dow Extruded

polystyrene

Styrofoam HD300 378 189 126 95 76 Dow Extruded

polystyrene

The thickness determination of the wearing slab of a cold room floor is only one aspect of the
design of cold room floors. Reference 18 provides some guidance on other design issues.
The concrete used for these types of floors must have freeze thaw resistance. Guidance on
appropriate air entrainment rates is provided in Part 12.
The concrete in freezer floors is placed at a high temperature relative to its later use. The concrete
should be allowed to cure and start to dry before lowering the temperature.
When temperature draw down does occur, it is recommended19 that the draw down should be
gradual to control cracking caused by differential thermal contraction. A typical draw down
schedule might be as follows:
• Ambient to 2ºC 5ºC per day
• Hold at 2ºC For 2 to 5 days
• 2ºC to final 5ºC per day
The low operating temperatures of cold room floors mean that joints will open more than in typical
floors. Appropriate detailing will be required to accommodate this.
Sudden changes in stiffness of the material supporting the wearing slab can result in failure. At the
transition between insulated and uninsulated slabs, at doors or ribbon insulation, appropriate
details are required to ensure a gradual transition from one type of floor construction to the other.
The detailing of insulation and heater mat at doors requires careful detailing. Options are provided
in reference 18.

62
 4

joints
 4 joints

Chapter 4
Joints
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Part 12 of this guide provides detailed information on:
• The different types of joints
• Joint layout
• Relationship between reinforcement and joint layout
• Joint sealants
• Joint protection
• Saw cuts
• Design examples
Excluded from Part 1 were joints when the continuous pour method was used, and for post-
tensioned and shrinkage compensating concrete floors. These are covered in this chapter.

4.2 JOINTS FOR THE CONTINUOUS POUR METHOD

The continuous pour method is illustrated in Figure 4.1. This construction method requires the use
of temporary forms or wet screeds to achieve the surface level control. Alternatively specialist laser
controlled placing machines are used, refer Figure 4.2

Figure 4.1 Pavement construction methods

;;
yy;;
yyy
; yyyyyy
;;;;;;@@


;;
yy
NOTE: Joint details and reinforcement Direction

;;;
yyy
yy
;;;;
yy
;;
yy;;
yy yyyyyy
;;;;;;@@


;;
yy
have been omitted for clarity of placing

yy


@@
;; ;
@@


;;
yy
@@@


;;;
yyy ;
yy
;;
;;;
yyy
;;
yy yy
;;
;;
yy;;
yy yyyyyy
;;;;;;
@@@


;;;
yyy
@@@


;;;
yyy
yyyyyy
;;;;;;
@@@


;;;
yyy Direction

@@@


;;;
yyy
of placing

;;yy
yy;; @@@


;;;
yyy
LONG-STRIP METHOD (preferred) CONTINUOUS-POUR METHOD

64
Figure 4.2 A laserscreed machine at work

The spacing requirements for both free movement joints, and tied joints (saw cuts) are as specified
in Part 12. The joint spacing required is identical to those for the long strip method. This is
understandable as continuous pouring is simply a construction method and does not alter the
physical properties of the concrete. The method does however require some thought on how the
free movement joints are going to be achieved.
Several alternatives exist for the construction of the free movement joints. Some discussion of these
options follows:
• Crack inducers: These typically are placed at the bottom of the pour and induce a crack in the
slab during drying. To prevent movement during construction, they should be stiff. The crack
created will resemble a drying shrinkage crack.
• Screed rails: These are more commonly used for the long strip construction method but are also
used for the continuous pour construction technique. They can be combined with dowels for
increased load transfer across the joint.
• Dowel and saw cut: A free movement joint can be created by providing a break in the
reinforcement, providing a saw cut, and using a dowel with one end debonded. The dowel should
be placed at mid height of the slab, and securely positioned to prevent movement during
concrete placing.
• Armoured edging: Vehicle movement over joints can result in edge break. Joints are particularly
vulnerable when solid tyred vehicles are used, and the opening of the joints exceeds 2-3mm. In
these circumstances the trafficked edges should be armoured with steel angles or a proprietary
system. The armouring may also be utilised as a screed rail to improve level accuracy.
The solution that is appropriate for a particular design problem will depend upon the joint spacing
and the traffic load. When a free movement joint is expected to open more than 1mm, the transfer
of load by aggregate interlock is lost. In heavily trafficked situations, it is recommended that one end
debonded dowels should be used across these joints. This has economic advantages as the thickness
of the slab can be reduced (refer Chapter 3), and it also helps to alleviate problems with slab curl.
For continuous construction, the dowels are often required to be able to allow both longitudinal and
transverse movement across the joint. Square dowels or plate dowels can accommodate this. Often,
most of the drying shrinkage movement will occur at the free movement joints even though
intermediate tied joint will exist. The edge protection of these joints needs consideration. When
solid tyred pallet trucks are used, it is recommended that the trafficked free movement joints be
protected with steel.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 65
 4 joints

4.3 JOINTS FOR POST-TENSIONED SLABS

The use of post-tensioning eliminates all movement joints and saw cuts within each slab and
ensures that all shrinkage movement is concentrated at the slab perimeter. The combination of post-
tensioning and long-term concrete shrinkage will result in a typical 50-metre slab reducing in length
by up to 40mm.
Joint-free post-tensioned slabs up to 100 metres square (10,000m2) can be constructed in a single
pour. However, outside of the main centres, the concrete supply and placing resources are often the
critical factor limiting slab size. Where multiple slabs are used, the adjacent slabs are usually
dowelled and edge armoured. After completion of shrinkage movement the joint may be completed
with a compression seal or similar.
If a free joint between slabs is unacceptable the tendon layout may be arranged to provide a
compressive load across the slab interface, thereby effectively eliminating the joint. In this case the
slabs should be poured within a few days of each other to minimize differential shrinkage
movement along the slab interface.
To accommodate slab shrinkage movement without cracking it is essential that the slab is isolated
from all fixed structural items such as footings, columns and wall panels which may restrict
movement of the slab. Typically this is achieved by providing polystyrene packing to separate the
slab from these items.

4.4 JOINTS FOR SHRINKAGE COMPENSATING CONCRETE SLABS

The use of shrinkage compensating concrete allows the movement joints to be placed at greater
centres than conventionally reinforced concrete floors supported on the ground. The spacing of the
joints is primarily dependent upon the amount and characteristics of the expansion additive, and
the amount of reinforcement.
As the design philosophy is for the expansion to equal or exceed the expected drying shrinkage,
joints have to be designed to allow for the initial expansion. The joint is often filled with a
compressible material. ACI 223 suggests that the width of the joint gap should be twice the expected
contraction under expansion, and that the stress in the filler should be less than 172kPa when it has
compressed to half its original thickness.
In New Zealand joint free slabs of 55 x 56 m have been constructed using concrete incorporating
expansive cement. However, for large pours such as this the capacity of the local concrete supply and
placing resources should be checked. A more typical slab size using expansive cements in New
Zealand is 40m x 30m.
Saw cut joints between the isolation joints should not be required in a properly designed shrinkage
compensating concrete floor, as the concrete may have a small residual compressive stress after
drying shrinkage has occurred.
At isolation joints, particularly trafficked joints, the joints should be supported on ground beams, or
with dowels that provide for movement in two directions. The dowel selection must consider slab
dimensions and expected joint movement.

66
 5

reinforcement
 5 reinforcement

Chapter 5
Reinforcement
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Part 12 of this guideline provided information on the design and detailing of reinforcement in
jointed concrete pavements. The design philosophy for Part 1 pavements is based on pavements
reinforced against sub-base friction. Excluded from Part 1, or not commented on, and provided in
this section are recommendations on:
• Unreinforced jointed pavements
• The reinforcement of continuously reinforced pavements
• The reinforcement of floors constructed with expansive cements
• The reinforcement of post-tensioned floors
• Steel fibre reinforced concrete

5.2 REINFORCEMENT GENERAL

It is generally agreed that reinforcement below a certain amount serves no real purpose.
Recommendations on the magnitude of this minimum are sparse; however, based on experience and
available information, it is recommended that for jointed slabs a minimum of 0.1 % for high-yield
steel bars and welded-steel fabric, and 0.2% for deformed mild-steel bars.

5.2.1 LOCATION OF REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement should generally be located 40-50mm down from the surface. However, for post-
tensioned slabs, and shrinkage compensating slabs, the reinforcement is generally placed at the mid
depth of the slab.
Reinforcement should not cross free movement joints but terminate 75mm from them.

5.3 UNREINFORCED SLABS

This option is not recommended for slabs thinner than 150 mm. Joint spacing should not exceed 4
m. At the perimeter of the construction bay (e.g. long strip, wide strip or large area) joints should
preferably be provided with bars for load transfer, similar to as shown as FJ3 in Figure 1.22 of Part
12. At internal induced joints (similar to FJ2 of Figure 1.22, Part 1) load transfer relies upon
efficiency of aggregate interlock across the crack, which will reduce if the crack opens excessively.
Under heavy point loading, e.g. from racking legs, it may be necessary to improve load transfer by
incorporating debonded dowels at the internal joints.
Figure 5.1 illustrates a typical joint layout.
In jointed unreinforced pavements it maybe necessary to reinforce certain panels to control or
minimize the effect of cracking. Panels in which reinforcement should be provided include
irregularly shaped panels, panels in which the joints cannot be aligned with the joints in adjacent
panels, and panels containing pits, footings or block outs. These latter situations (where re-entrant
corners are introduced into the panels) will always require trimmer bars, especially across re-entrant
corners (this also applies to jointed reinforced slabs), refer Figure 5.2.
By definition, should any random cracking occur for any reason, it will be uncontrolled because of
the omission of reinforcement. Careful workmanship and curing are therefore especially necessary.
Totally unreinforced floors for commercial and industrial buildings have not been used to any great
extent in the NZ context although they are used in America and on the Continent.

68
 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2
Unreinforced slabs – possible joint layouts Re-entrant angles requiring additional steel

Bays ≤ 4m

Two 1.2m D12s for each angle

Bays ≤ 4m

Movement joints: indicates

induced contraction joint or FJ2 induced
dowel contraction joint

5.4 JOINTLESS CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED SLABS

The design of jointless continuously reinforced slabs derives from concrete road design. The
philosophy is to allow the slab to crack but limit the width of the cracks. Typically the aim is to limit
the width of the cracks to 0.2-0.3mm, with cracks occurring at 1-2 m centers. Although an
acceptable design philosophy for a road, the suitability of cracks in a warehouse floor must be
questioned and discussed with the owner.
The crack widths are mainly dependent upon the bond characteristics of the reinforcement, and the
shrinkage characteristics of the concrete. Equation 5.132 provides an estimate of the steel area
required to limit the crack widths.

( f 't fb )db (ε s + ε T )
ρ= [Equation 5.1]
2W

where:
ρ = Area of steel reinforcement/Gross cross sectional area of the concrete
f ' t fb = the ratio of direct tensile strength to the average bond strength between concrete
and steel. Typically 1.0 is assumed for plain bars, and 0.5 for deformed bars.
db = bar diameter
εs = Estimated shrinkage strain allowing for restraint caused by the reinforcement and
friction along the base. Where water reducing admixtures, and shrinkage reducing
agents are used to achieve a 28 day shrinkage of less than 450 microstrains when
tested in accordance with AS 1012 Part 13, this value is likely to be in the range
200 –300 microstrains. In some areas it may not be possible to achieve these low
shrinkages strains, in others it may be achievable but at a cost premium above
standard concrete mix design. An appropriate value to use in Equation 5.1 should
be determined with consultation with the local ready mix supplier.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 69
 5 reinforcement

εT = Estimated maximum thermal strain from peak hydration to lowest likely

temperature.
W = Maximum allowable crack width

To ensure that yielding of the steel does not occur at the crack, Equation 5.233 is used. This equation
was developed empirically from experience with continuously reinforced concrete pavements.

fct (1.3 − 0.2µ)

ρcrit = [Equation 5.2]
fsy − mfct

Where:
ρcrit = the minimum proportion of longitudinal reinforcement to match the design
concrete strength
fct = the concrete tensile strength. A value not exceeding 60% of the 28 day modulus of
rupture may be assumed.
µ = the coefficient of friction between the slab and the subbase
fsy = reinforcement yield stress
m = Es/Ec, typically about 7.5.
In this design the recommended minimum amount of reinforcement for slabs which exceed a
length or width of 60 m is 0.6%. For slab lengths below 60m, the required amount of reinforcement
may be determined from ground friction formulae. See section 3.3.3.1, p26 of the CCANZ
publication Concrete Ground Floors and Pavements Part 12.
The reinforcement is installed at mid-depth of the slab.

5.5 SHRINKAGE COMPENSATING CONCRETE FLOORS

Reinforcement should be placed in accordance with the expansive cement supplier’s
recommendations. Generally this requires reinforcing steel to be placed in the centre of the slab in
both directions.
The quantity of reinforcing required to achieve adequate prestress varies with the slab dimensions.
Suppliers can provide technical support to designers for the selected expansive additive.
A comprehensive commentary on reinforcing in shrinkage compensated floors may be found in ACI
223-98, which covers minimum reinforcement, reinforced slabs on grade and provides for design
examples in appendices [reference 26].

5.6 POST-TENSIONED FLOORS

Post-tensioned floors incorporate anchorages, cast into the slab edge, and connected to steel tendons
in ducts which traverse the length and width of the floor slab. The tendons are normally tensioned
in two stages. The first stage (alternate tendons) should be tensioned as early as possible after the
concrete reaches a crushing strength of about 15MPa. A final concrete compression stress of about
2MPa after deferred losses and elastic shortening will usually be sufficient to overcome slab sub-
grade friction and reduce or eliminate the formation of shrinkage cracking. All restraints to slab
movement should be eliminated prior to post-tensioning. The boundary edges of the slab should be
free to move without restraint as should movements past slab penetrations otherwise the pretension
compression will not be free to enter the slab.
Anchorage splitting reinforcing may be calculated by rule of thumb as follows. The area of
reinforcing to prevent concrete edge tension splitting adjacent to anchorages is calculated as 4% of
the anchorage force inducing mild steel stresses at a level of 150 MPa in the confining reinforcing
(working stress). Anchorage bursting reinforcement should be placed according to the
manufacturers recommendations.

70
The spacing of the anchorages at the edge of the slab should allow the development of uniform
compression stresses in as short a distance from the free slab edge as possible. Where ducts must be
curved to clear openings then friction and wobble calculations for curvature will become necessary.
This may require additional tendons to offset these curvature losses.
Reinforcing steel should be applied around openings and at any positions where differential strains
occur as between compressed and uncompressed concrete so that induced cracking is reduced or
eliminated.

5.7 FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOORS

5.7.2 GENERAL
Fibre-reinforced concrete is concrete made with hydraulic cements containing fine and coarse
aggregates and discontinuous steel fibres. The addition of steel fibres to cement, mortar and
concrete provides a means of improving several of their engineering properties, such as fatigue
resistance, impact resistance, flexural strength, etc. [27]

5.7.2 STEEL-FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE (SFRC) SLABS ON GRADE

The main advantages of SFRC include increased flexural strength, reduced cracking, and reduction
in slab thickness.

Steel fibre characteristics

Steel fibres are typically used in amounts up to about 50 kg/m3. They are produced by cutting or
chopping wire or by a melt-extraction process.

Design
Guidance on the design, construction and specification of SFRC floors may be obtained from
literature supplied by manufacturers29,44,45. Reference 28 recommends that control joints should be
sawn to a depth of at least one third of the slab thickness. On the other hand, ACI 544.3R30 suggests
that sawcuts should extend to a depth of one half to two thirds that of the slab.
While the utilization of SFRC slabs permits increases in joint spacing – up to 8m [29] joint spacing
is often not increased due to the location of columns, and the risk of joint spalling associated with
greater joint opening. (This effect could be minimized or eliminated by adopting dowelled joints.)
In some cases SFRC floors have been constructed without joints30.

Impact resistance
The use of steel fibres improves the impact resistance.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 71
72
 6

design examples
 6 design examples

Chapter 6
Design examples
6.1 CONVENTIONALLY REINFORCED SLAB SUBJECT TO FORKLIFT AND
UNIFORM LOADS

Design problem
Design a slab on ground for the following loads:
• A forklift with a 9 tonne capacity, with 100,000 load repetitions during the design life
• Uniform loads of 40 kPa acting over widths of 2m and an aisle width of 3m
Geotechnical investigation have revealed competent gravel to great depth with overlying sandy silts
with a CBR of 10%

Design analysis
We will assume that the loading and subsurface conditions have been examined and it has been
determined that the expected long-term settlements are acceptable. It is also assumed that the
bearing capacity of the soil will not impose restrictions on the allowable load on the slab.
The heavy forklift means that durability of the slab surface should be considered. The tyres of the
forklift are pneumatic, and using Table 1.2 as a guide, it is decided to use a design 28 day
compressive strength of 35 MPa.
The forklift will travel over joints, so it is decided to provide dowels at all joints.
The construction schedule means that the full design load will be applied after 90 days.
We will determine the required thickness using two approaches: using the tables provided in
Chapter 3 and by calculation.
Using Tables 3.11, 3.17 and 3.22 for a 9 tonne rated capacity forklift, f ’c28=35 MPa, dowelled joints,
and 100,000 repetitions provides the following required thicknesses:
• Load on the interior of the slab: 205 mm
• Load on the edge of the slab: 235 mm
• Load on the corner of the slab: 215 mm
Alternatively, 45 MPa concrete could be specified which will give improved durability, and reduced
thickness. The tables in Chapter 3 allow the designer to quickly determine the economic implication
of these sorts of decisions.
The tables in Chapter 3 assume single wheel axles – refer to assumptions listed in section 3.9.10.
After consultation with the client it is determined that the forklift has dual wheels. It is decided to
calculate the thickness to determine the benefit that can be achieved through the improved load
spread.
Let’s assume that the configuration of the wheels is as shown in Table 2.1, and the operating tyre
pressure is 700 kPa.

axle load 20 x 9.81

Load per tyre = = = 49.05 kN
4 4

49.05
Effective radius per tyre = = 0.149 m
700π

74
From Table 2.1, TC=300 mm. Therefore the centreline distance between the two wheels is likely to
be less than twice the slab thickness, therefore combine as illustrated in Figure 3.4.

2x0.3x0.149
Effective loaded radius of pair of tyres = 0.1492 + = 0.225 m
π

for the interior, and corner load case, and equal to 2x0.225 = 0.318 m for edge loading.
The applied load equals 2x49.05 = 98.1 kN., or approximately 9.81 tonnes.
Use a load factor of 1.5, so the design load = 1.5x98.1 = 147.2 kN
Modulus of rupture using Equation 3.1 is:

f r = 0.456k 1 k 2 (f’c )0.66 = 0.456 x 1.1 x 0.84(35)0.66 = 4.4 MPa

Young’s modulus of Concrete from NZS 3101

E c = (3320 f' c + 6900) = (3320 35 + 6900) = 26,540 MPa

Assume modulus of sub-grade reaction, for CBR = 10% from Figure 1.1 = 54 MN/m3.
Assume, as a first guess, that the thickness is 225 mm, radius of relative stiffness from Equation 3.3
is:

distance between two load points WC = 1750 mm from Table 2.1

Consider first the edge load case, as the previous analysis suggested that this will govern the required
thickness.
The stress under a point load acting on the edge is given by Equation 3.5

Because the edge is dowelled, can expect some load transfer so multiply by 0.85, therefore

σ e = 0.85 x 4.57 = 3.89 MPa

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 75
 6 design examples

Consider now the stress from the other wheel, there are three cases to consider:
A:

1750

r = 309 r = 225

d = 1525

B:

1750

r = 309 r = 309
d = 1441

C:

In the case of C the other wheel is off the slab.

Stress below interior load point, from Equation 3.2

For case A, from Figure 3.5, tangential stress from interior load at edge = 6.5% σ i

6.5
⇒ combined stress at edge for Case A = 3.89 + x 3.12 = 4.09 MPa < 4.4 MPa
100
1441
For case B d/l = = 1.73, from figure 3.7, radial stress from other edge
831
load = - 11% σ e
11
combined stress at edge for case B = 3.89 - 3.89 = 3.46 MPa < 4.4 MPa
100

For case C, σ e = 3.89 MPa < 4.4 MPa

Consideration of dual tyres, with increased spacing between the tyres, will allow the thickness to be
reduced to 225 mm from a value of 235 obtained from the tables. See if the thickness can be reduced
to 200 mm.

76
For load case C = 4.59 MPa, > 4.4 MPa, 4% overstress.
The analysis shows that the edge of the slab will be slightly overstressed. The designer may wish to re
check the assumptions regarding the load repetitions, which if found to be conservative might allow
the use of a 200 mm thick slab. Alternatively use a 225 mm thick slab on the edges.

Check interior load case

Assume a 200 thick slab.
From previously: mm

1750

A B
r = 225 d = 1525 r = 225

, from Figure 3.5, the percentage of stress from load point B at load point A is:

tangential stress = 4.9%

radial stress = - 7.6%
the tangential stress will govern
4.9
combined stress = 3.75 + 100 x 3.75 = 3.93 MPa < 4.4 MPa

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 77
 6 design examples

Check to see if thickness can be reduced to 175 mm

From Figure 3.5, the percentage of stress from load point B at load point A is:

tangential stress = 3.6%

radial stress = - 7.4%
3.6
combined stress = 4.60 + x 4.6 = 4.77 MPa > 4.4 MPa
100

Cannot reduce slab thickness to 175 mm for interior load case, therefore leave as 200 mm thick.

Check corner load case

Assume a 200 thick slab, from Equation 3.6

Consider two cases:

A: B:
1750 983

r = 225 r = 309 r = 225

d

critical position

78
The corner load causes tensile stresses in the top of the slab at the critical position. Figure 3.7 shows
that the radial stress from the edge load 0.9 from the load point causes a small tensile stress at the
critical
position, therefore case A will govern.
1
The combined stress at the critical position = 4.78 + 100 4.59 = 4.83 > 4.4 MPa
Increasing the slab thickness to 225 mm gives a combined stress at the critical position of 3.95 MPa,
which is less than 4.4 MPa and is therefore OK.
Therefore a 35 MPa, 200 mm thick slab is adequate for the interior load case, but slightly
overstressed at the edges and corners. At these locations a 225 mm thick slab is required. The
designer can look at providing edge thickenings as specified in 3.9.6, or simply use a 225 mm thick
slab throughout. A single thickness slab is the preferred option.

Uniform loading

200 mm thick slab OK for uniformly distributed load.

Joint Design
Joint location, reinforcing and construction methods are all interrelated. In this example, the
designer may choose to locate the joints below the aisles of uniform loading. This minimises the
number of joints which will be trafficked. The longitudinal joint can therefore be provided at 5, 10,
15 or 20m. The width will be dependent upon local construction resources. For this example we will
assume that vibrating truss screeds are locally available which can accommodate a 10 m wide pour.
Therefore free joints are provided at 10 m centres longitudinally. Typical details are provided in
Figure 1.22 of Part 1.
Table 1.12 of Part 1 provides guidance on the spacing of free joints. Using 661 mesh a transverse
joint spacing of 25 m is assured. Provide tied saw cut joints at 5.0 m centres (refer section 3.3.3.2 of
Part 1).

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 79
 6 design examples

6.2 CONVENTIONALLY REINFORCED SLAB SUBJECT TO PALLET RACKING

LOADS

Design Problem
Design a slab on ground for the following loads
• Back to back racks which create a point load 60 kN each leg with a transverse spacing of 800 mm
and a longitudinal spacing of 2700 mm between the legs
• 2 tonne capacity solid tyred forklift
Geotechnical conditions are identical to problem 6.1, with 150 mm of hardfill provided below the
slab.

Design Analysis
Similar to problem 6.1, we will assume analysis had determined that the long term ground
settlements are acceptable.
The solid tyred forklift will place considerable durability demands both on the concrete surface and
the joints. Using Table 1.2 as a guide, it is decided to use a design 28 day compressive strength of
35 MPa.
To improve the performance of the joints, and reduce curl, it is decided to dowel all joints.
Again the construction schedule means that full loads will not be applied until after 90 days.
We will determine the required thickness using two approaches, using tables provided in Chapter 3
and by calculation.
Using tables 3.8, 3.14 and 3.19 for 60 kN back to back racks, with dowels, the following thicknesses
are required:
• load on the interior of the slab 235 mm
• load on the edge of the slab 265 mm for Case A or 210 mm for Case C
(refer Table 3.14 for summary of case type)
• load on the corner of the slab 185 mm
The tables in Chapter 3 do not provide information for a 2 tonne capacity forklift but the required
thickness for a 2.5 tonne capacity forklift with > 400,000 repetitions is:
• load on the interior of the slab 120 mm (Table 3.11)
• load on the edge of the slab 135 mm (Table 3.17)
• load on the corner of the slab 130 mm (Table 3.22)
The tables show that the racks will govern the thickness of the slab. The tables however are based
upon an assumption that the plate area is 15,400 mm and that for back to back racks, the base plates
are hard up against each other.
After consultation with the racking system supplier, the base plates are specified to be 150 mm
square and 150 mm apart.
150 150 150

150 150

From Figure 3.4:

150x 450
The equivalent radius = π
= 146 mm compared with 100 mm used in the tables

The equivalent half radius at the edge of a slab = 2 x 146 = 207 mm

150 2
For the single legs r = = 84 mm
π

80
Try a 250 thick slab and assume that Case A (refer Table 3.14) is the case we are checking for.
For a CBR of 10, Figure 1.1 provides a k = 54 MN/m3 if 150 mm of hardfill is provided the
modified value of k from Figure 3.1 is k’ = 65 MN/m3.
From Equation 3.3:

B A C
r = 119 r = 207 r = 119

dx
dy

r = 84 D r = 84
r = 146

If the longitudinal spacing between legs is 2700 mm and the transverse is 800 mm:

From Equation 3.4

With a load factor of 1.5, the edge stress of A is:

Stress at point B, C:

b = (1.6 x 119 2 + 250 2) 0.5 - 0.675 x 250 = 123 mm

1.5x6   859   123  
σ e ,B,C = 5.19 (1 + 0.54 x 0.15) x  4log  123  + log  25.4   x 10
6
250 2 
= 3.28 MPa, with dowels, stress is reduced by 15%

⇒ σ e B,C = 0.85 x 3.28 = 2.79 MPa

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 81
 6 design examples

Stress at point D:
0.5
b = (1.6 x 146 2 + 2502 ) - 0.675 x 250 = 142 mm

From Equation 3.2:

Combine stresses

From Figure 3.7:

From Figure 3.5:

Ultimate strength from Equation 3.1:

0.66
f r = 0.456 x 1.1 x 1.0 x (35) = 5.24 MPa > 4.57 MPa ⇒ OK

Therefore by using a larger base plate, and providing some spacing between the legs it was possible
to decrease the required edge thickness from 265 to 250 mm. Alternatively, the information obtained
from the tables indicates that case A (refer Table 3.8) governs the slab thickness. The designer could
provide a joint layout which eradicates the possibility of this joint and racking arrangement.

Consider the load case where the leg loads are all distant from a joint:

D
r = 84
dx P = 6 tonnes
dy

B A C
r = 146 r = 146 r = 146
P = 12 tonnes P = 12 tonnes P = 12 tonnes

E
r = 84

82
Try using a 225 thick slab.

From Equation 3.2:

Combine stresses:

With consideration for the larger base plate size, the thickness could be reduced to 225 mm for the
interior load case.
Check bearing capacity under plate using NZS 3101

For an interior load position bearing strength Pb = 2 x 0.85 x f′ c A

= 2 x 0.85 x 35 x 0.15 x 0.15
= 1.34 MN

⇒ LF x load ≤ φ Pb = 0.65 x 1.34 = 870 KN

LF x load = 1.5 x 60 = 90 KN << 870 KN ⇒ bearing OK

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 83
 6 design examples

Check punching shear using NZS 3101 for an interior load position:

150 150 150

t = 225

The distance between base plates is less than t, therefore consider as one combined load:

P 2 x 60 x 1.5 x 103
vn = = = 0.38MPa
bot (2(150 + 225) + 2(450 + 225)) x 225

The above conservatively assumes no direct transfer of the load to the sub-grade below the load
point.

 α d
v c = the smaller of 0.17 (1 + 2 βc ) f' c or 0.17 1+ s  f' c or 0.33 f' c
 2bo 
where :
150
βc = ratio of short side to long side = = 0.33
450
α s = 40 for interior loads
d = thickness

v c = 0.17 (1 + 2 x 0.33) 35 = 1.67 MPa [A]

v c = 0.17  1 +
40 x 225 
or 35 = 3.16 MPa [B]
2x 2100 
or v c = 0.33 35 = 1.95 MPa [C]

Equation A governs
v n must be less than φ1.67
v n = 0.38 < 0.75 x 1.67 = 1.25 MPa OK

⇒ Punching shear OK even for conservative assumptions. The designer should check the punching
shear for single legs and at the slab edge although this example demonstrates that punching shear is
rarely critical.
Therefore 225 mm slab is OK for interior load condition.
Return to a consideration of the edge load case. Assume it is possible through careful consideration
of the joint positions, to remove load case A shown in Table 3.14. Look at the option of placing the
joint between the back to back legs. For this situation, the load case is similar to the single rack edge
load case without dowels, regardless of whether dowels are supplied.
From Table 3.13, the required thickness is 210 mm. Therefore a 225 mm thick slab would be OK for
interior and edge load cases.

84
Consider now the corner load case:

2700

800

Assume the above load arrangement is a situation that requires checking.

Using Equation 3.6:

With dowels multiply by 0.7, therefore:

800

A r = 84
B
r = 118
dx
2700

dy

C
r = 118

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 85
 6 design examples

From Figure 3.7:

Edge stress at load point C, from Equation 3.4

b = (1.6 x 118 2 + 225 2 )0.5 - 0.675 x 225 = 118 mm

1.5 x 6  118  
4log 
794 
σ e,c = 5.19 (1 + 0.54 x 0.15) x + log 
6
x 10
225 2  118  25.4  

= 3.97 MPa with dowels multiply by 0.85

σ e,c = 0.85 x 3.97 = 3.37 MPa

⇒ combined stress at critical location:

10
σ A = 3.4 + x 3.37 = 3.73 MPa < 5.24 MPa ⇒ OK
100

Consider now the seismic load case.

Assume that the nominated racking system supplier uses a yielding base plate concept to limit the
magnitude of the uplift forces during an earthquake. Using the NZ loading standard, NZS4203, the
following loads acting a the base of the legs have been determined.
Dead+ live load: 60kN
Dead+Live+Earthquake: 120kN transverse EQ force causing maximum compression
Dead+Live+Earthquake: -10kN transverse EQ force causing minimum compression
Note negative implies uplift.
Consider the loads acting a distance from the slab edge.
Table 3.5, provides guidance on the individual point uplift force required to cause the slab to just lift
off the ground. For a 225 mm thick slab with k=68MN/m3, the uplift force to cause lift off is in
excess of 19kN. As the maximum uplift force is less than 10 kN, lift off does not occur and
Westergaard analysis is still applicable.
When using earthquake load combinations it is appropriate to use a load factor of 1.0.

P = -10 kN r = 139 C
P = 110 kN r = 84
P = 120 kN

dx

Earthquake
P = -10 kN B A
r = 139 r = 84
P = 110 kN P = 120 kN
dy

P = -10 kN

From inspection the critical position is under point A.

Stress under A, from Equation 3.2 is:

86
 12 
4log  + 1.069 x 10 = 3.48 MPa
794  6
σ i, A = 2.7(1 + 0.15) x
2252   96  
11  
4log 
794  6
σ i, B = 2.7(1+ 0.15) x + 1.069  x 10 = 2.76 MPa
225 2   139  

dx 800 + 0.5(150 + 150) − 139

= = 1.02
l 794
dy 2700 − 84
= = 3.29
l 794

From Figure 3.5:

Stress at A due to the tangential stress from a load at B= 20% of the stress at B
Stress at A due to the radial stress from a load at B= 0% of the stress at B
Stress at A due to the tangential stress from a load at C= 0.6% of the stress at C
Stress at A due to the tangential stress from a load at C= -4.5% of the stress at C
Combined stress at A is as follows:
20 4.5
σ i, A = 3.48 + x 2.76 − x 2x 3.48 = 3 .72 MPa
100 100
or:
0 0.6
σ i, A = 3.48 + x 2.76 + x 2 x 3.48 = 3.5 MPa
100 100
In each case the combined stress at A is less than the 5.24 MPa threshold.
Therefore a 225mm thick slab is OK for seismic load combinations where the legs are distant from
the edge.

6.3 POST-TENSIONED FLOOR SLAB

DESIGN PROBLEM
Assume an identical design problem to section 6.2, but evaluate the benefits of using a post-
tensioned floor.
Assume that the residual compressive stress in the concrete due to the post-tensioning after all losses
is 2.0 MPa.
From previous example fr = 5.24 MPa, therefore factored loads must cause a stress less than
5.24 + 2 = 7.24 MPa.

Consider the interior load case:

D
r = 84
dx P = 6 tonnes
dy

B A C
r = 146 r = 146
P = 12 tonnes P = 12 tonnes

E
r = 84
P = 6 tonnes

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 87
 6 design examples

In the conventionally reinforced slab, the required thickness was 225 mm. For the post-tensioned
slab try 200 mm:

From Equation 3.2:

Combine stresses:

Use a 200 thick slab with 2 MPa residual post-tensioning compressive stress.

88
 7

computer design software

7 Typical specifications

Chapter 7
Computer Design Software
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Powerful desktop computers and software allow designers to verify and refine the thickness
design of pavements. These programs are design tools and engineering judgment is always
required to ensure the model assumptions are valid for the final pavement detail.
Numerous computer programs are available in New Zealand, Australia and overseas that can
used to analyse industrial pavements. Some relevant ones are described below.

7.2 CCANZ SLAB ON GROUND

CCANZ Slab On Ground34 is a slab on ground analysis excel spreadsheet based upon the
Westergaard analysis outlined in
Figure 7.1 CCANZ Slab On Ground program this design guide. The program
allows the required thickness, or
slab stresses to be calculated for
a limited number of load
combinations.
The load combinations
considered are:
•Single racking systems
•Back to back racking systems
•Forklift wheel loads
•Individual point loads.

7.3 SAFE
SAFE35 is distributed in New Zealand and is a powerful slab design and analysis tool. SAFE is a
finite element program specifically formulated for the design and analysis of on ground and
suspended floors.
The program models a concrete ground slab as a finite element mesh of 2-D shell elements.
Automatic mesh generation is often employed. The shell elements may be isotropic or
orthotropic, thin or thick plate bending element. Thin plate elements are typically three to
four-node elements based upon the classical linear thin plate bending theory, neglecting the
effects of out-of-plane shear deformations. Thick plate elements account for the effects of out-
of-plane shear deformations.
Contraction and isolation joints in ground slabs may be modelled by altering the fixity of the
appropriate degrees of freedom between shell elements on either side of the joints. Assigning
both a moment and a shear release at the joint location effectively models a free edge. This
could be used to model isolation joints or induced contraction joints with no steel across the
joint.
Assigning a moment release only effectively models a tied joint, where there is full shear
transfer (displacement compatibility) across the joint ,but no moment transfer (rotation
compatibility). This could be used to model tied joints.
For doweled (debonded) contraction joints, there may be only partial shear transfer across the
joint. Theoretically this could be accounted for by modelling a modified shear stiffness across
the joint, however there may be uncertainty as to appropriate stiffness values. In lieu of details

90
Figure 7.2 on joint stiffness, doweled contraction joints could
Slab Moment Diagram (Mmax) for load be modelled with both a moment and a shear
case with load applied to the corner release, and peak edge stresses modified as with the
conventional analysis method.
Slab loads are defined as point, line or area loads.
For concentrated area loads, such as wheel and leg
loads, the load should be applied over an effective
area that accounts for slab thickness and relative
stiffness of the slab and sub-grade.
Soil support is defined by specifying the modulus
of sub-grade reaction of the soil for regions of the
slab. The program generates equivalent mesh point
linear elastic springs based upon the tributary
areas of the regions. Additional line supports or
beams may be added to account for edge footings
or restraint by other structure.
No-tension surface support conditions are
required when uplift may occur. This requires iterative non-linear analysis with soil supports
modelled as compression only springs.
Results are typically presented in the form of colour contour plots for easy assessment, refer Figure
7.2. Peak stresses and deflections may be compared directly with specified acceptance limits. Slab
parameters such as thickness may then be revised and the system re-analysed to achieve compliance
or to optimise the design.

7.4 STRAND 6
STRAND 636 is an Australian designed finite element analysis software package for PCs. The
package is flexible and can carry out various linear type analyses, and more specialised material
non-linear, geometric non-linear and natural frequency analyses.
The software can have ASCI or graphical inputs for user flexibility Output is in ASCI and 2-D or
3-D graphic representations.
For pavements and sub-grades, the user can choose from various plate and brick elements to suit
the design refinements. Concrete joints may be modelled with various specialised beams to allow
shear, tension and compression behaviour.

7.5 PCA-MATS
PCA-Mats37 is a computer program for the analysis of pavements, foundation mats, combined
footings, and pavements The base is modelled as an assemblage of rectangular finite elements. The
boundary conditions may be the underlying soil, nodal springs, or translational and rotational
nodal restraints.
The model is analysed under static loads that may consist of uniform (surface) and concentrated
loads. The resulting deflections, soil pressure (or spring reactions) and bending moments are
output. In addition, the program computes the required area of reinforcing steel in the base.
PCA-Mats uses thin plate bending theory and the Finite Element Method (FEM) to model the
behaviour of the mat or base. The soil supporting the base is assumed to behave as a set of
compression-only springs (Winkler foundation). If, during the analysis, a nodal uplift is detected,
the corresponding spring stiffness is updated and the mat is re-analysed.

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 7 computer design software

7.6 RIGID 5
Rigid 538 is a spreadsheet-style software package that allows designers to determine the base
thickness for concrete pavements in a road configuration. This program is specially designed around
the design methodology in the AUSTROADS Pavement Design Guide 39. The output of the program
is the cumulative fatigue and erosion distress represented as a percentage of allowable axle load
repetitions.
The program has the same pavement configurations to those noted in the AUSTROADS Pavement
Design Guide, ie bases with or without shoulders, plain or continuously reinforced concrete, and
transverse joints with or without dowels The program allows for any axle spectrum that has been
derived from site data, and includes twin-steer axles.

During and after the input procedure, the program has many features to facilitate variations of the
site information or the design parameters. An iterative process, with user inputs, is required for the
determination of an appropriate design base thickness. The feature of this program is the ability to
make changes to the design and get immediate results, and thus, increasing the productivity of the
pavement engineer.
The output to the program consists of:
On-screen results of the cumulative fatigue and erosion distress as a percentage of allowable axle
load repetitions. The designer can verify from the output that both estimates of the distress level are
below 100%.
A hard copy option presented as a report in one or more of the following formats: Optional
Summary; the listing of CULWAY data; the calculations.

7.7 FEAR
FEAR (Finite Element Analysis of Rafts)40 performs an analysis of rafts constructed on layer soil
properties of finite depth. The soil is treated as an elastic continuum- an advantage over the use of
use of spring models which do not allow the interaction between one spring and another. The
interface between the raft and the soil is assumed to be smooth. The soil can be treated as consisting
of horizontal layers of different elastic properties.
Rafts which have a shape in plan that can be made up of rectangular (and which are loaded by
either uniform loads or point loads or moments) can be analysised. Bending moments rotations,
twists and displacements can be calculated in the raft. The contact stress distribution between the
raft and the soil may also be calculated.
Results from the FEAR analysis can be processed by the plotting program FEARP. This allows
contour plots of moments and displacements in the raft to be made. Contour plots can be made as
either a plan view of the raft or an isometric view of the raft. Isometric views of the deformed raft
can be view from various angles.

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 8

cracks and surface defects

 8 cracks & surface defects

Chapter 8
Cracks and Surface Defects
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Although it may at first appear negative, having an understanding of what can go wrong can greatly
increase the chance of a successful outcome. With an understanding of the potential problems it is
possible to develop appropriate contingency plans. Fortunately most concrete industrial floors are
constructed which are fit for purpose and meet the client’s expectations. However, when things go
wrong with concrete, the remedial solutions are often costly. This chapter provides a brief summary
of some cracks and surface defects that may diminish the quality of the end product.

8.2 CRACKS
The relatively low tensile strength of concrete means it is prone to cracking. Often cracks are
wrongly diagnosed as drying shrinkage, because with time, drying shrinkage tends to open up any
pre-existing crack. Probably the most common forms of unwanted cracking in New Zealand are
associated with early age cracking due to plastic shrinkage or restrained early thermal contraction.
The following is a summary of different types of cracks, when they are likely to appear, the cause,
and measures which can be taken to prevent them.

8.2.1 PLASTIC SETTLEMENT

This type of cracking normally occurs over the top of
reinforcement, or at changes in depth, such as in waffle slabs. It
is more common in deep sections, but can occur in slabs. The
cracks are caused by differential settlement of the fresh concrete.
Settlement can occur in fresh concrete as the aggregates sink and
water comes to the top surface. This water is referred to as the
bleed water. Volume changes in the fresh concrete can also be
associated with the early hydration and absorption of water by
the dry cement and aggregates. Concrete with high bleed
volumes, or which is subjected to poor vibrating practice, are the
most common causes of this type of cracking. Reduction in
bleed capacity, by modification to the mix design, or revibration are preventative measure. These
cracks appear early on in the life of the concrete, usually from 10 to 180 minutes from placing.

8.2.2 PLASTIC SHRINKAGE

This form of cracking derives its name from the fact that it
occurs while the concrete is still plastic. Once concrete is in
place, evaporation can only occur from the free surface. In the
absence of appropriate precautions and unfavourable drying
conditions, the rate of evaporation at the surface can be greater
than the rate with which water within the concrete can migrate
to the surface to make good the loss. In these situations the
surface dries and shrinks, leading to surface cracks.
If these cracks are noted early it may be possible to re-compact
the concrete to remove them. However, if they are noticed after
the concrete has hardened, re-compaction will not be possible.
The photo shows a typical example of plastic cracking. Typical characteristics are:
• The cracks occur either while finishing or within 30 minutes to 6 hours of finishing,

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• The cracks are often not straight and have a jagged appearance.
• Cracks may intersect each other forming T junctions or acute angles.
• They are surface related but may extend deeper with subsequent drying of the slab.
When the estimated evaporation rate exceeds 1 litre/m2 per hour, precautions need to be taken to
prevent plastic cracking. If water reducing admixtures are used, or the concrete has a low bleed
volume, it is recommended that the precautionary bleed rate be reduced to 0.5 litres/m2 per hour.
Graphs for estimating the evaporation rate are provided in the NZ Guide to Concrete Construction1.
Precautions to prevent plastic cracking are:
• The use of proprietary anti-evaporatant alcohols. It is important to note that these products are
not curing agents, and will need to be reapplied if the surface is disturbed.
• Water misting; although this can be difficult to achieve in windy conditions,
• Polypropylene fibres; these are typically added at the batching plant and therefore their use
requires planning.

8.2.3 RESTRAINED EARLY THERMAL CONTRACTION.

A large drop in the ambient temperature on the night following
the pour can lead to cracking caused by restrained thermal
contraction. The tensile strength of the concrete is often at its
lowest 6 to 18 hours after pouring and is therefore very
vulnerable to cracking caused by tensile stresses induced by
restrained thermal contraction. These cracks may be hardly
visible at first but often open up as the slab dries and shrinks.
They often have a similar appearance to drying shrinkage cracks.
Slabs that have random cracks despite the presence of saw cuts
at regular intervals have often suffered from restrained early
thermal contraction. The probability of these cracks occurring
can be reduced by:
• The use of early entry saws. With these saws the slab is cut within 2 hours of finishing
• Using joints which are formed in the fresh concrete
• The use of crack inducers cast into the slab
• Insulation of the slab
The cracks will normally appear 12-24 hours after pouring but maybe difficult to see until drying
shrinkage opens them up.

8.2.4 DRYING SHRINKAGE

These cracks are caused by the volume changes associated with
the loss of the chemically unbound mix water within the
concrete. These volume changes occur in the cement phase, and
sometimes the aggregates used in the concrete. If the slab is
restrained or develops sufficient frictional forces on the base, the
shrinkage will induce tensile strains within the concrete, which
can lead to the formation of cracks.
It is not possible to prevent drying shrinkage. The most
common design strategy is to provide joints at regular intervals
to ensure that the location of shrinkage movement is
constrained to defined locations. Alternatively, post-tensioning
or expansive cements (with appropriate reinforcement) may be utilised to ensure that shrinkage
does not induce tensile stresses in the floor slab.
Long term drying shrinkage usually appears several weeks or months after casting the element.

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 8 cracks & surface defects

8.2.5 CONSTRUCTION MOVEMENT

This occurs where there is inadequate temporary support of the falsework or formwork, or can
sometimes occur in slabs when there is movement of the slip membrane.

8.2.6 CORROSION-INDUCED CRACKING

Corrosion-induced cracks occur in structures where the steel
reinforcing is exposed to a corrosive environment. These cracks
are caused by the expansion of the reinforcing steel as it corrodes
and are sometimes associated with rust stains, particularly when
the cause is chloride attack.
These cracks are formed directly over the reinforcing steel. The
time to first appearance depends on the quality of the concrete
construction and how aggressive the environment is.

8.3 SURFACE DEFECTS

8.3.1 CRAZED CRACKING

Crazed cracking consists of fine cracks which appear on the
concrete surface as irregular hexagonal shapes. The depth of
cracking is 2-3mm at the most. If the depth is greater than this
the cracking is not strictly crazed cracking.
The underlying cause is where surface tensile stresses develop
due to differential shrinkage of the surface relative to the body of
the concrete. This differential shrinkage may be caused by:
• Over-trowelling which can create a thin layer of cement rich
paste on the surface, which will shrink more than the concrete
below
• Working the bleed water into the surface. If trowelling
commences too early then bleed water can be mixed into the surface, creating a surface with a
higher water content
• Using cement to mop up the bleed water
• Incorrect use of specialist surface dry shakes
• Intermittent curing allowing the surface to get wet and dry
• Smooth low permeability formwork
It is generally accepted that crazing is a cosmetic problem. There is much anecdotal evidence of
industrial floor slabs that exhibit crazed surface cracking that have been in service for many years
without deterioration.
Deterioration problems can occur when the cause of the cracking was working the bleed water into
the surface. This can result in a surface that dusts and does not have the desired abrasion strength. If
the cracking was caused by inappropriate use of a dry shake, the surface may, in extreme cases
delaminate. In situations where freeze thaw is a common occurrence, the depth and width of the
cracks should be considered. In most instances the cracks are thin and shallow and therefore
unaffected by freeze thaw cycles.

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Crazed cracking is difficult to avoid as in many instances the desire to get a good hard surface by
steel trowelling can result in a crazed surface. However, cracking can be reduced by:
• Avoiding the use of very wet mixes
• Do not trowel until the bleed water has gone
• Continuously cure
• Do not use ‘driers’
• Avoid overworking the surface

8.3.2 DUSTING
The strength of concrete is primarily dependent upon the water
to cement ratio. The higher this ratio, i.e. greater amount of
water, the lower the concrete strength. If additional water is
introduced to the concrete surface during finishing, a thin layer
of weak paste will be created on the surface of the concrete.
Water could be introduced by rain, poor finishing work
practises, or commencing finishing before all the bleed water has
evaporated. This weak surface is easily abraded, and when
subjected to wear, dusts. Eventually the surface can wear away to
reveal the larger aggregates below the top surface of the slab.

8.3.3 DELAMINATION
Some research on delamination attribute it to bleed water and/or
air entrapped below a hard dense steel trowelled surface. If the
trowelling operation is started too early, thereby sealing the
surface, rising bleed water can effectively lift the top 1-3mm off
the surface causing it to delaminate from the slab. It has also
been hypothesised that top down setting is significant.
Top down setting can lead to the surface being finished while the
concrete below is still fresh, resulting in bleed water being
trapped below the surface. This can lead to surface delamination.
Top down setting is more probable when:
• It is windy, therefore drying the surface
• The sub-grade is cold
• Concrete mixes with low bleed water volumes are used
• Air temperatures are rising
• Low relative humidity
• A vapour barrier is placed below the slab
Another probable cause of surface delamination occurs where
the placer finds that the surface is hardening faster than the
available trowelling resources can finish the surface. In these
situations the surface cement paste may be spread over an
already hardened surface, and water may be applied. This thin
layer often craze cracks and then delaminates.
Other potential causes are frost damage during the early stages of curing.

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 8 cracks & surface defects

8.3.4 SURFACE DEPOSITS

The most common types of surface deposits are efflorescence
and exudation.
Efflorescence is a deposit of salts, usually white, which results
from the precipitation of calcium carbonate on the surface.
Water movement through concrete, either from the natural
drying process or from external water pressure, can transport the
abundant calcium hydroxide in the concrete to the concrete
surface where it reacts with carbon dioxide in the air, forming
the white deposit.
Efflorescence is an aesthetic problem; the deposit can be
removed by a light acid wash. However, if the source of moisture
movement through the concrete is not corrected, efflorescence will return.
Exudation is a solid or gel-like component of material discharged at an opening in the concrete
surface

8.3.5 DISCOLOURATION
Discolouration of the surface of the concrete can be brought
about by many factors. Changing cement types and concrete
suppliers, variable finishing techniques, uncontrolled use of
admixtures, variable water-cement ratios and curing, all have an
effect on the uniformity of the end product. Some aggregates
which are high in iron content can cause rust staining of the
surface of the concrete.
If plastic sheets are used for curing, wrinkling can result in a
mottled surface appearance.
Variable sub-grade conditions can cause surface discolouration
when a vapour membrane is not used.

8.3.6 POP OUTS

Pop outs are holes in the surface of the concrete which have
resulted from the breaking away of the concrete surface due to
internal pressure. These are most frequently associated with frost
susceptible aggregates or organic contaminants such as lupin
seeds in the concrete.

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 9

concrete testing
 9 concrete testing

Chapter 9
Concrete Testing
9.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes methods used in New Zealand to sample and test concrete in the
construction of floors. It is not a complete list of all test methods available. Testing of materials used
to make concrete is covered in The NZ Guide to Concrete Construction1.

9.2 TESTING PRINCIPLES

When designing a test programme it is important to select a property or properties that will give the
information required. Compressive strength, for example, will not always be the best indicator of a
floor’s performance. It is also important to know how the results will be interpreted. Will they be
compared against a specified value, or will they be comparative – in which case a control sample will
also need to be tested. A concrete technologist will be able to advise on the most appropriate
techniques for solving a given problem.
It is rarely practical to design tests that replicate the conditions that will be encountered on a
particular site. Instead, most tests are carried out following standard procedures and in controlled
environments. As a result, standard concrete tests are often criticized for bearing little relationship to
what happens to concrete on site: test specimens are cast and cured differently from site concrete,
and tests are carried out at prescribed ages by which time it may be too late to rectify shortcomings
easily or too early to accurately represent the ultimate performance. Controlled, artificial conditions
are used because the properties of concrete vary with age and curing condition. The controlled
conditions allow concretes cast at different times to be compared to each other, and to specified
requirements.

9.3 PERSONNEL
Sampling, manufacture of test specimens and testing must always be carried out by qualified
personnel who understand the principles behind the test. This will ensure that correct procedures
are used wherever possible, i.e. that standardised methods are followed, and if deviations from the
standard are made then their effects are understood.
Accreditation by International Accreditation New Zealand (IANZ) indicates that the laboratory’s
facilities meet the specified requirements, and that its staff have a good understanding of testing
principles. However IANZ accreditation is test-specific, and laboratories will usually only be IANZ
accredited for tests that they perform regularly. In lieu of IANZ accreditation for a particular test,
compliance of the laboratory’s quality systems with the requirements of NZS/ISO/IEC17025:1999
(and therefore with ISO 9001 and 9002) as assessed by an independent accreditation body indicates
that the laboratory is competent.

9.4 SAMPLING
A “sample” of concrete is a portion of concrete removed from the mix to measure the properties of
a particular batch or mix design. A “specimen” is the individual piece of concrete on which the test
is carried out, e.g. a cylinder.
Test results must represent the properties of the concrete being tested. Hence the test sample must
represent the concrete from which it is taken. NZS 3112: Part 1:1986 sets out procedures for
obtaining samples from freshly mixed concrete. Guidance for taking core samples of hardened
concrete is given in NZS 3112: Part 2:1986.

100
NZS 3109:1997 imposes a number of requirements on the sampling of concrete for acceptance
testing during construction. When concrete is supplied by a ready mix plant, sampling and testing is
usually done at the plant prior to delivery. This reduces the site testing to carrying out a workability
test at time of delivery. However, there may be good reasons why strength samples should be taken
at the site. For example concrete air contents have been known to increase between the concrete
plant and discharge at site.
The sampling location is determined by the information sought from the testing. Three options for
sampling and testing for a project are set out in NZS 3109:1997:
Full acceptance of plant testing records (to ascertain consistency of concrete supply),
Use of full sampling from site (to ascertain consistency of concrete delivery),
A partial system of plant records and some specific site testing.
To ensure that samples are representative of the concrete being delivered to the site, they must be
collected at random. Selection should never be made on what the concrete looks like as it is being
discharged. Samples must be collected by appropriate methods, such as those described in NZS
3112: Part 1 1986, and NZS 3109:1997.
The number of test specimens to be made from a sample will be prescribed by the test method to be
used.

9.5 TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE

9.5.1 WORKABILITY
“Workability” describes how easily fresh concrete can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.
The ability of the mix to flow is one of the most readily observed properties, and is sometimes
referred to as its consistence or consistency. It is most often measured by the slump test.
“Consistency” is also used to describe uniformity of supply, i.e. that the quality of successive batches
is consistent, which can be confusing because flow properties are most often used to monitor
uniformity. In this publication “consistency” is used to describe uniformity, and “workability” and
“slump” are used to describe the physical characteristics of the concrete.
Workability characteristics include the ease with which the concrete can be put in motion and kept
in motion (its rheological properties), whether it remains cohesive while moving or segregates (fluid
concrete) or falls apart (stiff concrete), and whether it holds its shape when unsupported. Changes
in concrete mix design and materials may be reflected in some of these characteristics and not in
others. Many tests have been devised to measure these properties, but no test measures all
parameters and some tests are better suited to certain types of concrete than others. Results from
different tests are not always comparable and it is not possible to use results from one test to
establish compliance with a specification based on another test.
Workability tests are used to design concrete for a particular application and site conditions. A
particular workability is specified to ensure that the concrete can be placed without blocking
delivery equipment or segregating, compacted to remove entrapped air and fully encase
reinforcement, prestressing and other insertions and finished to the required flatness.
Workability must be measured within a limited time because concrete stiffens as it hydrates, even
within the first minutes after mixing. NZS 3112: Part 1:1986 requires that workability tests be
completed within 15 minutes of taking the sample.
The slump test is quick and simple, the equipment is relatively inexpensive, and the test can be
carried out in the laboratory or on site. It is the most widely used workability test, and is often used
to monitor uniformity of supply.
The slump test is described in NZS 3112:Part 1:1986 Section 5. The test is carried out by filling a
conical mould with concrete and then withdrawing the mould. The amount by which the concrete
subsides or ‘slumps’ is then measured Figure 9.1. After the slump has been measured, the concrete is
tapped gently on the side to obtain an indication of the cohesion of the mix.

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Figure 9.1 The slump test Figure 9.2 Slump test results

Slump

ACCEPTABLE Typical slump and high slump respectively

NON-ACCEPTABLE – REPEAT TEST Shear failures (lateral collapse)

Mixes which are well proportioned and cohesive tend to subside a little further. Poorly
proportioned, harsh mixes tend to fall apart. The slump test must be performed on a flat, level
surface free from vibration or the movement of the concrete will be affected.
The test does not work well for concretes with either very high or very low workabilities. Very stiff
concretes may not subside at all. Very fluid concretes may simply lose their shape completely by
subsiding and flowing. Highly thixotropic mixes, such as those containing mineral admixtures, may
in practice be much more “workable” than their slump values indicate. The slump of
superplasticised concretes may continue for an extended period after the mould is withdrawn.
Some mixes may lack sufficient cohesion for the test to be carried out properly. The cone of
concrete may shear or otherwise collapse as the mould is withdrawn. If this occurs, the test must be
repeated with another part of the sample. If the concrete again shears or collapses, the slump is not
measured but a shear or lateral collapse is recorded (Figure 9.2). Such concretes may be difficult to
handle and place satisfactorily.
The workability of very fluid mixes may be better measured by the spread test (NZS 3112: Part
1:1986 Section 11). This test was designed to measure the flow of concrete used to fill the cavities in
concrete masonry construction. An inverted slump cone is filled then lifted off its baseplate, and the
diameter of the resulting disc of concrete measured.
Figure 9.3 A modified spread test, which measures the rate of
The spread test spread as well as the ultimate spread has been used
to measure the flow of self-compacting concrete. A
similar test, measuring the rate and volume of flow
through an L-shaped form has also been used for
these materials. Neither of these two methods is yet
standardized.
The rheological properties of concrete may be
measured with a workability apparatus. This
method measures the forces required to start
concrete moving (the “yield”) and keep it moving
(the “plastic viscosity”). The apparatus is basically a
viscometer designed for concrete. An impeller
rotates at a range of speeds in a bowl containing the
sample and the torque exerted on the impeller by
the concrete each rotation speed is measured. The

102
relationship between the torque and the impeller speed is a straight line, of which the gradient
reflects the plastic viscosity and the intercept reflects the yield. The equipment is highly specialized
and not portable so the technique is most appropriate for laboratory development of materials and
mix designs.

Figure 9.4 The Vebe consistometer test is described in NZS 3112: Part 1:1986
The Vebe test Section 7. The test is carried out by determining the time taken for
a cone of concrete to completely subside inside a mould when
subjected to vibration. The method works well for concrete with
very low workability. Whilst the test is sensitive to changes in
materials, early stiffening of concrete and other factors that affect
its workability, it is not easy to carry out with consistent results,
and requires a power supply and specialist equipment. Its
application in the field is therefore limited but it has been used in
the laboratory in the past to investigate materials and their impact
on workability. It is no longer widely used because its limitations as
a site test mean it must be done in addition to the slump test, and
it is usually difficult to justify the cost of two different
measurements of the same property.
The remoulding effort test (NZS 3112:Part 1:1986 Section 6)
measures the amount of effort required to mould a sample to a
particular shape using a drop table. It is suitable for concrete of
average workability. It is no longer widely used for the same reasons as the Vebe consistometer test.

9.5.2 AIR CONTENT OF PLASTIC CONCRETE

The air content of plastic concrete should be measured as a quality control procedure to determine
that a desired level of entrained air has not been exceeded, or that a specified air content has been
achieved when an air entraining admixture is used to improve workability or durability.
The measurement of air content is described by NZS 3112: Part 1: 1986 Section 9. This method is
based on determining the reduction in volume of a given unit volume of concrete when subjected to
an increase in air pressure. From this figure and the pressure applied, the actual air content can be
calculated. However, the equipment must be calibrated for the height above sea level at which it is
being used. There are two types of air meter available to measure air content by the pressure method.
Type A measures the displacement of the level of water in a column above the concrete surface when
pressure is applied over the water. Type B measures the pressure drop in a pressurised chamber when
the air in the chamber is equalised with the air in the concrete. The latter type is the most
commonly-used in New Zealand.
Air in the aggregate pores is included in the air content measured by the pressure method. This air
does not have the same effects on the concrete as the air in the paste fraction, so its volume is not
included in specified air contents and must be subtracted from the total air measured by the pressure
method. NZS 3112: Part 1:1986 allows for a correction factor to be applied to the concrete air
content. The correction factor is determined by measuring the “air content” of a specified volume of
aggregate with the air meter.
AS 1012.4.3-1999 describes a volumetric method of measuring the entrained air which is suitable for
porous aggregate. The volumetric method entails the displacement of the entrained air with water.

9.5.3 MASS PER UNIT VOLUME

The mass per unit volume, or density, of freshly mixed concrete is used to determine the volume of
concrete produced from a given mass of materials. Thus, it can be used to determine the volume of
concrete delivered by weighing trucks prior to and after leaving the site.
Mass per unit volume is determined by a simple test in which the mass of concrete in a container of
known volume is measured. The standard procedure for conducting this test is described in NZS
3112: Part 1:1986 Section 4.

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9.5.4 BLEEDING OF CONCRETE

Tests for the bleeding characteristics of concrete are normally carried out in the laboratory to
evaluate mix designs or the influence of different materials.
The procedure is described in NZS 3112: Part 1:1986 Section 8. A sample of the concrete to be
tested is compacted into a cylindrical container. The container is then covered and placed on a
level surface. Bleed water is drawn off with a pipette at regular intervals until the amount collected
during a 30-minute period is less than 5 ml.
The results may be expressed either as the volume of bleed water collected in a given time per unit
surface area of the cylinder, or the rate of bleeding.

Setting time of concrete

As for the bleeding characteristics, setting times are sometimes measured to evaluate mix designs
or materials. It may be desirable to modify setting time if the concrete is to be placed in
particularly warm or cool conditions, or if there is an extended transit time from the batching
plant to the site.
Setting time is measured by the procedure described in NZS 3112:Part 1:1986 section 10. A
sample of mortar is sieved from the concrete, and compacted into a container. The penetration
resistance is measured at appropriate intervals. Initial and final set are defined by the times taken
to achieve prescribed values of penetration resistance.

9.6 TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE

9.6.1 GENERAL
A variety of tests may be carried out on hardened concrete to characterise its properties or to
measure its performance under service conditions.
There is usually more than one method of measuring any given property. Selection of an
appropriate method depends on the purpose of the testing and whether the test is to be carried
out on existing concrete or on specially cast specimens. Unless the testing is to establish whether
the concrete meets a specified requirement, in which case the test method will be prescribed,
options should be discussed with the testing laboratory before sampling is arranged.
The standard test methods named in the following sections are not the only standard methods
available for measuring these properties. Australian, British, AASHTO and ANSI standards offer
English-language alternatives, often the same or similar to the New Zealand and ASTM standards
quoted.

9.6.2 STRENGTH
Compressive strength is the property most often specified, and therefore is the property most
often measured in quality control.
NZS 3112: Part 2:1986 Sections 3, 4 and 5 describes the procedures for moulding and curing
specimens made from plastic concrete. NZS 3112: Part 2: 1986 Section 9 describes the procedures
for obtaining cores from hardened concrete.
The size of the test specimen is determined by the nominal maximum aggregate size in the
concrete. The diameter of a cast cylinder must be at least four times the nominal maximum
aggregate size, and not less than 100mm. The nominal length of the cylinder is twice its diameter.
Figure 9.6 shows typical moulds for casting compression test specimens. The most common
specimen size is 200 x 100 mm.
NZS 3112: Part 2: 1986 requires that core diameters meet the same requirements as cylinders,
although if the maximum aggregate size is unknown the core must be at least 100mm diameter. It

104
Figure 9.5 also requires that wherever possible cores should be
Compression testing cut to a length to diameter ratio greater than 2. This
would not be possible for many floor slabs. ASTM
C42/C42M-99 takes a more practical approach
providing correction factors for length to diameter
ratios between 2 and 1, and allowing core diameters
less than 95mm where it would otherwise be
impossible to obtain cores with a length to diameter
ratio greater than 1. Smaller cores will give more
variable results. Results from two specimen sizes
should not be combined in determining the average
strength.
Compressive strength tests are highly sensitive to the
geometry of the ends of the specimens. NZS 3112:
Part 2:1986 Section 4 prescribes limits on planeness
and perpendicularity, and describes the materials and
methods used to realign the ends when necessary.
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7 shows a restrained rubber capping system.
Moulds for the two sizes of
concrete test cylinders The measurement of the compressive strength of
concrete is described in NZS 3112:1986 Part 2 Section
6. It includes requirements for testing machines and
testing procedures to ensure that test results from a
single batch of concrete are as uniform as possible.
Strength tests are based on a set of at least two
specimens tested at the same time. Strengths obtained
from cores will not be the same as those obtained
from cylinders of the same concrete. The relationship
between core strengths and specified 28 day
compressive strength depends on the age, curing
history and compaction of the concrete. Guidance on
Figure 9.7 the statistical analysis of strength test results is given
Restrained rubber in NZS 3112: Part 2:1986 Section 10. More detailed
capping system information on the analysis and interpretation of
results is given in other references such as NZS 3109,
and the ACI Concrete Manual.
Tensile strength determines the crack resistance of
the concrete material – when the tensile strength is
exceeded the concrete will crack. Tensile strength tests
can be used to compare the likely performance and
floor design requirements for crack resistance of
different concrete mix designs and materials.
Tensile strength of concrete may be measured by
splitting a cylindrical specimen along its length. The
method is described by NZS 3112:Part 2: 1986 Section
8. The specimen is held horizontally in a jig between
the platens of a testing machine and a compressive
force applied until the cylinder splits, see Figure 9.8,
overleaf.
This method avoids the problems of gripping and
aligning the specimen accurately when testing in
direct tension, ie pulling the ends of an elongated
specimen apart.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 105
 9 concrete testing

Figure 9.8 Figure 9.9

The Brazil or splitting test Flexural test by third point loading method

Bed of testing machine

Steel rod

Steel Ball Specimen

Cylindrical or line
bearing over full d
width of specimen

Steel rod Steel ball Steel

channel
or plate

1 1 1 Bed of testing
3 3 3 machine
Adjustable span length, L

Flexural strength indicates the bending resistance of concrete, and can be used in design procedures
to ensure that the floor or pavement will withstand the loads to be carried by the floor in service.
The test specimens and method are described in NZS 3112: Part 2:1986 Section 7. A beam specimen
is supported near each end, and loaded in compression in a test machine as shown in Figure 9.9.
This test configuration is known as third-point loading because the distance between each of the
two end supports is divided into equal thirds by the upper load application points. Results are
expressed as the modulus of rupture.
Although both this method and the tensile splitting test reflect the tensile properties of concrete
their results are not directly related.
The break off test (ASTM C1150) was designed to establish when concrete in situ has attained a
specified strength so that successive operations may be applied during construction, for example
release of prestressing strands. The test involves isolating a cylindrical specimen at the concrete
surface by casting an annular ring into the surface of fresh concrete. The specimen is then broken
off by applying a load to the side of the specimen. The Scancem Break-off Tester is a proprietary
device designed for this technique. A correlation needs to be established between the break-off
number and strength of any given concrete. In practice, cylinder or core strengths are more often
used. The test leaves a hole in the concrete surface.
The pull-off test is an indicator of tensile strength. It involves isolating a cylindrical specimen in the
surface of hardened concrete with a core drill. The specimen is then pulled off in direct tension. The
test can be used for similar purposes as the break-off test if the core is cut deep enough to represent
the bulk of the concrete. If a short core is cut to represent the surface of the concrete the test can be
used to indicate whether the concrete is strong enough for a coating or topping to be applied (the
tensile strength of the concrete must exceed the stresses imposed by the drying of the surface
treatment otherwise it will delaminate). The test leaves a hole in the concrete surface.
Pull-out tests are similar to pull-off tests in that the tensile strength of the concrete is measured by
removing an insert in direct tension. ASTM C900 describes the equipment and method used to
measure the pull-out strength using an insert cast into new concrete.
The Lok test, shown in Figure 9.10, is a proprietary system of this test. Similar tests (eg the
proprietary Capo test) have been devised to measure the pull-out strength using an insert fastened
into concrete after it has hardened , but they have a common problem of high variability. Again, all
these methods leave a hole in the concrete surface.

106
Figure 9.10 Surface hardness is often used to give an
The Lok test indication of compressive strength. The most
common technique is the measurement of
rebound number using a Schmidt Hammer
(ASTM C805). This involves measuring the height
of rebound of a spring-driven mass after its
impact on a concrete surface. Results are broadly
related to compressive strength but are highly
sensitive to surface properties. The technique is
therefore best used for investigating the
uniformity of a concrete surface, or changes in the
nature of the surface with time rather than testing
for a compliance with a specified strength, unless a
correlation is available for the concrete in
question. The test does not damage the concrete.
Penetration resistance can be used as an estimate of compressive strength. This approach involves
firing a probe or pin into a hardened concrete surface with a known amount of energy and
measuring the depth of penetration. The procedure is described by ASTM C803. The Windsor
Probe is a proprietary device for measuring probe penetration. The small size of the penetrating
devices means the result is affected by the nature of the coarse aggregate.

9.6.3 DENSITY
The density of hardened concrete specimens is often measured in conjunction with compressive
strength tests, either on cast cylinders or core samples, as an indication of concrete quality. The
method is described by NZS 3112: part 3: 1986. It is based on displacement of the bulk volume of
the specimen with an equal weight of water so is inappropriate for measuring the density of
excessively honeycombed concrete or of no-fines concrete.

9.6.4 DIMENSIONAL CHANGES

Limits on the drying shrinkage of concrete are sometimes specified by designers of floors and
pavements to limit joint movement. Drying shrinkage may be measured as part of the process of
mix design and material selection, or to show compliance with a specified requirement.
The most widely used method for measuring drying
Figure 9.11
shrinkage is set out in AS 1012.13 1992. This test measures
Shrinkage test measurement
length change after 56 days drying. NZS 3112: Part 3:1986
Section 3 also specifies a drying shrinkage test. The
Australian test is preferred because the drying conditions
more closely resemble the New Zealand natural
environment than do those used in the New Zealand
method. Both methods involve precision measurements of
the length change of cast beam specimens following an
initial seven-day wet-curing period. Consequently they do
not measure length changes that occur soon after casting,
such as those due to the addition of shrinkage
compensating admixtures, which cause an initial expansion,
or autogenous shrinkage, which may occur when the water
to cement ratio is low.
It can be difficult to accurately predict the shrinkage of the
concrete in situ from shrinkage test results. The impact of
surface area to volume of the cast concrete, internal and
external movement restraints, and the difference in curing
and subsequent environmental conditions need to be

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 107
 9 concrete testing

considered. Nevertheless, laboratory shrinkage tests do allow the material performance of different
mix design and materials to be compared. See also 12.2 in Part 12 of this publication.
Creep is the long-term deformation of concrete under load. Knowledge of creep characteristics is
important for prestressed elements because creep will reduce the prestress over time.
Methods for measuring the creep of concrete
Figure 9.12 specimens under a uniaxial load are described
A typical arrangement for testing by AS 1012.16 1996 and ASTM C512. Both
the creep of concrete specimens involve precision measurements of length
change of cast specimens that are held under a
given load, usually around 40% of the
compressive strength, for an extended period,
Load cell (the ASTM method states one year). The set
up is shown in Figure 9.12. The concrete will
Hemispherical
seat shrink during this time if allowed to dry, so
shrinkage is measured on identical unloaded
Dummy block specimens stored close to the test specimens
and shrinkage subtracted from the total length
Test change measured on the loaded specimens.
cylinders
Alternatively, the specimens may be sealed
with a water-vapour impermeable membrane
to simulate concrete that would not be
expected to dry in service. Creep itself is
Dummy block sensitive to environmental conditions, so the
tests need to be carried out in a controlled
Pressure
Load gauge environment. The exception is when
sustaining
cell comparative testing is performed
To pump simultaneously on different concretes.
Elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio reflect the
short-term dimension changes of concrete
under load. Methods for measuring static
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio are given in ASTM C469. They involve precision
measurements of deformation of concrete specimens as load is applied at a given rate up to 40% of
compressive strength in a test machine. ASTM C215 describes methods of measuring dynamic
elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio by determining resonant frequencies obtained when a specimen
is exposed to vibration or impact.

9.6.5 ABRASION RESISTANCE

Abrasion is defined as the wear of a surface due to rubbing and friction. It is distinct from erosion,
which is usually used to describe wear by caused by moving fluids. Erosion is not considered here.
Abrasion resistance is one of the critical factors that determine the long-term performance of a
concrete floor surface. It can be measured to help determine materials, mix design and construction
processes to produce a desired level of performance, or to compare actual performance achieved
against that which was specified. Abrasion resistance is very sensitive to the surface properties of the
concrete, which will be greatly affected by the techniques used to finish and cure the concrete. It can
be difficult to recreate on-site practices when making laboratory specimens, so to enable
comparison of different mixes the approach is usually to test a surface prepared in a defined way,
e.g. cast against a certain type of mould using a particular release agent.
Abrasion may be caused by many different mechanisms and as a result many different tests have
been designed to simulate the different abrasive actions. Tests currently available in New Zealand are
described below. All involve exposing the test surface to an abrasive action and measuring the
volume or weight of material lost after a given period of exposure. These tests are not suitable for

108
Figure 9.13 measuring the abrasion resistance of coating systems.
Accelerated abrasion AS/NZS 4456.9: 1997, developed from the Sydney City
test equipment Council test and also known as the tumbler test,
describes a method for measuring the abrasion resistance
of clay or concrete segmental pavers. It can equally well be
used to measure the abrasion resistance of specimens of
concrete cast or cut to the appropriate size. The test
simulates impact and scuffing actions of steel machinery,
and also relates well to the high point load impact and
grinding effects of high heel shoes on pavements. It
involves exposing the surface of the specimens to the
impact of free-falling steel balls. One advantage of the test
is that a large number of replicate specimens are tested
simultaneously, thus allowing for the variable nature of
the surface. Another advantage is that guidance to the
significance of the results has been published by various agencies, so the results can be related to in-
situ performance.
ASTM C779 (procedure B) and ASTM C 944 describe methods that expose the concrete surface to
rotating steel dressing wheels applied under a vertical load. They are designed to simulate rolling,
pounding and cutting actions, e.g. of steel wheels. The two methods use different apparatus, C779
being suitable for in-situ testing or testing large laboratory samples, and C944 being designed to test
the ends of core samples or smaller laboratory specimens. The tests provide good comparative data
between different concretes but no in-situ performance criteria have been published.
The rolling steel wheel test is designed for measuring the abrasion resistance of a concrete floor in-
situ and simulates the cutting, sliding and rolling actions of steel wheels on an industrial floor. It is
less aggressive than the tumbler test. The UK Cement and Concrete Association developed the
method.

9.6.6 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE

Floors may be exposed to aggressive chemicals, particularly in manufacturing plants. In some cases
Portland cement based concrete will not be sufficiently durable and a protective coating will be
required. Tests for the chemical resistance of coatings are not discussed here. In other situations,
careful selection of materials and mix designs may provide sufficiently durable concrete.
Comparison of different mix designs during the design stage to achieve optimum performance is
the most common reason for testing for chemical resistance. Where procedures have been
standardized, such as sulphate resistance tests (ASTM C1012, AS 2350.14) or resistance to scaling
caused by deicing chemicals (ASTM C672), previous experience may allow a minimum performance
to be specified so that a single material may need to be tested for compliance.
Chemical resistance tests must mirror anticipated in-situ exposure conditions as closely as possible
because chemical resistance can change with slight changes in chemistry, conditions or degree of
exposure. Chemical resistance often depends on the cation associated with the aggressive anion –
magnesium sulphate is more aggressive than sodium sulphate for example. Resistance will also
depend on whether reaction products are removed, and whether the concrete is exposed to wetting
and drying or temperature fluctuations. Perhaps because of this sensitivity there are few
standardized tests for chemical resistance for concrete.
ASTM C267 is designed for testing the chemical resistance of mortars, grouts, surfacings and
polymer concretes, and a similar approach can be taken for concrete. Cylindrical specimens are
immersed in a test medium consisting of the agents that the material will be exposed to in service,
and inspected at regular intervals. At each inspection (or more frequently if necessary) the test
medium is renewed and changes in its appearance noted, the specimens are cleaned and weighed
and examined for signs of deterioration, and the compressive strength of a set of specimens is
measured. When the chemical reaction results in expansion, such as attack by sulphate solutions,

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 9 concrete testing

length change is measured. Testing agencies may have established in house procedures for particular
applications. This experience should be utilized to benefit from correlations made between previous
test results and in-situ performance.
Accelerating chemical reactions by heating can produce effects that do not occur at normal ambient
temperatures so tests should be carried out in the anticipated conditions. This means that testing
takes several months, depending on the rate of deterioration observed.
Tests for surface scaling caused by wetting and drying or freezing and thawing in the presence of a
salt solution typically involve creating a reservoir of the test solution on one surface of the
specimen, exposing the specimen to alternating exposure conditions and observing changes in
weight and appearance after a prescribed number of cycles. Again, the tests take months rather than
days to complete. Tests that involve repeat cycling are rarely automated and are therefore labour
intensive.
Even with “realistic” test conditions, it is difficult to predict the service life of a material from test
results because performance depends also on the ability of the concrete surface to prevent ingress of
the aggressive medium, which is greatly affected by the method of finishing and curing used on site
and is hard to simulate on a small specimen made in the laboratory. If possible, test specimens
should be cut from larger specimens prepared in a manner that better represents slab construction.

9.6.7 MOISTURE CONTENT

Before applying a coating or covering to a concrete floor it is important that the moisture content of
the floor be low enough to avoid condensation of evaporating water causing adhesion failure or
degradation of materials in contact with the concrete. To avoid such problems, manufacturers of
coatings and adhesives often specify a maximum moisture content or water vapour transmission
rate at the time of application. Evaporation and condensation of moisture depends on the
temperature and humidity of the concrete and surrounding air, so measurements should be made at
the conditions expected once the floor is in service. ASTM E1907 describes practices for
determining whether a floor is in an acceptable condition to receive moisture sensitive coverings.
Moisture content gives an indication of the amount of water present at a given time as liquid or
vapour, depending on how it is measured. A qualitative method of indicating whether there is a
significant moisture content is to seal a clear plastic sheet over the surface – if condensation appears
on the underside or the concrete darkens overnight then the concrete is still too wet to seal (ASTM
D4263). This test is qualitative, subjective and highly sensitive to the relative temperatures of the
plastic sheet, the concrete and the surrounding air but is simple and non-destructive. A quantitative,
objective method is to measure the weight loss when a sample of concrete taken from the floor is
artificially dried.
Electrical resistivity, impedance, capacitance and conductivity of concrete are also related to
moisture content and can be used to monitor the drying rate of a floor in-situ. These properties
vary with concrete materials and mix designs so are best used to monitor changes rather than
absolute values.
Relative humidity (RH) in the concrete pores can be measured to obtain an indication of moisture
content, although the RH is related to the pore structure so can vary between different concretes
with the same moisture content. To measure RH, a sealed volume of air is equilibrated with the air
in the concrete pores, either by sealing a container over the surface. Capacitance-based humidity
gauges are often used to measure the humidity. Enough time, at least 24 hours for surface
measurements, must be left for the sealed air space to equilibrate with the air in the concrete. Many
manufacturers of floor coverings use RH-based application criteria.
Moisture vapour transmission rate is probably the critical factor rather than the absolute moisture
content since it is the evaporation of moisture from the concrete that causes problems, not the
moisture in the concrete. This can be measured by placing a dish of calcium chloride in a sealed air
space on the concrete surface and monitoring its weight increase over at least 72 hours (ASTM

110
F1869). A maximum moisture vapour transmission rate is often specified by manufacturers of
impermeable coatings/coverings.
For all methods except those that involve sampling below the concrete surface, the effects of
permanent curing compounds or other surface treatments must be taken into account. It is often
recommended that moisture properties be measured by two different methods, including one that
measures the rate of moisture loss.

9.6.8 FLATNESS
Flatness requirements will depend on the use of the floor and the nature of the final surface finish.
The regularity of floors has traditionally been measured as deflections from a leveled or freestanding
10 foot (3m) straightedge. A maximum gap
Figure 9.14 between straightedge and floor would be
An F-meter specified. The method has several deficiencies: it
is difficult to apply to large areas, it is difficult to
randomly sample a floor, it has not been
standardized and has poor reproducibility, it is
difficult to meet specified tolerances with 100%
compliance, and it does not account for repeated
irregularities. More sophisticated measuring
techniques are available.
ASTM E1155 prescribes a method of measuring
and describing the flatness and levelness of a
floor by the characteristic F numbers, FF and FL.
Straight lines are marked on the floor surface and
point elevations measured at regular intervals
Figure 9.15 along the lines. Measurements may be made by
An F-meter in use any of several different techniques. Elevation
differences between all adjacent reading points are
calculated and evaluated statistically to obtain
estimates of FF and FL. The method was designed
for randomly trafficked surfaces. Three is an
approximate correlation between the flatness
number and the straight edge tolerance.
ASTM E 1486 describes a method for determining
the flatness, levelness and wheel path
characteristics using waviness indices. This
method can be used for either randomly- or
defined wheel path-trafficked floor surfaces. The
measurement technique is similar to that of
ASTM E1155, but the results are analysed
differently. It was designed primarily to measure floor surface wavelengths that most affect forklift
rideablility.
When assessing the “as built” characteristics for compliance with a specification, levelness should be
measured within 72 hours of concrete placement and before formwork and other support is
removed to avoid the effects of shrinkage, curling and deflection after construction. Flatness would
normally be measured at the same time although it is unlikely to be affected with age.
The treatment of construction joints in flatness measurements needs careful consideration. They
constitute a discontinuity that may or may not be trafficked depending on location. A separate
measurement and analysis of the joints may be appropriate.

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 9 concrete testing

9.6.9 WATER PERMEABILITY/ABSORPTION

The ability of concrete to take up moisture will play a major part in its ability to resist the ingress of
aggressive agents. Conversely, the more permeable it is the faster it will dry after curing, and the
faster the effects of any leaks in damp proofing will be noticed. Permeability/absorption properties
are measured less often than other properties for floors, and more often for reinforced concrete
structures subject to corrosion of reinforcement, or leakage of contents or groundwater. Moisture
transfer occurs by several physical mechanisms but testing is usually broken down to “permeability”
tests and “absorption” tests.

Permeability
Permeability is used to describe the resistance of concrete fluid under pressure at the concrete
surface. Permeability can be measured on site or on laboratory specimens. The passage of the fluid
can be monitored by flow at the downstream side of a laboratory specimen, the lowering of water
level at the upstream side or penetration depth. Both site and laboratory tests suffer from the effects
of localized voids, which result in misleadingly high permeabilities being measured, and from
difficulties in sealing the test concrete to avoid loss of fluid in directions other than that intended.
Site measurements of water permeability are affected by the moisture content of the concrete.
Laboratory water permeability tests are often based on saturated flow to overcome this problem.
One standardized test for permeability is DIN 1048, which measures water penetration into a
saturated sample. However there are several other proprietary/literature techniques and major
testing laboratories have developed their own in-house procedures. Special procedures are needed to
measure the permeability of low permeability concretes.

Absorption
Absorption is the uptake of water into dry or partly saturated concrete, principally by capillary
suction. Again, it can be measured on site or in the laboratory and is affected by the moisture
content of the sample at the start of the test. Absorption is measured more often than permeability
because it simulates natural wetting and drying processes. Absorption reflects the properties of the
pore structure which determine concrete durability so is increasingly being used as an indicator of
concrete quality.
There are several standardized procedures for measuring absorption, including ASTM C642, ASTM
C1151, AS 1012.21. The difference between the weight of a specimen in different moisture
conditions as measured by NZS 3112: part 3:1986 Section 5 can also be used as an indication of the
capacity of the concrete to take up water. These methods may be used for concrete made in the
laboratory or samples taken from a site.
Major testing laboratories often use in-house methods to measure the absorption of moisture at a
concrete surface with time, which is expressed as sorptivity. Tests are carried out in the laboratory
on dried specimens. Either the weight (volume) of water absorbed or the depth of penetration can
be measured. BS 1881-208, also known as the ISAT procedure, can be carried out on site.
The results from absorption and sorptivity tests are affected by the moisture content of the concrete
and the procedure used to dry the specimens before (or after) testing. Permeability and absorption
tests are described in more detail by the UK Concrete Society (TR31)41.

9.6.10 SLIP RESISTANCE

Clause D1.3.3(d) of the New Zealand Building Code (1998) requires that access routes have
adequate slip-resistant walking surfaces under all conditions of normal use. Compliance with this
clause may be verified by confirming that the surface has a minimum coefficient of friction under
the expected conditions of use, as described in Verification Method D1/VM1.
Slip resistance may be measured in the laboratory as part of the process of selecting a surface finish,
flooring system or remedial treatment, or in-situ to assess the behaviour of an existing floor or to
monitor the effects of wear and maintenance.

112
Coefficient of friction is measured by either of two methods described by AS/NZS 3661.1 1993. This
standard also specifies friction requirements for surfaces.
For wet conditions the pendulum friction tester is used. This device has a rigid swinging arm which
contacts the surface with a rubber slider. It is designed to represent the response of a pedestrian
wearing suitable footwear by replicating the effect of aquaplaning when running or turning
abruptly.
The Tortus floor friction tester is specified for dry surfaces. It drags a cylindrical rubber slider
across the test surface to simulate the action of pedestrians moving slowly across the surface.
Results from both tests are corrected to adjust for sloping surfaces. The tests are non-destructive.

9.6.11 LOCATION OF REINFORCEMENT

The location and depth of steel reinforcement in hardened concrete can be measured with an
electromagnetic covermeter. Although this is a non-destructive technique, it is recommended that a
hole be drilled over reinforcement at least on location to
Figure 9.16 calibrate the equipment for the size of steel being
Covermeter in use detected and the particular concrete used. The size and
condition of the reinforcement thus exposed should be
noted: is it the size specified, and is the surface free from
visible contaminants and corrosion products.

9.6.12 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Hardened concrete can be analysed chemically to
identify its composition. The most common technique
used is determination of the cement content by analysis
of silica and calcium contents, typically carried out to
ascertain whether the mix design used was appropriate
or as specified. Methods are also available to determine
the presence of chemical contaminants. Chemical admixtures are difficult to detect once the
concrete is more than a few days old, but the presence of mineral admixtures (supplementary
cementitious materials) can be determined from silica and calcium contents.
Chemical analysis is very precise. Only small quantities, typically a few grams, are analysed so the
accuracy of the analysis is critically dependant on the original sample being representative of the
concrete in question, and on how the sample is reduced to produce and analytical specimen.
BS1881: part 124: 1998 specifies some analytical techniques for hardened concrete. Many analyses
can now be performed by instrument rather than by wet chemistry. Specialist advice should be
sought on the availability and limitations of particular techniques.

9.6.13 APPEARANCE
Much information can be gained from a qualitative inspection of a concrete surface: the nature of
any cracking and when it appeared, the uniformity of colour, evidence of large-scale deflections or
unevenness, the surface texture, the presence of dusting, laitance, voids, efflorescence, delaminations
(detected by sound) and the condition of joints.
The surfaces of core samples taken for physical testing or chemical analysis should always be
inspected for indicators of the concrete quality: did it segregate, was it compacted properly, did it
bleed excessively, are the quantities and distribution of aggregate and paste fractions satisfactory, is
there a distinct surface layer? Was the concrete particularly easy or hard to cut, did the cooling fluid
disappear, did the core break while being cut?
Examination of a slice of concrete by petrographic microscope can give information about the mix
proportions, size and distribution of voids, nature and extent of cracking and other forms of
deterioration. It is particularly useful for distinguishing localized surface properties from those of
the bulk of the concrete.

Concrete Ground Floors & Pavements for Commercial and Industrial Use: Part 2 – Specific Design 113
 9 concrete testing

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF STANDARDS
NZS 3101 Concrete Structures
NZS 3104 Concrete Production – High Grade and Special Grade
NZS 3109 Concrete Construction
NZS 3112 Methods of Test for Concrete
Part 1 Tests Relating to Fresh Concrete
Part 2 Tests Relating to the Determination of Strength of Concrete
Part 3 Tests on Hardened Concrete other than for Strength
NZS/ISO/IEC 17025:1999
General Requirements for the competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories
AS 1012.4.3 Methods of Testing Concrete – Determination Of The Air Content Of Freshly-
Mixed Concrete – Measuring Air Content When Concrete Dispersed In Water.
AS 1012.13 Methods of Testing Concrete – Determination of the Drying Shrinkage of Concrete
for Samples Prepared in the Field or in the Laboratory
AS 1012.16 Methods for Testing Concrete – Determination of Creep of Concrete Cylinders in
Compression
AS 1012.21 Methods for Testing Concrete – Determination of Water Absorption and Apparent
Volume of Permeable Voids in Hardened Concrete.
AS 2350.14 Methods of Testing Portland and Blended Cements – Length Change of Portland
and Blended Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulphate Solution
AS/NZS 3661.1 Slip Resistance of Pedestrian Surfaces
AS/NZS 4456.9 Masonry Units and Segmental Pavers – Method for Determining Abrasion
Resistance
ASTM C42 Test method for obtaining and testing drilled cores and sawed beams of concrete.
ASTM C215 Test method for fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal and Torsional Resonant
Frequencies of concrete specimens
ASTM C267 Standard Test Methods for chemical Resistance of Mortars, Grouts, and Monolithic
Surfacings and Polymer Concretes
ASTM C469 Test method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in
Compression
ASTM C512 Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression
ASTM C642 Test Method for Density Absorption and Voids in Hardened Concrete
ASTM C672 Test method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing
Chemicals
ASTM C779 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Horizontal concrete surfaces
ASTM C803 Test method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete
ASTM C805 Test method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete
ASTM C900 Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete
ASTM C944 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the
Rotating Cutter method
ASTM C1012 Length Change of Hydraulic Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulphate Solution
ASTM C1151 Test Method for Evaluating the Effectiveness of materials for Curing Concrete
ASTM D4263 Standard Test Method for Indicating Moisture by the plastic Sheet method
ASTM E1155 Test Method for determining FF/FL (Floor Flatness and Floor Levelness)
ASTM E1486 Test Method for Determining Floor Tolerances Using Waviness, Wheel path and
Levelness Criteria
ASTM E1907 Standard Practices for Determining Moisture-Related Acceptability of Concrete
Floors to Receive Moisture Sensitive Finishes
ASTM F710 Standard Practice for Preparing Concrete Floors to Receive Resilient Flooring
ASTM F1869 Standard Test Method for measuring Moisture Vapour Emission Rate of Concrete
Subfloor using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride
BS 1881-124 Testing Concrete. Methods for Analysis of Hardened concrete
BS 1881-208 Testing concrete. Recommendations for the Determination of the Initial Surface
Absorption of Concrete
DIN 1048

Further information about concrete testing can be found in the following:

• American Concrete Institute “Concrete Manual”
• American Society for Testing and Materials “Significance of tests and properties of Concrete and
Concrete-making materials”, ASTM STP169C.
• Concrete Society (UK) “Permeability Testing of Site Concrete”, Technical Report 31.

114
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Concrete Association of New Zealand.
2. Concrete ground floors & pavements for commercial & industrial use: part 1. (1999). Wellington: Cement and
Concrete Association of New Zealand.
3. ACI Committee 360. (1997). ACI 360R-92. Design of slabs on grade. [ACI Manual of Concrete Practice
2000]. Retrieved from MCP database (Microsoft Windows CD-ROM, 2000 release, Item ACI 360r_92.pdf).
4. Stockwell, M.J. (1977). Determination of allowable bearing pressure under small structures. New Zealand
Engineering, 32 (6), 132-135.
5. Concrete industrial ground floors – a guide to their design and construction (Technical Report No. 34).
(1994). Slough: Concrete Society.
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