FRAMEWO

RKS,

FRAMEWORKS AND MACHINES

7-1 INTRODUCTION 264

7-2 FLAT ARMORS 265
7-3
SPACE ARMORS... 299
7-4 FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES 308
SUMMARY 321

An extensive structure of art was used ripe to

support the scaffolding for the workers
restoring the Statue of Liberty.
 7.1 INTRODUCTION
264____________________________
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND In Chapter 6, equilibrium equations have been used to determine the external reactions
MACHINES that support a rigid body. However, that of Termination of reactions at supports is only
the first step in the analysis of structures and machines. In this chapter we are going to
use the equilibrium equations to determine the forces at the nodes of composite
structures. members connected by pin. The determination of these forces is a necessary
first step for the choice of fasteners (type, size, ma terial, etc.) that are used to hold the
structure together. In Chapter 8 we will expand this analysis to see how to determine the
resultant of the internal forces in a member. The determination of the internal forces is
necessary saria to project the members that make up the structure.
Like all forces (internal, external, applied, or reactive), the forces in the nodes are
always, two by two, of equal module and support line, but opposite. If they are not
separated from the rest of the structure (or the surrounding medium) by means of a free
solid diagram, there will be no need to consider this. pairs of forces when writing the
equilibrium equations. Therefore , to determine the forces in the nodes, the structure will
have to be divided into two or more parts. The joint forces will then become, at the
separation points, external forces in each free solid diagram and enter the equilibrium
equations. The application of these equations to the different parts of a simple armature,
framework or machine will allow us to determine all the forces acting on the connections.

Although there are many types of structures, in this chapter I will focus We focus on
two of the most common and important types:
Armors, which are structures composed entirely of members of two forces. Armor
generally consists of trian subelements gular and are supported in such a way as to
prevent all movement. Bridge supports, such as those shown in Figure 7-1, are
reinforced ras. Its light structure can withstand a strong load with a weight that is
relatively small structural structure.
Frames, which are structures that always contain at least one member on which
forces are exerted at three or more points. The structure The table in Figure 7-2 is a
lattice. The trusses are also constructed and supported in a way that prevents their
movement. The structures Frame-type structures that are not completely
immobilized are called machines or mechanisms.

(c)

(d)

Figure 7-1
Figure 7-2
7.2 FLAT ARMORS 265
7.2 FLAT ARMORS
The truss is a structure composed of usually straight members joined at their ends and
loaded only at these joining points, called two knots (fig. 7-1). The light structure of a
truss provides, for long spans, greater resistance than many stronger types of structure
would provide. It is common to see trusses supporting roofs of buildings and also
large elevated railway bridges. Although not commonly seen, trusses also form the
skeleton of many large buildings.
Plane reinforcements are contained in a single plane and all applied loads must be
contained in it. Flat reinforcements are used knot in pairs to support bridges, as
indicated in Figure 7-3. All members of the ABCDEF truss are in the same plane see
tical. The loads on the bridge deck are transmitted to nodes ABCD by the deck
structure. The loads thus transmitted to the joints act in the same vertical plane of the
reinforcement.
Space trusses are structures that are not contained in a single plane and/or are
loaded outside the plane of the structure. Examples of these are the trusses that
support large antennas and windmills . In section 7.3, space armor will be studied .
In the analysis of reinforcements, four fundamental hypotheses are formulated.
One result of the hypotheses is that all members of the idea structure lized are
members of two forces. Such structures are much easier to analyze than more general
structures that have the same number of members. Even though hypotheses are
idealizations of real structures, real trusses behave very roughly in accordance with
the idealizations. The resulting error is usually small enough to justify the hypotheses.

The members of the trusses are joined only at their ends.

The first hypothesis assumes that the reinforcement in Figures 7-la and 7-3 must
be drawn in the manner indicated in Figure 7-4. In practice , the main sections Upper
and lower cipals frequently consist of members that cover several several nodes,
rather than a series of shorter members between nodes. However, truss members are
typically long and slender and can withstand little lateral loading or bending moment.
Therefore, the non-continuous member hypothesis is usually acceptable. Since the
members are not continuous backwards vesing a knot, there will be no confusion
when drawing the reinforcement using the re presentations by lines of figure 7-1.

Figure 7-3 Figure 7-4

266 _____________________________ The truss members are connected by pins.
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND In real trusses, members are usually bolted, welded, or riveted to a node plate, as
MACHINES
shown in Figure 7-5a, rather than connected by an ideal frictionless pin, as shown in
Figure 7-5a. indicated in Figure 7-5b. However, experience indicates that the friction-
free pin is an acceptable idealization as long as the axes of the members intersect at one
point.

The armor is only loaded at the knots.

It has already been said that the members that make up the armor are usually long
and slender. Like cables, such members can withstand large tension (axial) loads but
cannot withstand moments or loads. Strong lateral gas. The loads must or be applied
directly to the nu two, as indicated in the diagrams in Figure 7-1, or must be carried to
them by a floor structure as indicated in Figure 7-3.

The weights of the members can be neglected.

Frequently, in the analysis of reinforcement, the weight of the members is neglected.

Although this may be acceptable in the case of pe However, it may not be so in the case
of a large bridge truss. Once again However, since the members can resist only weak
bending moments or small lateral loads, experience indicates that the error in assuming
that the load is exerted at the joints of the truss is small. In practice, it is common to
assume that half the weight of each member s exerts on each of the two nodes that
connect it.
The result of these four hypotheses is that the forces are only exerted at the ends of
the members. Furthermore, since the pins are supposed to be exempt friction, there are
no moments applied to the ends of the members bros. Therefore, according to the
analysis in section 6.3, each member is a two-force member that only supports axial
force, as indicated in the fi Figure 7-6. In its simplest form, a truss (such as that shown in
Figure 7-7a) consists of a set of two-force members joined by frictionless pins, as shown
in Figure 7-76.

Figure 7-6

Figure 7-7
 In the case of two-force members, the forces are directed along the line joining their 267
points of application. Now, since the members of the armor are usually straight, the 7.2 FLAT ARMORS
forces will be directed along the axis of the member. bro, as indicated in Figures 7-6 and
7-7.1 The forces pulling on the end of a member (as in Figs. 7-6 and 7-7) are called
tensile or tensile forces and tend to elongate the limb. Forces that squeeze the end of the
limb tend to shorten it. These forces are said to be compression. In Figure 7-6 it can be
seen that when a knot exerts a force that pulls on the end of a member, the member
exerts forces that also pull on the knot.
It is important to distinguish which members of a truss are under compression and
which are under tension (are in tension). The members Long, slender members of armor
are very resistant to tension but tend to flex or buckle when subjected to strong
compressive loads. Reinforcement members that are to be subjected to compression
should be thicker than the other members or braced to prevent buckling.
One end of a large bridge truss is usually left "flo tar" on a shoe or roller support, as
shown in Figure 7-1. Apart from the mathematical requirement (in a plane equilibrium
problem, only three support reactions can be determined), such support is necessary to
allow expansion or contraction of the structure due to temperature variations.
The basic constituent element of all armor is the triangle. for man To have its shape
and resist the large loads applied to it , the reinforcements must be rigid structures. The
simplest structure that is rigid (independent depending on how it is supported) is the
triangle. Of course, the word rigid does not mean that the armor does not deform at all
when loaded. Experiment It will have very small deformations, but will almost
completely maintain its original shape.
"Rigid" is often interpreted to mean that the truss will retain its shape when removed
from its supports or when one of the supports can slide freely. In this sense, the truss in
Figure 7-8 would be rigid, while that in Figure 7-9 would not be . The truss in Figure 7-9
is said to be a composite truss and the lack of internal stiffness is compensated for by a
further external support reaction.
The basic constituent element of all armor is the triangle. he arms them Large duras
are built by joining several triangles. A method of cons Construction begins with a basic
triangular element such as triangle ABC in Figure 7-10. Additional triangular elements
are added one by one by joining a new knot (e.g. e.g., D) to the armor, using two new
members bros (p. e.g. BD and CD). Trusses that can be constructed in this way are called
simple trusses. Even though it may seem that all the ar Mature structures composed of
triangles are simple trusses, that is not the case. For example For example, none of the
trusses in Figures 7-8 or 7-9 are simple trusses.
The importance of simple reinforcement is that it allows you to check The rigidity
and resolubility of the armor can be easily improved. Obviously, as the

1
However, in the case of curved two-force members, the line joining their ends is not the axis of the
member. All trusses to be considered in this chapter will contain only straight two-force members.
Section 7.2.4 briefly discusses the effect of members. curved two-force bros.
268
Simple armor is made up only of triangular elements, it will always be rigid.
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND Furthermore, since each new knot brings with it two new members, there is a simple
MACHINES relationship between the number n of knots and the number m of members in a simple
planar truss:

m=2n-3 (7-1)

In the study of the method of knots that will follow, it will be seen that this is exactly the
necessary condition to guarantee that the number of equations to solve (2n) is equal to the
number of unknowns to be solved (m force whacks in the limbs plus 3 reactions in the
supports).
Even though Equation 7-1 ensures that a simple plane truss is rigid gized and
resolvable, is neither sufficient nor necessary to ensure that a weapon hard not simple be
rigid and resolvable. For example, the nonsimple plane trusses of Figures 7-8 and 7-9 are
both rigid (at least when joined). given to its supports) and resolvable, even when one
(fig. 7-8) satisfies equation 7-1 and the other (fig. 7-9) no. A tempting generalization of
equation 7-1 is

m = 2n-r (7-2)

where r is the number of reactions at the supports. The two trusses in Figures 7-8 and 7-9
satisfy equation 7-2, as do all simple trusses that have the usual three support reactions.
However, constructions may be encountered for which even Equation 7-2 is not an
adequate test of the resolvability of the reinforcement.

knot method

Consider the truss in Figure 7-11 a, whose free solid diagram can be seen in Figure 7-1
Ib. Since the armor, as a whole, is a rigid body in balance, each of its parts must also be in
balance. The knot method consists of disassembling the reinforcement, drawing by itself
standing free solid diagrams of each part—each member and each pass dor—as indicated
in Figure 7-12 and apply the equilibrium equations to each of the parts of the truss, one
after the other.
The free-solid diagrams of the members in Figure 7-12 only have axial forces applied
to their ends under the assumptions made about how the truss is constructed and loaded.
The symbol represents feels the unknown force in member HC. (The order of the
subscripts is in different; that is, Tgc= TCB). As the supporting lines of all the forces in
the members are known , in each of them the force will remain completely te specified by
giving its module and its meaning; that is, whether the force points away from the
member, as in Figure 7-12, or toward it. Thus, the force (which is a vector magnitude)
will be represented by the scalar symbol T S Q. He felt do of the force will be taken from
the sign of T BC ; The positive sign would mean that the force has the direction assigned to
it in the free solid diagram and the negative sign would indicate that the force has the
opposite direction to that assigned.
Forces pointing away from the member, as in Figure 7-12. They tend to stretch it and
are said to be traction (or tension) forces. The forces pointing towards the member tend to
compress it and are said to be compressive forces. It is usually not known beforehand
whether a member is in compression or tension. Even though some try to foresee and
draw something some forces such as traction and others such as compression, it is not
necessary to do it. In this book, free solid diagrams will all be drawn as if all members
were in tension. The negative value of a force in the solution will indicate that the
member was under compression. This can be recorded either by saying that TBc= -2500 269
N or by saying that TBC = 2500 N (C). The latter is preferable, since it does not depend 7.2 FLAT ARMORS

on whether member BC was assumed to be in tension or compression in the free solid

diagram . •
According to Newton 's third law (action and reaction), the force that a pin exerts on a
member is equal and opposite to the force that the member exerts on the pin. Therefore ,
the same symbol T AB will be used for the force that member AB exerts on pin B as for the
force that pin B exerts on member AB. Having drawn the free solid diagram of the
members as two-force members ensures that the members bros are in balance. No further
information is then obtained from the free solid diagrams of the two-force members and
they can be suppressed in the remainder of the analysis. The analysis of the reinforcement
is reduced to considering the balance of the knots that constitute it — hence the name
Knot Method .
The balance of the knots that constitute the armor is expressed by drawing making a
free solid diagram for each node and writing the equilibrium equation

EF = 0 (7-3)

for each knot. As in each of them concurrent forces act with planars, the moment balance
will not give any useful information and Equation 7-3 will have only two independent
components. Therefore, an ar flat plane containing n pins will give a total of 2n scale
equations independent lares. But according to equation 7-1. This is precisely the number
of independent equations needed to solve for the forces in the members and the support
reactions of a simple truss. ple.
The solution of the 2n equations is greatly simplified if you can a knot is formed on
which only two unknown forces and one or more known forces are exerted (p. e.g., knot
D in fig. 7-12). In this case, the two equations tions for this knot can be solved
independently of the rest of the equations. If it is not easy to find such a knot, it is usually
possible to create a solution. looking first at the equilibrium equations of the
reinforcement as a whole together. Once two unknown forces have been determined, they
can be treated as known forces in the free solid diagrams of the other nodes. The knots
are resolved in this way one after another until they are all known. you give the strength
It has already been said that a negative value of a force (such as T DC ) indicates that
the member is in compression and not in tension. It is not necessary to go back to the free
solid diagram and change the direction of the arrow. In reality, it has Doing so is likely to
only cause confusion. Free solid diagrams must all be drawn consistently . The negative
value of a symbol in a free solid diagram translates into the same negative value of the
same mo symbol on another free solid diagram.
270
Once all the forces have been determined, a summary must be made with marking in
Next , the free solid diagram of pin C is drawn and re solve the system of
equilibrium equationsa list the modules of the forces corresponding to the different limbs, indicating in each
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS
AND MACHINES one whether it is traction or compression (v. example problems).
+-ZF= -Ten-Te eos 0 = 0
Finally . It -L
should
41- be noted that the balance equations of the reinforcement as a whole
are contained
++IFin= the balance equations
-2000-T,-T,sene= of the joints (v. problem 7-31). That is, if all the
or bL HL
nodes are in balance, as well as all two limbs, the total armor is also. The consequence of
where
this is that the three reactions of the supports can be determined together with the m
toforces
AD sen85ac
in the members 4from the 2nd balance equations of the elements. two. Global
= 0,4472
equilibrium in this /42+82case can be used to check the solution. tion. Now, if global
equilibrium is first used to determine the reactions of the supports and help initiate the
and method of nu two, then three of the 2n knot equilibrium equations will be super abundant
= 0,8944
and can be used to check8 the solution.
se-CD. 42+82
A.C.

But TCD = -1000 N, so

TCD -1000
TAc eos 6 '0.8944
=
TBc = -200-(1118)(0.4472) = - 2500N
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.1

Next, the free solid diagram

Use theof pinmethod
knot B is drawn andthe
to find screen
forcethe
in equilibrium
each member equations
of the arm. mature from figure 7-1 the.

SOLUTION
+-EF --TAB- 0
The ABCD truss is a simple truss with m = 5 members and n = 4 knots. Therefore , of the eight
+*LF
equations = Tgc+2500
obtained = or
from the balance of the four nu two, the three reactions of the supports and
forces in the five limbs can be cleared.
From the first of these equations
Theitfirst
results
step will be to draw a free solid diagram of the reinforcement as a whole (fig. 7-
2000 11 b) and write the equilibrium equations
TAB5o) .
+-LF = 1000+ A, = 0
On the other hand, the second equation does not contain unknowns since the
++LF = -2000+A +B value
= 0 of T
Yo and and
BC had already been found. The second equation can be used to check the cohe rence of
+LMA = - (4)(1000)- (8)(2000)+ 8B, = or
the answers:

From these equations we obtain

(- 2500) + 2500 = 0 (check)

A, = -1000 N B, = 2500 N A, = -500 N

Finally, the free solid diagram of pin A is drawn and written

+ — Next
>ZF — , the
T . nfree
+ T solid
ir eosdiagram of 0pin D is drawn and re solve the system of equilibrium
0- 1000 —
equations nu river
+“IF = T+T, sin 0 - 500 = 0
TO THE U
+-EF = 1000 + Tc = 0
There are no unknowns in these equations either since the values of ^AB
+EF = -Tad = 0- TAcyTAD
have been found previously. These two equations reduce again to a check for the
with what you get
consistency of the solution:
T
CD = -1000 N
0 +(1118X0.8944)- 1000 = -0.06
TAD=ON
0 +(1118)(0.4472)-500 = -0,03

The difference is less than the rounding that has been done in the values of TAB, and
TAD, so the solution is proven.
The answers sought are

Ans.
TAB=TAD=ON
271
7.2 FLAT ARMORS
ill_____________________________ TAC = 1118 (T) Ans.
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND
T, = 2500 N (C) Ans.
MACHINES
Te = 1000 N (C)
Ans. .

(The fact that T AB and T AD are zero is a peculiarity of the loads and does not mean that
members AB and AD can be eliminated from the truss. In case of slightly different loads,
the forces in those members would not be zero. Even at the given loading condition,
members AB and AD turn out to be necessary to ensure the stiffness of the truss. For
example, without member AB, the truss would collapse even if it moved slightly to the
right or left. darling the support roller B.)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.2

The truss shown in Figure 7-13a supports one side of a bridge; another equal armor
supports the other side. The floor beams carry vehicle loads to the truss nodes. A 2000 kg
car is parked on the bridge. Calculate the force on each member of the truss using the knot
method.

SOLUTION

The truss in Figure 7-13a is a simple truss with m = 7 members and n = 5 knots. Therefore,
of the ten equilibrium equations of the five knots po The three reactions in the supports
plus the forces in the seven members will be cleared.
The first step is to divide the weight between the knots of the reinforcement. Half of
the weight of the car (1000)(9.81) = 9810 N is supported by the truss shown and the other
Figure 7-13 half by the truss on the other side of the bridge. Since the car is equidis tant of nodes A and
C. 4905 N will be applied to joint A and 4905 N will be applied to joint C.
The next step is to draw a free solid diagram of the entire reinforcement (fig. 7-13b)
4905N
and write the equilibrium equations:

+ - LF = A, = 0
+ IF = A -4905-4905+E =0
AND and
+LM, = 20 E -(IO)(49O5) = 0 a

From these equations we immediately obtain:

A, = 0 N E, = 2453 N A, = 7357 N

Now the free solid diagram is drawn (fig. 7-14a) of pin A and it is screen the
equilibrium equations:

+-EF = A, + T AC + T Ag eos 0=0

+LF = A,-4905+T,8 sin 0 = 0

Figure 7-14
where A,=ON,A,= 7357 Nye= tan1(5/6) = 39.81. Where from 273
7.2 FLAT ARMORS
APR = - 3830 N APR = 2942 N

As we now know one of the three forces applied to pin B, a with The free solid
diagram will then be drawn (fig. 7-1 4b) of this one. I equation them balance conditions
for this pin are:

+-EF = -TAgcos e+Tgp+Tge eos 0=0

EF=- T AB sine- Tgc sin 0 = 0

where = - 3830 N i= tan -1 (5/4) = 51.34'. From them we obtain

Tgc=3140N T,/=-4904N

At this point, pins C, D, or E could be resolved. since in each of them there are only
two forces whose values have not been determined. In this example, we will now consider
the free solid diagram of pin D (fig. 7-14d). Writing the horizontal and vertical
components of the equilibrium equations we have

+-EF = - (-4904) -Tcpcos 0+TpEcos 0 = 0

+ ZF = -T CD sin Ó-Tppsin 0 = 0

Both equations contain the two unknown forces TcpyTDE. Although the solution to this
system of two equations is not particularly difficult, the calculations can be simplified by
writing the equilibrium equations based on tion of components directed one according to
the member CD and the other perpendicular to it. With this you have

LF . = - (-4904)cos 0-T rn + T n rCos(0+0) = 0

LF, = (- 4904) sin 0- Tp sin (0 + 0) =0

The second of these equations immediately gives

TpE = - 383ON
So
T CD = 3140 N

Moving on to joint C, the free solid diagram is drawn (fig. 7- 14c) and it is screen the
equilibrium equations

+-LF = - (2942) - (3140) eos 0+ (3140) cos0+Te = 0

+ = (3140) sin 0- (4905) + (3140) sin 0 = 0

The first of these equations gives

TeE = 2942 N

Since the values of all the forces in the second equation have already been found, this will
serve to check the coherence of the results:

(3140) sin(51.34°) - (4905) + (3140) sin (51.34°) = - 1.16

(The small number -1.16 is due to rounding to four significant figures of intermediate
responses. If greater precision were maintained in the values? intermediates the residue
would be smaller, so the solution is proven.
Finally, the free solid diagram of the pin £ is drawn (fig. 7-14e) and the equilibrium
equations are written

+ — ZF = - Ter - TpE eos 0 = 0

+LF = TPE sin e+E, = 0

Again, there are no unknowns to resolve. These equations will serve to com probation

- (2942) - (-3830) eos (39.81°) = -0.10

(-3830) sin (39.81°) + (2453) = 0.87

which constitutes a new verification.

The requested answers are

T. a = T,, = 3830 N (C) Ans.

1
A b UL
T A c = T CE = 2942 N (T) Ans.
T
Tgc = CD = 3140 N (T) Ans.

T,p = 4909 N(C) Ans.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.3

The truss shown in Figure 7-15a supports one end of a pan open-air cinema size 12 m
wide by 7.2 m high weighing 35,000 N. Another armor also provides support to the other
end of the screen. A wind of 32 km/h that normally hits the screen exerts a pressure of
57.88 Pa. Calculate the maximum tensile and compressive forces in the members of the
truss and indicate in which members they occur.

SOLUTION

The ABCDEFCH truss is a simple truss with m - 13 members and n = 8 knots. Therefore,
from the 16 equations obtained from the balance of the eight nodes, the three reactions of
the supports and forces in the 13 members can be solved.
The first step is to draw the free solid diagram of the reinforcement as a whole (fig. 7-
1 5b) to find the reactions of the supports. The load distributed of the wind will be
replaced by its equivalent force

(57.88 Pa)(86.4 m2) = 5000 N

applied to the center of the screen. The end reinforcements will support each one. half the
weight and the distributed force, as indicated in the free solid diagram of Figure 7-15b.
The equilibrium equations are

+-IF = 2500+F, = 0

+IF = F u + H-\15^ = 0

. + XM F = - (1.8 - 0.1 )( 17 500) - (6X2500.) + 4.8H = 0

Solving this system, we have for the reactions of the supports

F = -2500N F = 8177 N H = 9323 N I •v

The next step is to draw the free solid diagram of the screen (fig. 7- 15c) to calculate
the forces exerted on the knots of the reinforcement. Again the distributed force of the
wind will be replaced by its equivalent force applied to the center of the screen. The
equilibrium equations are

+-EF = 2500- AD, = 0

+LF = D,-17500 = 0 •

.+LM, = (0J0M17 500) + 7.2A-(3.6X2500) = 0

Solving this system of equations results

4 = 1007 N D, = 1493 N D = 17 500 N - and

Now the knots will be resolved in an orderly manner starting from the highest one.

First, the free solid diagram of pin A will be drawn (fig. 7-1 6A) and the equilibrium
equations will be written

+ — , Lr — A + r sin e=0
TO THE

+ *EF = -TT,cos 0 = 0
HD 11-

where A - 1007 N and 0= tan 1(1.5/3.6) = 22.62'. Solving the system results

TA8=2417N and Tac=-2618N

At this time, in the free solid diagram of pin B there are three in cognitas. so it cannot
be resolved. Instead , the free solid diagram of pin C will be drawn (fig. 7-16c) and the
system of equilibrium equations will be solved

+-LF = -I BC -(- 2618)sin 0= 0 T BC = 1007 N

>UF = (-2618)eos 0-T c/ = 0 T C£ = -2417N

The free solid diagram of pin B is now drawn (fig. 7-16b) and re solve the system of
equilibrium equations

+-EF=1007+Tsene=0 T Rn = 4834 N
OL DU

+LF = 2417 -T BD -T gE eos 0 = 0 TgE=-2618N

At this time, the free solid diagrams of the pins D (fig. 7- 16d) and E (fig. 7- 1 6e)
each contain three unknowns, so they cannot be solved. Instead , the free solid diagram of
pin F is drawn (fig. 7-16/) and the system of equilibrium equations is solved

+Lr = T,(3/5)+T,+ (-2500) = 0 T=-10220N

+* ZF = F Df (4/5) + 8177 = 0 T FG = 8632 N

Now, the equilibrium equations for pin D (fig. 7-16d)

+-EF = 1493- (- 10220)(3/5) +TpE = 0

+Lr=- 17 500 + 4834- (- 10 220X 4/5) -Tpc=0

276 They only contain two forces that have not been found before and when solving this system
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND we have
MACHINES

T,0=-7625N and T,=-4490N UL LU

Next, the free solid diagram of pin E is drawn (fig. 7- 16e) and the equilibrium equations
are written

+-EF = - (-7625) - (-2618) sin e-TEG eos 0+ TEH eos 0 = 0

+ = (-2417) + (-2618) cose-Tecseno-TEgsen 0

i,i
where 0= tan '(2.4/ 1.5) = 58.0°. Solving the system we have

T Fr = 5294 N and T,=-10 994N u - L LI

The free solid diagram of pin G is now drawn (fig. 7-16g) and it is screen the equilibrium
equations

+ - LF = T GH + 5294 eos 0-8632 = 0

+*LF = (-4490) +5294 signal = 0

From the first equation it results

TGH = 5827 N

Now, in the second equation there are no longer any unknowns and it will be used to verify
the results

(-4490) + (5294) sin (58.0°) = -0.43

The remainder is due to the rounding of the previous values .

Finally , the free solid diagram of pin H is drawn (fig. 7-1 6h) and the equilibrium
equations are written

+-LF = -T GH -T EH cos0 = 0

+ Lr = Tpu sin 0 + H = 0 tn

There are no longer any unknowns in these equations and they will be used to check the
results:

- (5827) - (- 10 994) eos (58.0°) = 1.05 (checked)

(- 10 994) sin (58.0°) +9323 = -0.44 (checked)

Inspection of the limb forces obtained indicates that the ma The greatest tensile force is
suffered by member FG. while the greatest compression force is experienced by member EH:

maximum tensile = Tre = 8632 N (T) Ans.

maximum compression = TE = 10 994 N (C) Ans.

 ISSUES
7-1 to 7-12 Using the knot method, determine the force in each 7-8* a = 2 m P=7.5kN
member of the truss represented. India car if each member is subjected
p_5kN
to tension or compression.

7-1* a = 6m P=10kN

7-2* a = 5 m P = 9 kN

Figure P7-1.P7-2

« = 7.5m P=12.5kN 0 = 30’

7-3
a = 6.25m P = lkN 0=75’
7-4

Figure P7-3, P7-4

7-7 a=1.8m

7-12 a=4m P,=3kN P,=4kN

7-5* a=1.5m P = 3kN

7-6 a = 3m P = 2.5 kN

Figure P7-11.P7-12

7-13 Suppose that each of the members of the weapon hard of

problem 7-9 is made up of a 10 x 15 cm board whose weight per unit
length is 150 N/m. Suppose so that the weight of each member can
Figure P7-5, P7-6 be represented by

277
7-11* a = 3.6m P=3kN P2=4kN

278
a vertical force and that half of it is applied to each end mo. Determine member of the truss.
the force in each member of the truss. Compare the results with those
of problem 7-9.
Suppose that each member of the armor of the pro blem 7-12 is
made of steel and has a mass per unit length tud of 6 kg/m. Assume
that the weight of each member can be represented by a vertical force
and that half of it is applied to each end. Determine the force in each
member armor bro. Compare with the results of Problem 7-12.

7-15 Determine the force in each member of the pair of trusses that are
loaded as shown in Figure P7-15.

7- The cables that support the load in figure P7-17 are arranged as
indicated in figure P7-18. If the load has a mass of 1800 kg, determine
the forces in each member of the truss. Compare the ratios between the
Figure P7-15 forces in members BC and CD and the weight of the load with the
7-17 A load weighing 20 kN hangs from the truss in Figure P7-17 by
same ratios. tes in the case of Problem 7-17.
two light, inextensible cables, as indicated. Determine the force in each

Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss as

shown in Figure 17-16. All members bros are 3 m long.

Figure P7-18

7-19 Determine the forces in members CG and FG of the inverted

Figure P7-16
mansard truss of Fig. P7-19.
 Figure P7-19

Figure P7-23
Determine the forces in members CG and FG of the Warren bridge truss shown in Figure P7-20.

The snow on the roof supporting the Pratt truss in Figure P7-
24 can approximate a distributed load of 250 N/m (measured along
the roof). Treat the load dis distributed as it would be with the weight
of the members; that is, replace the total load on each of the upper
limbs res by a vertical force, applying half to each knot at the ends of
the member. Determine the strength in the members bros BC, CH and
CG. Compare the ratios between the forces in these members and the
total load supported by the reinforcement with the same ratios for
BC, CH, and CG from Problem 7-23.

Suppose that each of the members of the weapon The hard

board in Problem 7-19 is a board whose weight per unit length is 100
N/m. Suppose that the weight of each member can be represented by
a vertical force and that half of it is applied to each end. Determine
the force in members CG and FG. Compare the results with those of
the Pro problem 7-19.

Suppose that each member of the armor of the pro problem

7-20 is made of steel and has a mass per unit of lon gitude of 6 kg/m.
Suppose that the weight of each member can be represented by a
vertical force and that half of it is applied to each end. Determine the
Figure P7-24
force in members CG and FG. Compare the results with those of the
pro problem 7-20.

The snow on the roof supporting the Howe truss in Figure

P7-23 can approximate a distributed load of 300 N/m (measured
along the roof). Treat the load dis distributed as it would be with the
weight of the members; that is, replace the total load on each of the ’ Determine the forces in members BC, CD, and CG of
upper limbs res by a vertical force, applying half to each knot at the the cathedral roof truss depicted in Figure P7-25.
ends of the member. Determine the strength in the members BC
bros. BGyCG.

279
 1.2m

0.6m

E 0.6m

Figure P7-25

Figure P7-27

Determine the forces in members BC, CD, and CK of the vaulted roof truss shown in Figure P7-26.
15kN 15kN

Figure P7-26
Figure P7-28

7 29 Determine the forces in members DE, DE, and EF of the scissor

' -27 The Gambrel truss shown in Figure P7-27 supports one side of a truss shown in Figure P7-29.
bridge; another equal armor supports the other side. The floor beams
carry the vehicle loads to the truss joints. Calculate the forces in
members BC, BG , and CG in the case where a truck weighing 37.5
kN stops at the midpoint of the bridge as shown. The center of gravity
of the truck is at the point middle between the front and rear wheels.
7-28 The Gambrel truss shown in Fig. P7-28 supports one side of a
bridge; another equal armor supports the other side. The floor beams
carry the loads from the vehicles to the truss joints. Calculate the
forces in the members BC bros. BG and CG in the case where a truck
of mass 3500 kg stops at the midpoint of the bridge in the manner
shown . says. The center of gravity of the truck is 1 m in front of the
rear wheels.

280
 Figure P7-29

7-31 Demonstrate, for the simple three-bar truss in Figure 1'7-31, that
the balance of the truss as a whole is a consequence of the balance of
all the pins; Therefore, the equilibrium equations of the set do not
provide new information goes. (Hint: Write the equilibrium equations
strength of each pin and eliminate the unknown forces between them.)

Figure P7-31

7.2.2 Zero Strength Members

It often happens that certain members of a given truss do not support load. Zero-strength members of trusses usually result from one
of two general causes . The first is:
When only two non -collinear members form a knot and there is no external load or support reaction applied to it, the members will have
zero strength.

The truss in Figure 7-17a is an example of this condition. The free solid diagram of joint C has been shown in Figure 7-17b . I
equation them balance points of this knot

+-EF = - T BC - Tc eos 30° = 0

+|EF= -Tcp sin 30° = 0

281
282 they immediately give the solution
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES
TCD - 0 and TBc ~ 0
That is, in this particular reinforcement and for this particular state of loading, the two
members BC and CD could be eliminated , without affecting the solution. tion and even
(in this particular case) the stability of the armor.
The second cause of zero strength members in an ar mature is:

When three members form a knot in which two of the members are coli neal and the third
forms an angle with them, the non-collinear member will have zero force if there is no
external force or support reaction applied to the knot. The two collinear members support
equal loads (both are in tension or both in compression).

(to) This condition appears, for example, when the load of Figure 7-\7a is carried from joint
B to C, as indicated in Figure 7-18a. In Figure 7-1 8b you can see is the free solid
diagram of pin B. The equilibrium equations for this knot are

+-EF=- ^AB + ^BC “ 0

TCD
+"LF= -T BD = 0
(b)

figure 7-17 Thus, since no external load is exerted on joint B , the force of the member bro BD will
be null and those of members AB and BC will be of equal value — either both are
tensile (both positive) or both are compression (both negative). you go).
Once it is known that member BD has zero force, it reasons This would lead us to
the conclusion that member AD is not load-bearing. The free solid diagram of pin D can
be seen in Figure 7-18c. for sim To simplify the calculations, we will take coordinate
axes directed one according to the collinear members CD and DE and the other
perpendicular to them. The equilibrium equations will now be

+ZF, = -TT An cos 60° + T n cos 60° + T rn = 0

(to - •5 11 D.U. L.L.
)
+"ZF = TA sin60° + T Rn sin 60° = 0 and A L D.U.
TAB B TBC
4G=>
But since TBD = 0 (BD is already known to be a zero strength member), it will be

Tad = 0 AND ^DE = Tcd

(b)
Thus, for the loading state of Fig. 7-18a, the two members AD and BD are zero-force
members.
Now, these zero-strength members cannot simply be removed. of the armor and
discard them. They are necessary to ensure the stability of the armor. If members AD
and BD were omitted, nothing would prevent a small disturbance from slightly
displacing pin D and destroying the ali ing of the members, as indicated in Figure 7-
TDE 19a. The free solid diagram for pin D would then look like the following:

(d
Figure 7-18
Figure 7-19b. Taking coordinate axes, one directed according to CE and the other per 283
pendicular to this, we would have the following equilibrium equations: 7.2 FLAT ARMORS

+/ 2F, = - TpE eos d + Tcp cos

+* LF, = TpE sin 0+ Tcp sin 0 = 0

The first of these equations requires that TCD = TDE, while the second requires that T
CD = - T DE . The only way for these two conditions to be met nes is that both forces are

zero. But the equilibrium of pin C requires that T CD is not zero. What has happened, of
course, is that the armor is no longer in static equilibrium. Pin D will continue to slide
out and the frame will collapse.
An equally simple solution to the stability problem would be to replace replace the
two members CD and DE with a single member CE and replace the two members AB
and BC with a single member AC. Even though this solution satisfies would eliminate
the static part of the problem, it would not prevent the tendency of long, slender
members to buckle when subjected to strong compressive loads. Therefore, long
members such as member CE in Figure 7-18 are usually Replace with shorter members
with the central joint reinforced if analysis of the reinforcement indicates that the
member is likely to be in compression for certain loading states that may occur. The
members Long members, such as the AC of Figure 7-17, should also be replaced by a
pair of shorter members with the intermediate joint reinforced if it might be desired, at a
given time, to load the truss at some point along the member. bro.
Thus, one should not be too quick to discard members of a truss just because they
do not support load for a certain configuration. Such members are often necessary to
support part of the load when the load applied each varies and are almost always
necessary to ensure the stability of the ar mature.
Although awareness of these and other special loading conditions may simplify
reinforcement analysis , it is not necessary to solve reinforcement analysis. If we do not
realize that a member is of zero force, drawing the free solid diagram and writing the
equilibrium equations will show immeasurably diate that it is a member of zero strength.
Furthermore, these shortcuts must be taken with care. When there is any doubt about
whether a member is of zero strength, it is most prudent to draw the free solid diagram
and solve for the strength of the member.

In the simple Fink truss of Figure 7-20a, find the zero-force members for the indicated state
of loading.

SOLUTION

Node E connects three members, two of which (AE and ED) are collinear. The knot has no

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.4

loads applied to it. Therefore, the force on the non-coli member neal (BE) must be null. This
can be easily verified by drawing the
 free solid diagram of pin E (fig. 7-20b) and writing the equilibrium equations in the
284
direction perpendicular to the collinear members AE and DE
ARMORS. FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES
+* Lf = T,, sin 0 = 0

whence it immediately follows

Tae = 0
Even though knot D may seem similar to knot E. has a load applied and the previous
reasoning will not be applicable (as is easily verified by drawing the free solid diagram and
writing the equilibrium equations of the joint D).
The only zero force member for the given loading condition is the member bro BE.
Ans.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.5

3.5kN Identify the zero force members of the scissor truss in Figure 7 21 a for the indicated state
of charge.

SOLUTION

Node F connects three members, two of which (EF and FG) are collinear. SW No external
load is exerted on the knot and therefore the force in the member does not linear (DF) must
be null. Similarly, in knot H the members AH and GH are collinear and the knot is not
loaded; then force on the BFI member of must also be null.
Node B connects two collinear members (AB and BC) and two noncollinear members
(BG and BH). The knot is not loaded and it is known that the force in one of the non-
collinear members (BH) is zero. Therefore, the force in the other non- collinear member
(BG) must also be. This can be easily checked by drawing the free solid diagram of pin B
TBc (fig. 7-21b) and writing the equilibrium equation for the direction perpendicular to the
collinear members AB and BC

+\ZF = - sin eT,c sin ó = 0

is left over
(b)

Figure 7-21 Tac = °

Note that the reasoning used for joint B is not applicable to joint D because it has an
external load applied.
Therefore, the zero force members for the given charge state are BG. BH and DF.
Ans.
 ISSUES

7-32 to 7-43 Identify all zero-force members for the loads represented
in Figures P7-32 to P7-43.

Figure P7-36

Figure P7-32

Figure P7-33

Figure P7-39

285
 Section method

It was already said when discussing the method of knots that if the entire armor is in
balance, each of its parts is also in balance. However, this does not mean It means that
the armor has to be broken down into its elemental parts—member bros and pins, one
by one. In the section method , the reinforcement is divided into only two pieces. Each
one of them is. also, a body in equi bookish
For example, the truss in Figure 7-22a can be divided into two parts by passing an
imaginary section through it that cuts some of its members. Of course, the section will
need to cut the reinforcement so that complete free solid diagrams can be drawn for
each of the two pieces. Since the entire truss is in balance, the truss portion on the left
gives of section aa and the reinforcement part to the right of aa. They will also be in
balance.
In figures 7-22b and 7-22, the free solid diagrams of the two parts have been
drawn, which include the force exerted on each cut member by the other part of the
member, which has been left outside. Since these are straight two-force members, the
forces on them must be exerted along them , as indicated. The forces in the uncut
members are forces internal to the rigid bodies and are not indicated on the strength
diagrams. free do . Thus, to determine the force in member CF. the section of You will
have to cut this member.
As occurs in the plane equilibrium of any rigid body, three independent
equilibrium equations can be written for each rigid body. Six o'clock
resulting equations are sufficient to solve for six unknowns—the forces Wow on the 287
three severed members and the three reactions of the supports. As in the method of 7.2 FLAT ARMORS
nodes, the resolution of the equations can be simplified if the reactions of the supports
are determined from the balance of the entire reinforcement before being sectioned.
Then, the equations for both parts will give the three remaining unknown forces. In this
case, the equations Balance measurements for the other part of the truss do not provide
new information; They do nothing more than repeat the other equilibrium equations (v.
prob. 7-75).
If a section cuts four or more members whose strengths are not known ran. the
method of sections would not generate enough equilibrium equations to solve for all
the unknown forces. Even though it would still be possible to obtain values of one or Ay 'P "P2 E (a)
two forces (v. example problem 7-7). it is usually pre It is preferable to use a section
that cuts no more than three members whose forces are unknown.
It often happens that no section can be found that cuts no more than three members
and passes through a given member of interest. In such a case, it may be necessary to
draw a section through a nearby member and first solve for the forces on it. The knot
method can then be used to find the forces in the members next to the section, or the
reinforcement can be sectioned further to find the force in the inner member. teres (v. A,(b)
V.P.
example problem 7-8).
One of the main advantages of the section method is that it usually allows It is
impossible to determine the force in a member near the center of a large truss without
first obtaining the forces in the rest of the truss. As a result, the force calculation does
not depend on the errors made. two in the previous calculation of other internal forces.
On the other hand, to find the same force, the knot method would require previously
determining the forces in a large number of other members. The mistakes made in the
Termination of a force in one member would drag down the subsidy forces. leads to be
erroneously determined. Figure 7-22
Finally, the method of sections can serve as a check when Do not use the knot
method or a computer program to solve a large reinforcement. Even though it is
unlikely that a computer eats If there is an error in such a calculation, it is very likely
that the data provided to you is erroneous. These errors often occur when the operator
enters incorrectly produces the coordinates of a knot, incorrectly specifies how knots
are connected, or incorrectly applies a charge to the weapon hard. In such cases, the
section method can be used to purchase independently bar the forces on one or two
interior members.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.6

Use the method of sections to find the forces in members EF. JK and H] of the Baltimore
truss represented in figure 7-üa.

SOLUTION

First, the free solid diagram of the entire reinforcement is drawn (fig. 7 23b) to obtain the
reactions of supports A and D. Adding res moments pect A is had
288
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND .+LMA = 24D-(4)(2)-(8)(3)-(12)(5)-(16)(4)-(20)(3) = 0
MACHINES
from where it is cleared D:
D = 9kN

So the balance of forces gives

+-EF=A,=0 4 = 0 kN

+Lr-A,-2-3-5-4-3+D=0 A =8kN

Next, a section is passed that cuts members EF, /K and HI as indicated in Figure 7-
23b and the free solid diagrams of the two parts are drawn (fig. 7-23c and 7-23d). The
B E , F.C. force in member JK can be found by adding the forces in the vertical direction from
either diagram. For example, from Figure 7-23c

Lr = 8_2-3-54T,sin450 =0 T.„ = 2.828kN

JA JA

while from Figure 7-23d

(b)
+Lr = 9-3-4-T,0sin450 = 0 T... = 2.828kN
JA M

The force in member HJ can be obtained by adding moments about point f in

Figure 7-23d:

.-LM, = (8)/9)-(4103)-4T,, = 0 which gives

(0 T,, = 15 kN

Note that this is the same result obtained by adding moments about point F in
Figure 7-23c: •

+EMp = (12)(2)+(8103)+(415)-(16)08)+ 4T,, = 0

that also gives

T, = 15 kN
Id) nJ
Figure 7-23
Finally, the force in member EF can be obtained by adding forces in the horizontal
direction or by adding moments about I. Considering the latter and using Figure 7-23d,
we have

+ LM, = (12X9) +4Ter- (8)03) -(41(4) = 0 that is

T EF = - 17 kN
The answers sought are

TEr = 17 kN (C) T H¡ = 15 kN (T) T JK = 2.83 kN ( T) Ans.

(As global equilibrium was first used to find the reactions tions of the supports, the
balance of Figure 7-23c or 7 may be used. 23d to clear the forces in the limbs. Typically,
the part on which the least forces are exerted will give the simplest equilibrium
equations .)
 289
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.7 . - • =
ui ■m 7.2 FLAT ARMORS
■
Use the method of sections to find the
forces in members CD and FG of the truss in Figure 7-24a.

SOLUTION

The CD members are cut with a section . OF. EF and FG as indicated in Figure 7-24a
and the free solid diagram is drawn from the top of the ar mature (fig. 7-24b). Adding
moments with respect to D

.+LM, = (1.2)(2500 c0s309)-(1.8)(2500 sin30°)-2.4Trc

-(3.6)(2500 c0s30°)-(1.8)(2500sin30°) = 0

one has

T = -4040

Now adding moments with respect to F

.+ LM, = (3.6)(2500 eos 30°) - ( 1.8X2500 sin 30°) + 2.4Tc

-(1.21(2500eos 30°) -(1, 8)(2500 sin 30°) = 0

(to
)
one has

T CD = -290N

The validity of these answers can be checked using the vertical component of the
balance of forces

+"LF = - 2(2500 eos 30°)-(-4040) - (- 290) = -0.13

which is within the precision of the previous answers.

The answers sought are

TcD = 290 N (C) Ans.

Figure 7-24
T,c=4040N(C) Ans.

(Note that in this problem it was not necessary to first find the reactions tions of the
supports using the global equilibrium equations. Note also Well, with this section neither
TDE nor TEF could be found. To find these forces you would have to take other sections
or apply the knot method.)
Find the forces in members BC and BG of the Fink truss shown in Figure 7-25. The triangles are
c
either equilateral or right angled 30°-60 -90° and the charges are all perpendicular to side
ABCD.
290___________________________ SOLUTION
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND
First, the reactions at the supports are found by drawing the free solid diagram of the entire
MACHINES
truss (fig. 7-25b) and writing the equilibrium equations

+ - Er = A, + ( 15 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 15)( sin 30°) = 0

+LF = (15 + 30 + 30 + 30+ 15)(cos 30°) +E = 0

+EM, = 41.57E-(6)(30)-(12X30)-(18)(30)-(24X15) = 0

Solving this system of equations, it turns out

A, = - 60.00 kN A, = 69.28 kN E = 34.64 kN

A section cutting BC or BG would contain four unknown forces between Nas. The
equilibrium equations could not be solved unless we determined undermine one or more forces
by some other means. To find the forces being sought , a combination of the section method
and the knot method will be used .
A section will be cut through the central part of the armor near the members. bros where
you want to know the forces. First, a section aa is taken (fig. 7-25a) that cuts the members CD,
DG and FH and the free solid diagram of the right part of the reinforcement is drawn (fig. 7-
25c). Adding moments respectively to point H •
+EM, = (27.72X34.64)-(13.86cos3O°X15)

+ (13.86XT CD sin30°) = 0 we have

Tcp = -1 12.58 kN

Next, the free solid diagram of pin C is drawn (fig. 7- 25d) and the equilibrium equations
are written in the directions of members BC and CD and perpendicular to them:

"EF = ^CD~^BC = °

= _30_T = 0
Uu

whence it immediately follows

T, = T rn = - 112.58 kN v T rr = - 30.00 kN

Finally, a section bb is taken (fig. 7-25a) that cuts the members BC. BG, GH and FH and
the free solid diagram of the left side of the weapon is drawn hard (fig. 7-25e). Adding
moments about point H

+ LM, = - (13.86X69.28) +(12X15) + (6X30)

-( 13.86 sin 30°) T,-6T, = 0 we have

T, = 29.99 kN DG

Thus, the answers sought are

T,c = 112.6 kN (C) Ans.

Tgc = 30.0 kN (T) Ans.

 ISSUES
Solve the following problems by the method of sections nes. Unless 7-47 The Howe truss in Fig. P7-47 is subjected to the vertical loads
otherwise indicated, disregard the weight of the members against the shown. Determine the forces in members CD and CK.
forces they support. Indicate whether the members are subjected to
tension or compression.

'-44* Find the forces in members E/ and HJ of the truss represented in

Figure P7-44.

7-48" Determine the forces in members BC, BG, and GH of the bridge
truss shown in Figure P7-48.

Figure P7-44

'-45* Each member of the armor represented in the figu ra P7-45 has a
length of 1.5 m. Find the forces in members CD and EF.

Figure P7-48

Figure P7-45
7-49 Determine the forces in members CD, DF, and EF of the bridge
7-46 Determine the forces in members CD and EF of the truss (fig. truss shown in Figure P7-49.
P7-46) that supports a bridge.

Figure P7-46

291
7-50 Determine the forces in members CD, DE, and DF of the roof forces in members CD. CEyEF.
truss shown in Figure P7-50. Triangle CDF is equilateral and nodes E 2kN 2kN 2kN 2kN 2kN
and C are at the points means of the respective sides.

Figure P7-52

7-53 The sign truss in Fig. P7-53 supports a sign weighing 1.5 kN.
This is connected to the armature at points E, G and H and the
connecting bars have been adjusted ma It is necessary that each knot
bears a third of the load. Deter undermine the forces in members CD,
7-51 * The roof truss in Fig. P7-51 is composed of 305-605-90" right
CF and FC.
triangles and loaded in the form ma that is indicated. Determine the

Figure P7-53

7-52 The sign truss in Fig. P7-52 is some ted to the loads indicated. 7-54* A scissor truss (fig. P7-54) is used to support a loaded roof.
Determine the forces in members CD. CE and EF. Determine the forces in members BC and BF.

292
 7-57 Find the forces in members BC and EE of the weapon stair case
shown in Figure P7-57.

In the composite truss shown in Figure P7-55, find the forces

in members CD and CE.

7-56 In the composite truss of Fig. P7-56. Find the forces in members 7-58 Find the forces in members CD and CG of the weapon stair case
CD and DE. shown in Figure P7-58.

293
 59 Find the forces in the members DE, DI and ]K of the ar mature
from Figure P7-59.

294
 40kN 7-62' The inverted bridge truss of Figure P7-62 is It carries a road and
vehicles that cause the indicated state of load. Find the forces in
members CD, DG and EG

30kN 40kN Figure P7-62

Figure P7-59

7-63* Find the forces in members EG, FG, and FH of the ar mature
from Figure P7-63.

Figure P7-63
7-60* Find the forces in members CD, CE, and FG of the ar mature
Fink from figure P7-60.

7-61 Find the forces in 7-64 Find the forces in

members CD, DH , and FH of members AB and FG of the
the Baltimore truss in Fig. P7- weapon lasts represented in
61 . Figure P7-64. (Hint: Take the
sec tion aa.)

30 kN 40 kN 30 kN Figure

P7-61

295
7-65 Find the forces in members CD and FC of the weapon hard at K
shown in Figure P7-65. (Hint: Take section aa.)

Figure P7-65

7-66 The homogeneous sign of CD, CE, EG and FG.

weight 3 kN is attached by short 7-68 Find the forces in members
links to the reinforcement of CD, DF , and EF of the ar
Figure P7-66. Find the mature transmission line
strengths zas in the members depicted in Figure P7-68.

—3 m— 3 mi

Figure P7-66

Figure P7-68

7-67* Find the forces in CD. FG and FH of the truss

members CD, DG , and EG of shown in Figure P7-69.
the transmission line
reinforcement shown in Fig. P7-
67.
7-69 Find the forces in members

296
 Figure P7-71

Figure P7-69

7-72 Find the maximum load P lasts in Figure P7-72 without

that the weapon can withstand producing a force in member E]
greater than 3 kN.

kN.

Figure P7-
72

Figure
P7-70

7-73 The members that make up

the truss in Figure P7-71 cannot
withstand tensile forces greater
than 250 kN or compression
7-71 * Find the maximum load forces greater than 105 kN. Find
P that the weapon can the maximum load P that the
withstand lasts in Figure P7-71 reinforcement can support.
without producing a force in
7-74* The members that make
member CD greater than 12.5
up the truss in Figure P7-72

297
cannot withstand tensile forces 50 kN. Find the maximum load
greater than 80 kN or P that the reinforcement can
compression forces greater than support.

298
7-75 Demonstrate that the global balance of a reinforcement is a
consequence of the balance of the two parts generated in the section
method. That is, cut the bridge truss in Figure P7-75 through its central
region as indicated and write find the equilibrium equations for each
piece. Eliminate the member forces in the resulting six equations and
see that the result is equivalent to the equations of equilibrium. brio of
the entire armor.

7.2.4 Forces in straight and curved two-force members

The structure members that have been discussed in this section

have been rec cough. As a result, the resulting forces at the
ends of the members have always been directed along their
axis. When the forces 7-26, the member is said to be in tension
and the force T is a tensile force on the member and not simply
the tensile force ac tua at the end of the member. That this
description of force is correct is easily seen by considering the
balance of a portion of the limb of the weapon. hard.
Suppose the member of Fig. 7-26 is cut normally about its
axis at section aa. In general, on the cutting surface there will
be a complex distribution of forces as indicated in the free solid
diagram of Figure 1-Ua. Now, as discussed in section 4-6, this
system of forces can be replaced by an equivalent force and
couple, as indicated in the free solid diagram of Figure 7-27b.
Then, the equilibrium forces in the direction perpendicular to
the axis of the member require that the com shear component V
of the equivalent force-couple system. Similarly, the
equilibrium forces in the direction of the axis of the member
require that the compo axial force P of the equivalent force-
couple system is of equal modulus and direction tion but in the
opposite direction to the force applied to the end of the
member. Finally, moment balance requires that the M
component of the mo be zero. ment of the equivalent force-
couple system. That is, if the forces at the ends of a straight
two-force member pull on the member, the forces exerted on
any section of the member will also represent an axial force
pulling on that section, regardless of where the member was
cut. member. Therefore, it is appropriate to speak of the force T
by saying that it is the traction (or tension) in the member.
On the other hand, when the two-force member is curved,
the forces at its ends will not act according to the axis of the
member, but will act according to the rec ta that joins the points
of application of the forces, as indicated in Figure 7-28. If the
member is cut normally on its axis at section aa, we will also
have a complex distribution of forces acting on the section, as
indicated in Figure 7-29a. Of course, the system of forces may
also

299
300
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES

be replaced by an equivalent force-couple system, as indicated in the diagram ma of free

solid of Figure 7-29b. Now, the balance of forces now requires that the resulting R of the
axial P and shear V components of the equivalent force-couple system be of the same
magnitude and direction but opposite direction as the force T at the end of the member,
as indicated in the figure 7-29c. Since the forces R and T are not collinear, moment
balance now requires that M=Td-0.
At this point, it is worth noting that none of the free solids diagrams represented in
Figure 7-29 correspond to two- force bodies even though they correspond to a part of a
two- force body. The diagram The free solid mass of Figure 7-29a does not correspond
to a two- force body because the forces are distributed over the entire cutting surface and
therefore do not act at a single point. The free solid diagram in Figure 7-29b also does
not correspond to a two - force body because a couple is exerted on the body .
Therefore , the design of two -force straight members only needs to consider was r -
axial forces, while two - force curved members must be designed to re resist shear
forces V and moments (readers M. as well as axial forces P Further complicating the
problem is the fact that the intensities of the shear forces, bending moments , and axial
forces depend on where the member is cut, as seen in Example Problem 7-9.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.9

The arch depicted in Figure 7-30a consists of two members that are square circumference
tees. Determine the 1st axial force P. the shear force V and the mo bending force M in
PV, M (m ■ Ni member AB as a function of angle e.
(Nor
SOLUTION

First draw the free solid diagram of pin B (fig. 7-30b). Since the members .AB and BC are
members of two forces, the forces FAB and FBC form an angle of 45° with the vertical. So
the equilibrium equations

+-Zr = F sin 45° - F, sin 45° = 0

No D.C.
+Lr = cos45° + E„ r cos45 a -700 = 0
Ab D.C.
 301
7.3 SPACE ARMOR
give the forces in members AB and BC

F = F = 495.0 N HP OL

Next, a free solid diagram of a section of member AB is drawn (fig. 7-30c). Adding horizontal forces,
on the one hand, vertical forces, on the other, and adding moments with respect to D, we have

+-Lr = F , sin 45° + P sin e_ V eos 0 = 0

+ “Yr = F cos45° + P eos e+ V sin 6 = 0

AD

+ LM, =M+(8 sin O(FAB eos 45°)

-(8-8 eos d)(P BC sin 45°) =0

I mean

P = - 350(cos 6 + sin e) N Ans.

V = 350(cos 0 - sin 3) N Ans.

M = 2800(1 -sin e-cos 0) m • N Ans.

These results can be seen graphically represented in Figure 7-30d.

7.3 SPACE ARMOR

A reinforcement whose nodes are not all in a plane and/or whose supports and loads are not
coplanar is called spatial reinforcement. As in plane trusses, the members of a space truss can be
treated as two-force members as long as no member is continuous across a joint, the external load
is only applied to the joints, and the joints are friction-free hinges. Just like in pla armor Nas,
when the weight of the members has to be included, half will be applied to each of the nodes at the
ends of the member.
The three-dimensional equivalent of the triangle is the tetrahedron, shown in Figure 7-
3la. Space armor is built from subjoined Tetrahedral. By analogy with simple flat trusses, a
truss A simple space frame is formed by adding tetrahedral units to the truss as shown in
Figure 7-31b. Since each new node now carries with it three new members, the relationship

between the number M of nodes and the number m of members of a simple space truss is
given by

m = 3n - 6 (7-3)
Evidently, simple space trusses, like simple plane trusses, are always rigid.
As with plane reinforcement, spatial reinforcement can be analyzed using either the knot
method or the section method. In the knot method, the reinforcement is divided into all its
knots and elementary members. Also as in the case of flat trusses, the balance of the
members is guaranteed by the hypothesis that they are members of two forces. Therefore, the
members can be dispensed with and it will only be necessary to consider the solid diagrams
free of the nodes. The balance of these is expressed by writing the force balance equation

ZF = 0 (7-4)

(b)
Figure 7-31
 The balance of forces in the x, y and z directions
302 gives . for each knot. As in each knot there is a system of forces that come7.3together
SPACE In three-
ARMOR
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND dimensional terms, moment balance does not provide any information. useful
LF, = Ex + c = 0 E x = - 2400 N
MACHINES information, although Equation 7-4 now has three independent components. tes. But
according to Equation 7-3, this is precisely the number of independent equations
LF, =E [ +A + D = 0 £ = -4200N 5
necessary to solve for the m member forces and six support reactions of a simple space
EF, = E.-40O-60O-8OO =truss.0 E, = 1800
Apart from the Nlargest number group of equations and unknowns, the resolution
procedure
The free solid diagram of knot .4 (fig. 7-33a) hasistoo
themany
sameunknowns
as for plane reinforcement
tas to be .
solved and that is why we will first considerAlsoknot the procedure
B. The forces zasto are
follow for the section method is. essentially the same as for
indicated
in the free solid diagram (fig. 7-33b) with
flatanreinforcement.
arrow that indicates its direction
Divide the spaceand armor in two by passing a section completely
direction and a symbol that represents through
its module the armor and say drawingthe
as well. The directions of the free solid diagram of each part. The application
forces are those of the members, therefore the force in member BE applied to
to these two parts of the equilibrium equationsjoint
B is

_ -2i- ZF=0 and EM=0 (7-5)

F 3j+k = - 0.5345TBEi - 0.801 8TBEj + 0.2673TBrk
B" gives a total of 12 equations — six for each part. These 12 equations are your sufficient
EBE22432412
Analogously. FAB, FBc and the appliedtoload
determine
P the six support reactions and six internal member forces. However, it is
are often difficult to pass a section that does not cut more than six members of an ordinary
FAB = TABj FBc = Tscispace
P= 800kN
suit. For this reason and because of the complexity of solving systems of many
equations, the method of sections is rarely used to analyze spatial reinforcement. them.
The x,y and z components of the equilibrium equation LF = 0 of this joint are then
pour into

k: 0.2673T,r = 800 Tpr = 2993 N

bL Dt

Yo: _T,-0.5345T,, = 0 T, = - 1600

bL b DL

Yo: -T- 0.8018T ,, = 0 T=-2400N

‘ A.D. OF /ID

Now, the forces in the members that meet at joint A (fig. 7-33a) are EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.10
The simple space truss in Figure 7-32a has as supports a hinge at E and short bars at A. D and
^AB = TABj = - C. Determine the forces in its different members.

T2400j
AC N =
FAC = 7^ 0.55470.832
The firstTAc
step will be to draw the free solid diagram of the entire reinforcement (fig. 7-32b)
and solve for the reactions of the supports. The balance of moments to point E da
FaD = -Tadi
FAE • TA2itk - -0.89447.21-0.4472, ZME = (2i-k) x (Aj -400k) + (2i + 3j-k) x (- 800k)

SOLUTION
the support reaction and the applied load are + (3j-k) x (Ci - 600k) + (- k) x (Dj)

A = 3600jN P = -400kN = 2Ak + 800j + Ai + 1600j - 2400i - 3Ck

- 1800i-Cj - Di
Introducing these values into the force balance equation we have
=0
Yo: 0.8321 T 4r = - T. r = -1442.2
1200 The x components.y
N and z from this equation give

k: 0.4472T,E = 400 j: T, = 894.5

c = 2400 C = 2400N
/tea
i:-0.5547T-T,-0.8944T, = 0 AL ’ k:2A-3C = 0 A= 3600N
A.E. Yo: The A +force
D =FCA in T=ON
4200 D= 600N
Next, the free solid diagram of joint C is drawn (fig. 7-33c).
member AC, applied to joint C. It is of the same module and direction tion. but in
the opposite direction, to the force FAC in the same member, applied to joint A;
therefore

Faith . = - F c = 0.5547Tci -0.8321 TAcj = - 80()i + 1200j N

Figure 7-33
303 .
302___________________________
The rest of the forces in the members are directed by them.
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES
FcB = Tac = - 1600i N FcD = -Tcpi
_3;
Fep = Tep— = - 0.9487T,,j+0.3162T,gk
U£ LL 1 32 12 -- -5

while the reaction at the support and the applied load are

C = Ci = 2400iN P = -600kN

Substituting these forces into the equilibrium equation we have

i: -1600 - 800 + 2400 = 0

j: - T CD - 0.9487 r c£ =-1200

k: 0.3162TcE = 600

The first equation contains no unknowns and is only used to check the results. sulted. The
other two equations give

Tcp=- 600.2 N TcE=l 897.5 N

Next, we consider joint D whose free solid diagram is represented in Figure 7-33d. The
forces applied to this joint are directed along the coordinate axes, making it easy to write
the equi equations. book:
T
AD = 0 N T CD^~ 600 N TOE = 0 N

The first two equations do nothing more than repeat already known information. The third
says that member DE is a member of zero force.
Finally, the free solid diagram of the patella £ is drawn (fig. 7-33e). The forces in the
limbs and the support reaction exerted on this kneecap are

FEA = -FAE = 0.8944r xt i-0.4472T 4£ k = 800i-400kN

FE = -F,E = 0.5345T,gi+ 0.801 8T,Ej-0.2673T,[k = 1600i + 2400j-800kN
FEc = -FcE = 0.9487T C£ j-0.3162T C£ k = 1800j-600kN

F, = -T,k = 0 N
E = - 2400i - 4200j + 1 800k N

There are no unknowns in these forces and their substitution in the equilibrium equation
will only serve to verify the results.

Yo: 800+1600-2400 = 0
j: 2400+1800 - 4200 = 0
k: - 400 - 800 - 600 + 1800 = 0

The answers sought will therefore be

r AB = 2400 N (0 T AC = 1442 N (C) Ans.

Tad = Tde = 0 N TAE = 894 N (T) Ans.

T, = 1600N (C) T,, = 2993 N (T) Ans.

T CD = 600 N (C) TeE = 1898 N (T) Ans.

 303
7.3 SPACE ARMOR

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.11

The space truss in Figure 7-34 rests on a hinge at A and at short ces in B and C. A force of 125 N contained
in the yz plane is applied to the joint at D. Determine the reactions of the supports and the forces in the
devices member reds.

Figure 7-34

SOLUTION

The solution will be obtained following the knot method. Since this truss is so simple, the support reactions
will be found as part of the joint solution instead of being determined in advance by the equilibrium
equations of the assembly.
The resolution can begin at knot D since a known force has been applied to it and no more than three
unknown Cuezas converge there (fig. 7-354). In the free solid diagram, the forces have been represented by
arrows that indicate their direction and sense and a value that indicates their module. I gave them Reactions
of the forces are those of the members; then the force in member CD applied to joint D is

-i+2j-3k pc ■
72+22+3
= - 0.2673Tcpi + 0.5345Tcpi - 0.8018Tck

Analogously for the other forces.

= -0.2673Tspi -0.5345Tspj -0.8018Tspk

2;13k
Fda = Tad = 0.5547Tadi-0.8321Tadk
Finally, the applied load is

P = 125.0 sin 30° j - 125.0 cos 30°k N

= 62.50 j - 108.25 kN
304_______________________ The x, y and 2 components of the equilibrium equation ZF = 0 of this joint are pour into
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES Yo: - 0.2673TcD - 0.2673TBD + 0.5547TAD = 0
j: 0.5345Tc0 - 0.5345T, + 62.50 = 0
k: - 0.8018T- 0.8018T,- 0.832 IT 108.15 = 0
LU D.V. AU

respectively. The solution of this system turns out to be

T AD = - 43.37 N Tgp 13.466 NT cp = -103.47 N

Next, the free solid diagram of joint B is drawn (fig. 7-35b). The force FBD of member BD
applied to joint B is of equal magnitude and direction tion. but opposite direction, than the force
of the same member FDB applied to joint D; then

F,, = 0.2673T, jn i + 0.5345T nn i + 0.80187" |. n k

D.U. D.U. 51- D.U.

= 3,599Í +7,198j + 10,797kN

The other forces are also directed according to the members; then

Fac = Tac
F, = = 0.8321 T,J +

B = Bk

Thus, the equilibrium equations of this knot are

i: 3,599 + 0.8321 =0

j: 7,198 + Tgc + 0.5547TA8 = 0

k: 10,797 + 8 = 0

how resolved they are

T = _ 4.799 N T,=_ 4.325 N 8 = - 10.797 N b CH1D

Next , the free solid diagram of joint C is drawn (fig. 7-35c).

The forces applied to joint C are

F CD = O.2673T CD ¡-O^345T CD j+O.8OI8T CD k = 27.66Í + 55.30j- 82.96k N

Fe, = -T,cj = 4 - 7 "i N

FCA = 0.8321 TAci-0.5547TAcj

= 0.832IT ?K -i-0.5547T k .j

C=-Cyj+Ck
Introducing these forces into the equilibrium equation we have

Yo: - 27.66+ 0.832lT. r = 0

j: 55.30 + 4.799 - 0.5547TAc -C = 0
(d) k: - 82,96+, =0
Figure 7-35
 which gives
___305
C ,= 41.66 N C,= 82.96N Tc 33.24
7.3 SPACE ARMOR

Finally, the free solid diagram of joint 4 is drawn (fig. 7-35a). The forces acting at this knot are
Fas=- 0.8321Tap1-0.5547Tag)
= 3.599i + 2.399j N
F 4D = - 0.5547T XD i + 0.8321 T AD k

= 24.06Í - 36.09 k N
F Ac = - 0.8321 TAci+0.5547TAcj

= - 27.66Í + 18.44 j N
A = -A i + A i + A,k
* and -
The equilibrium equation then becomes

i: 3,599 + 24.06- (27.66) -A, = 0

j: 2.399+ 18.44+ A y = 0

k: - 36.09 + A. = 0
which gives
A, = 0.00 N A, = - 20.84 N A. = 36.09 N

The answers sought will therefore be

A = - 20.84j + 36.lkN Ans.

B = - 10.80k N Ans.

C = - 41.7j + 83.0kN Ans.

T AB = 4.32 N(OT AC = 33.2 N(T) Ans.

TA=43.4N(C) T flC = 4.80N(C) Ans.

T =13.47 N(T) T rn = 103.5 N (C) DU B ' ID Ans.

(The correctness of these answers can be checked by considering the balance overall brio of the entire
armor.)

The awning structure in Figure P7-76 has as supports two hinges at A and C and a short link at B.
The 750 N force is parallel to the z axis. Determine the reactions of the supports and the force in each
member of this space truss.
 7-77* The awning structure in Figure P7-77 has two hinges at A and C and a short link at
B as supports. The 250 N force is parallel to the y axis while the 750 N force is parallel
to the z axis. Determine the reactions of the supports and the force in each member of
this space truss.
7-78 A wire is stretched between two Figure P7-80. The two knots of sleep so

Figure P7-79

pylons, one of which It is represented in equally the weight. Furthermore, a wind

Figure P7-78. The 1.5 kN force is parallel that blows directly The sign exerts a
to the xy plane and makes an angle of force of 200 N on the sign in the
20" with the y axis. The supports are direction and sense of the negative x -
equivalent to a ball joint at B and short axis - also distributed equally between
link bars at A and C. Determine the the two nodes. The reinforcement
reactions of the supports and the strength supports are equivalent tees to a ball joint
of each member of this space truss. at B and short link bars at A, C and E.
7-80' A sign weighing 650 N hangs from Of finish the reactions of the supports
nodes D and E of the space truss in and the force in each member of the
truss.

reactions of the supports and the strength

of each member of this space truss.

Figure P7-78

7-79 A wire is stretched between two

pylons, one of which It is represented in
Figure P7-79. The 1250 N force is
parallel to the xy plane and makes an
Figure P7-80
angle of 30' with the y axis . The supports
are equivalent to a ball joint at B and
short link bars at A and C. Determine the 7-81 A sign weighing 600 N hangs from

306
nodes D and E of the space truss in Fig.
P7-81. The weight is supported equally
by the two knots. Furthermore, a wind
that blows directly

307
 te on the sign exerts a force of 75 N in and makes an angle of 20° with the y
the direction and direction of the semi- axis. The base of the tower is an
axis and negative - also distributed equilateral triangle with a side of 2 m.
equally between the two nodes. The The vertex of the tower is knot G and is
reinforcement supports are equivalent directly above the coordinate origin,
tees to a ball joint at B and short link bars which coincides with the centroid of
at A. CAF . Of finish the reactions of the triangle ABC, at a height of 3 m. Triangle
supports and the force in each member of DEF lies in a horizontal plane located 1
the truss. m above the xy plane. The supports are
equivalent to a ball joint at B and short
link bars at A and C. Determine the
reactions of the supports and forces in
members AB, EC and FG of this space
truss.

.7-83' A cable is tied to a tone to which it

exerts a force of 2.25 kN contained in the
yz plane as indicated. The base of the
tower is an equilateral triangle with sides
0.9 m. To see tice of the tower is knot G
and is directly above the ori coordinate
gene that coincides with the centroid of
triangle ABC. at a height of 1.5 m.
Triangle DEF lies in a horizontal plane
Figure P7-81 located 0.6 m above the xy plane. The
supports are equivalent to a ball joint at B
and short link bars at A and C. Determine
the reactions of the supports and forces in
members BD, EG and FG of this space
truss.

7-82 A cable is tied to the tower in Figure P7-82, which exerts a force
of 2.5 kN contained in the horizontal plane.

308
309
310 7.4 FRAMEWORKS AND MACHINES
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND The first part of this chapter has dealt with a very particular type of es structures, armor,
MACHINES composed only of members of two forces. Structures that contain other types of members
are called en plots or machines. Although frames and machines may also contain one or
more two- force members, they contain at least one member on which forces are exerted
at more than two points or on which forces and moments act .
The main distinction between frames and machines is that frames two are rigid
structures while machines are not. For example, the structure depicted in Figure 7-36 is a
lattice. As it is a rigid body, three reactions of the supports will be sufficient (fig. 7-36b)
to fix it in place and the global equilibrium will be sufficient to determine the three
reactions of the supports.
The structure in Figure 7-36c is a machine, even though it is sometimes called a
nonrigid structure. It is not rigid in the sense that it depends on its supports to maintain its
shape. The lack of internal rigidity is compensated by a further reaction of the supports
(fig. 7-36d). In this case, the balance glo bal is not sufficient to determine the four
support reactions. The is structure must be dismembered and analyzed even if the only
information requested is the reactions of the supports.
More specifically, the term machine is often used to describe dis positives such as
tongs, tweezers, nutcrackers and other objects that are used zan to amplify the effect of
the forces. In each case, a force (input) is applied to the handle of the device and this
device applies a much larger force (output) to wherever it is. Like non-rigid frameworks,
these are more quinas must be dismembered and analyzed even when the only
information sought is the relationship between the applied and output forces.
As in reinforcement analysis, the input resolution method machines and machines
consists of dismembering the structures, drawing the diagram free solid diagram of each
component and write the equilibrium equations for each of these free solid diagrams. In
the case of trusses, the direction of the force in all members was known and the knot
method was reduced to solving a series of point balance problems. Now, since some of
the members of the frameworks and machines are not members of two forces, the
directions of the forces in these members are not known. The analysis of frameworks and
machines will consist of solving the equilibrium of a system of rigid bodies and not that
of a system of points.

7.4.1 Frameworks

The method of lattice analysis can be demonstrated using the table in Figure 7-2. which
has been reproduced in Figure 7-37a. None of the members that make up the table are
members of two forces, so the structure will certainly not be a frame. Even though the
table can be folded by unhooking the tabletop from the legs, in normal use the table is a
stable rigid structure. Therefore, the table is a framework.

Figure 7-36
 311
7.4 FRAMEWORKS AND
We will begin the analysis by first drawing the free solid diagram of the entire MACHINES
table (Fig. 7-37b), from which the equilibrium equations

+-LF, — A, — 0
+1LF = A +D - W = 0
and > 5
k+SM. = 0.6D,-0.3W =0
• and

give the reactions of the supports

Next, the table is dismembered and the free solid diagrams of each of its parts are
drawn separately (fig. 7-38). Since none of the members is a member of two forces,
the directions of the forces are not known. bang on the knots B. C and E -no are the
addresses of the members. Even though forces can be represented by convenient
components, free solid diagrams must take into account Newton 's third law of action (to
)
and reaction. That is, when drawing free solid diagrams, the forces Forces that one
member exerts on another must be of the same magnitude and direction, but opposite
direction, as the forces that the second member exerts on the first. This can be seen in
figure 7-38 where it is indicated that the compos The components of the force that
member AB exerts on CD at joint E have the same magnitude and direction, but
opposite direction, as the components of the force that member CD exerts on member
AE at joint E and are similar. gament in the other nodes.
In support D, the ground can only exert an upward force on the leg and this must
be represented this way in the free solid diagrams. Analog Mindfully, the horizontal
component of the force that the slot exerts on leg AB can only be directed to the left
and must be represented as such. If the values of these forces were negative, then the
solution would be wrong or the table would not be in equilibrium.
The proper meanings of the other forces are not so clear. Even though It is easy to
guess that the vertical components B, and Cy are exerted upwards. ba on the table top
BC and down on the legs, it is not so easy to know whether to draw E, acting up or
(b)
down on the leg AB. For now it doesn't matter, since frictionless pin connections can
Figure 7-37
They can withstand forces in any direction. Just like what happens in weapons hard
The direction assigned to a force in a member is unimportant as long as the force is
represented in each part of the structure in compliance with Newton's third law. If it
were assumed for a compose If the meaning is opposite to the true one, its symbol
would have a negative value. This can be taken into account in the recording of the
final answers, as indicated in the examples.
Even though not all members of a network can be members of two forces, it is
possible, and even very probable, that one or more are. We must take advantage of
these members and show that the forces correspond teeth are exerted in their direction,
which is known. But, we must be sure that not all forces are directed according to the
member. Maybe one of the mistakes The most common practice among students is to
treat the frameworks as if they were
310 _____________________________ armor; that is, draw all forces as if they were exerted in the direction tion of the members
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND and try to apply the knot method.
MACHINES Unlike truss analysis , free-solid diagrams of truss pins are not usually drawn and
analyzed separately. In the case of trusses, the balance of the members is ensured gured
based on the hypothesis of members of two forces, the difference was known ction of
each force that the member exerted on the pin and the balance of the pins contained all
the useful information about the problem. However, these facts cannot be applied to
framework analysis and it is rarely useful to analyze the balance of the pins separately .
In most cases, it does not matter which member a pass is attached to. dor when the
structure is dismembered. However, there are some situations particular tions where it
does matter;

When a pin connects a support and two or more members, the pin must be assigned to one of
the members. The support reactions are applied to the pa sador of this member.

When a pin connects two or more members and a load is applied to it , the pin must be
assigned to one of the members. The load will be applied to the pass dor of this member.

Following these simple rules will avoid confusion about where they should apply. adjust
the loads and reactions of the supports.
Care must also be taken when one or more members who concur rran in a knot is a
member of two forces: *

Passers should never be assigned to members of two forces.

When all the members that participate in a pin are members of two forces, said pin must be
deleted and analyzed separately, as is done in the knot method for reinforcement.

Even if these last two "rules" are not strictly necessary, the Guiding them will avoid
confusion when dealing with members of two forces in networks.
Finally, the equilibrium equations for each part of the input are written. and the
forces in the knots are released. There are three equilibrium equations

Figure 7-38
 311
independent (two of forces and one of moments) for each part and therefore7.4So, for the
FRAMEWORKS AND
MACHINES
parts of the table in Figure 7-38 there will be nine equations for finish the remaining six
unknown forces (B,, B,, Cy, Cy, E, Ey). Previously obtaining the reactions of the
supports from the global equilibrium of the framework will have reduced three of these
equations to a verification of the validity of the results,

7.4.2 Machines
The method described for frameworks is also used to analyze more kines and other non-
rigid structures. In each case, the structure is dismembered. ra, free solid diagrams are
drawn for each of its parts and the equilibrium equations are applied to each diagram.
Now, in the case of machines and non-rigid structures, the structure must be
dismembered and analyzed. ra even when the only information sought is the reactions of
the supports or the relationship between the external forces exerted on it.
The method of analysis of machines can be revealed using Using the garlic press
shown in Figure 7-39a. The forces H and H, applied to the handles (input forces) become
the forces G and G applied to the garlic clove (output forces). The equilibrium of the
entire press only gives H, = H 2 ; It does not give information about the relationship
between input and output forces.
To determine the relationship between input and output forces, the machine must be
dismembered and free solid diagrams drawn for each of its parts, as indicated in Figure 7-
39b. Then, the sum of moments about B gives
(a+b) H = bG
I mean

G = OH
b

The ratio of the output forces to the input forces is called mechanical development. single
(DM) of the machine

output force
input force

In the case of the garlic press, the mechanical development is

mechanical
development = DM =
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.12

A sack of potatoes rests on the chair in Figure 7-40a. The force that I exert placing the potatoes on
the frame on one side of the chair is equivalent to a horizontal force of 24 N and a vertical force of
84 N. passing both through E and a force of 28 N, perpendicular to member BH and passing
through G (as shown indicated in the free solid diagram of Figure 7-40b). Find the forces exerted Figure 7-39
on member BU.
 SOLUTION
The equilibrium equations for the entire chair are

+ - LF, = 24 - 28 eos 0 = 0

+¡LF, = A+B-84-28 sin 0 = 0

. + LMg = (0.2X84) - (0.5X24) - 0.4/1
( 0,5
• + 0,3+-. (28) = 0
\ COS 07

where 0= tan1(3/5). The first equation is satisfied identically. The other two equations give

A = 73.82N B = 24.58N

Next, the chair is dismembered and the free solid diagrams of its parts are drawn (fig. 7-41).
For the DF member. equilibrium equations can be written
+-LF, = D,-F,+24 = 0

+1 EF,=F,+D,-84=0
+LMp = (0.4X84)- 0.5 F, = 0

which gives ,
F,=67.2N D = 16.80 N D=f-24N

Now, the equilibrium equations for member BH are

+-EF, = F,+C,-28cos 0 = 0
+t 1F = 24.58 + C - 67^ - 28 sin 0 = 0
“ and .
+ LM = [ 0.3 + 0.1667 (28) + (0.1333X24.58)
- V sin 0 /
+ (0.1667)(67.2)-0.2777 F x = 0

Figure 7-40

Figure 7-41

312
in which there are only three unknowns that can be solved by giving

F,=115.1N C,=-91.0N Cy=57.0N

Thus, the forces exerted on member BH are

B = 24.58 jN Ans.
C = - 91.0i + 57.Oj N Ans.
F = 115.1 i + 67.2jN Ans.

plus the 28 N force applied perpendicular to the bar at G. These forces can be seen in the
"schematic part" of Figure 7-42. •

The weight of the books on a shelf is equivalent to a vertical force of 375 N. as indicated in Figure
7-43a. In addition, the midpoint of the arm in lower BC hangs a weight of 250 N. Find all the
forces exerted on the three members of this framework.

Figure 7-42

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7.13

SOLUTION

First, the free solid diagram of the entire shelf is drawn (fig. 7-43b). The equilibrium equations are

,+LMA = 12.5C-(2O)(375)-(15X250) = 0
+-Zr, = A,+C = 0
+LF = A -375- 250 = 0
yy
Once this system is solved, the reactions of the supports are obtained
A =-900N A = 625 N c=900N •and

Figure 7-44

313
 Next , the shelf is dismembered and the operating diagrams are drawn. free lido of the different
members (fig. 7-44). Member AC is a two-force member, so pin A will be assigned to member AB
and pin C will be assigned to member BC. It does not matter which member pin B is assigned to
since no two-force member is attached to it and joint B is neither loaded nor attached to a support.
For definition purposes only, pin B will be assigned to member AB. as indicated in Figure 7-44a.
Then, the equilibrium equations of member AB give

FRAMEWORKS, FRAMEWORKS AND MACHINES.......................1

It is easily verified that these values also satisfy the equilibrium equations for the other free
solid diagrams. All these forces are re presented in the " schematic part " of Figure 7-45.

ANOTHER RESOLUTION

Pins A and C can be assigned to the two-force member AC, as shown in Figure 7-46, taking
care in the representation of the interior forces. The tension T AC in Figure 7-44a represents the
force that pin C exerts on member AC. Since the pin is now part of the member, the force T AC is
now an internal force and does not appear in the free solid diagram. The symbols A x and A have
already been used to represent the components of the support reaction, so they will be called F
Ax and the components of the forces action and reaction whacks on pin A. Similarly, the
components of the action and reaction forces on the pin C will be called F Cx and F Cv. so they
will not be confused with the reaction of support C.
As already mentioned, since there are no two-force members, no supports, and no applied
loads in pin B , it does not matter which member the pin is assigned to. To illustrate this, it can
be assumed that pin B is assigned to member BC.
Now, the equilibrium equations for member AB give

.+LMA = 30B and -(20)(375) = 0

.+EM, = (10X375)-30F 4y = 0

+-EF-F,+B,=0

Figure 7-45

B, = 250N

Fa,= 125N
B, = ~^Ax

Figure 7-46

314
 Next , the equilibrium of member AC gives the equations

.+ LM, = 12.5FA,-(12.5)(-900) = 0 FA,=-900N

. +LM, = ( 12.5)(900) - 12.5Fc, = 0 F Cr = 900 N

+ 1 LF = 625 - 125 - Fc, = 0 Fc, = 500 N

Finally, returning to the free solid diagram of AB, the ho component rizontal balance of forces

+-Yr=F+B=0 • AX
gives
B, = 900 N

These forces are represented in the "schematic part" of Figure 7-47. Even though the forces at B are clearly the same in Figures 7-45 and
7-47, the forces at A and C appear to be different in those diagrams. I don't see However, the resulting forces in both diagrams are in reality
the same. They are just expressed using different components.

Figure 7-47

7-84' In the framework of figure P7-84. a = 1.0 m, b = 0.5 m, d = 0° 7-85 In the framework of Fig. P7-84, a = 0.6 m. b = 0.45 m. 0 = 30°
and P = 300 N. Determine all the forces exerted on member BCD. and P = 200 N. Determine all the forces exerted on member BCD.

7-86 In the framework of Fig. P7-86, a =50 mm, P, = 500 N , and P 2

= 250 N. Determine all the forces exerted on member ABC.

Figure P7-86
Figure P7-84

315
- In the framework of Figure P7-86, a = 62.5 mm and P = P2 = 125 200 N applied to member ABC Si a = 100 mm. Determine all the
N. Determine all the forces exerted on member ABC forces exerted on member ABC.
7-91" The thread in Figure 17-91 passes through the groove of a
The frame in Figure P7-88 has a distributed load buide of w
friction-free pulley and supports a weight of 200 N. Of terminate all
= 201) N/m applied to member CDE and a concentrated force P =
forces exerted on member EG

Figure P7-91
Figure P7-88

The frame in Figure P7-88 has a distributed load buide of w

= 500 N /m applied to member CDE and a concentrated force P - 375
N applied to member ABC. If a = 15 cm, determine all the forces
exerted on member ABC

Determine all the forces exerted on member ABCD of the

framework in Figure 1'7-90.
7-92Determine all the forces exerted on member ABE of the frame in
Fig. P7-92.

Figure P7-90 Figure P7-92

31
6
 Determine all the forces exerted on member ABCD of the 7-95 The spring clip in Fig. P7-95 is used to hold block F against the
frame in Figure P7-93. ground. The force in the spring is F = k(l- €o). where . is the current
length of the spring. ( n = 75 mm is its natural length and k = 4000
N/month the spring constant. Determine all the forces exerted on
member ABC of the fastener and the force it exerts on block F.

Figure P7-93

The spring clip in Figure P7-94 is used to hold block E in the A BD thread is used to prevent collapsing of the en hatching of
corner. The force of the spring is F = Wf - €o), where , is the actual Figure P7-96 under the 1st action of the distributed load da w.
length of the spring. I o = 15 mm is the natural length of the spring and Determine w when the thread tension is 600 N.
k = 5000 N/m is the spring constant. Determine all the forces exerted
on member ABC of the fastener and the force it exerts on block E.
 7-97 The folding seat in Figure P7-97 has a weight of 125N and its The derrick structure shown in Figure 1'7-49 is rigidly attached
center of gravity is G. Determine all forces forces exerted on member to the wall at C. A load of sand hangs from the cable that passes
ABC. through the throat of the 0.3 - diameter, friction-free pulley located at
D. The weight of sand can be treated as a triangular distributed load
whose maximum value is 1167 N/m. Determine all the forces exerted
on member ABC.

Figure P7-97

■ The tone crane in Figure P7-98 is rigidly attached mind to the wheel is free of friction. Deter undermine all the forces exerted on
building in F. A cable is tied at D and passes through small, friction- member ABC
free pulleys located at A and E. The object hanging from C weighs 7-1 OI' Figure P7-101 shows a mooring cable attached at D to the
1500 N. Determine all the forces exerted on member ABCD. structure, which passes over a friction-free 30 cm diameter pulley and
7-100 The sand in the saucer of Fig. P7-100 can be treated as a from which a weight W of 1250 N hangs. Determine all the forces
triangular distributed load whose maximum value is 800 N / m. The C exerted on member ABCDE.

Figure P7-98 Figure P7-100

318
 Figure P7-103

7-104 A! cable passing through the groove of the friction-free pulley F

in Figure P7-104, a force F2 is applied. Lime calculate the ratio of
force F to force F2. If F2 - 400 N and a = 25 mm. Determine all the
forces exerted on member ABC.

7-102 Figure P7-102 shows a cable tie attached at E to the structure,

which passes over a friction-free 0.8 m diameter pulley and from
which a weight W of 1000 N hangs. Determine all the forces exerted
on member ABCD.

Figure P7-102

31
9
 7-103 In Fig. P7-103, a cable is tied to the structure ture in E. passes
through the throat of a 0.6 m diameter pulley meter free of friction,
centered on C and then a weight W of 1000 N hangs from it. Another
cable is tied to points A and F. Determine all the forces exerted on
member DEBFC.

7-105 Determine all the forces exerted on member DEF of the frame
in Fig. P7-105.

Figure P7-1O5

320
7-106 Determine all the forces exerted on member ABC of the frame 7-108* Forces of 5 N are applied to the handles of the paper punch in
in Figure P7-106. Fig. P7-108. Determine the force exerted at D on the paper and the
force exerted on pin B by handle ABC.

Figure P7-108

7-109 Forces of 250 N are applied to the handles of the shears in Fig.
P7-109. Determine the force exerted on the handle £ and all the forces
exerted on the handle ABC

7-107 ■ ['To pull the stop DE in Figure P7-107, a force of 100 N is

required. Determine all the forces exerted on member BCD.

32
1
 a weight of 10 kN and its center of gravity vedad is located in H. Arm
ABCD weighs 2 kN and its center of gravity is at B; The DEFC arm
weighs 1 kN and its center of gravity is at E. The weight of the
hydraulic cylinders can be neglected. Calculate the force in the
horizontal cylinders C] and El. as well as all the forces exerted on the
DEFG arm in the position indicated.

250N
Figure P7-109

7-110 Figure P7-110 is a simplified schematic of the mechanical nism

used to raise the blade of a bulldozer. The shovel and its contents have

322
 Figure P7-111

7-112 The jaws and bolts of the vice shown in Figure 1'7-112 are
parallel. The bolts pass through mount rotating wheels that mean that
Figure P7-110 no torque is exerted on them. cough. The clamp exerts forces of 300 N
on each side of the board. Treat the forces on the board as distributive
forces. Check the contact areas and determine the forces in each of the
bolts. Show in a diagram all the forces force exerted on the upper jaw
of the jaw.

7- 111
* The

100
150mm

-1 00 mm-75 mm+100 mm-

Figure P7-112
mechanism in Figure P7-111 is intended to man keep the load level
while lifting it. A pin located on the edge of the 1.2 m diameter pulley
passes through a ra nura of the ABC arm. The arms ABC and DE each
have a length of 1.2 m and the raised package weighs 400 N. He me
canismo rises by pulling the coiled rope to the pulley. Deter mine the
force P applied to the rope and all the forces exerted on arm ABC
when the package has been raised 1.2 m, as indicated.

323
 SUMMARY

In the previous chapters, equilibrium equations were used to

determine undermine external support reactions to a rigid body.
In this one, the equations Balance tests are used to determine
forces at joints in structures made up of pin-connected
members. Like all forces (internal, external, applied or
reactive), the forces in the nodes always appear in pairs of
forces of the same module and direction but in the same
direction.

324
322_____________. opposites. If they are not separated, using a free solid diagram, from the rest of the
ARMORS, FRAMEWORKS AND structure or the environment, these couples of forces will not have to be considered when
MACHINES writing the equilibrium equations. Therefore, to determine the forces in the nodes, the
structure will have to be decomposed into two or more parts.
In this chapter two broad categories of structures have been considered; namely,
trusses and frameworks. Trusses are rigid, fully linked structures constructed using only
two-force members connected by pins. In the analysis of the reinforcements, four main
hypotheses are made: (1) The reinforcement members are only They are connected at their
ends; no member has continuity through tie a knot. (2) Members are connected by
friction-free pins. (3) The truss structure is only loaded at its nodes. (4) The weight of the
members can be neglected. Because of these assumptions, truss members are modeled as
two-force members, in which the forces are exerted at their ends and are directed along
the axis of the member.
When the structure of the reinforcement and the loads applied to it are couplet narias,
it is said to be a flat armor. Space trusses are structures that are not contained in a single
plane and/or are loaded outside the plane of the structure.
One method of analysis (the knot method) of trusses consists of drawing a free solid
diagram for each pin (knot). The application of the equilibrium vector equation 2F=0 to
each node gives a system of two algebraic equations from which two unknowns can be
solved. The pins are solved, one after another, starting from a pin on which two unknown
forces and one or more known forces are exerted. Once those are determined, their values
can be applied to adjacent nodes and treated as if known bang. This process is repeated
until all the initial forces are determined. mind unknowns.
The knot method is the most used when it is necessary to determine everything gives
the forces in the members of a suit of armor.
Another method of analysis of reinforcement is the method of sections. How When
this is used, the reinforcement is divided into two parts by passing a sec imaginary tion by
the members of interest. Free solid diagrams can then be drawn for one or the other part
(or both) of the truss. Since each part is a rigid body, three independent equilibrium
equations can be derived from each of them. Therefore, the aforementioned section may
not cut more than three members.
It may happen that it is impossible to find a section that does not cut more than three
members and passes through one member of interest. In this case, it will be necessary to
Make a section that cuts a nearby member and first find the strength in it. The knot
method can then be used to find the force in the member of interest.
One of the main advantages of the method of sections is that it allows the force in a
member of the central region of a truss to be determined. tensioned without the need to
previously obtain the forces in the rest of the weapon hard.
Structures that are not entirely made up of members of two forces are called
frameworks or machines. Even though the in frames and machines can also contain
members of two forces, they always contain at least one member on which forces are
exerted in more
of two points, or forces and moments are exerted on it. The main dis distinction between frameworks and machines is that 323
frameworks are rigid structures gidas and machines do not. SUMMAR
As in reinforcement analysis, the frame solution method two and machines consists of dismembering the structures, Y
drawing the free solid diagram of each component and writing the equilibrium equations that are derived from each of said
diagrams. However, since in frames and machines there are members that are not two-force, the direction will not be
known. tion of the forces in them. The analysis of frameworks and machines consists of solving the equilibrium equations
of a system of rigid bodies.
In the case of non-rigid machines and structures, the structure will have to be dismembered and analyzed even if the
only information sought is the re actions of the supports or the relationship between the external forces (input and output)
that are exerted on it.

REVIEW PROBLEMS

7-113' Determine the force in each member of the truss represented in Figure 3kN 8kN 5kN
P7-113.

Figure P7-114

7-115 Determine the forces in members BC, CF. FG and GE of the

truss represented in Figure P7-115.

2.5kN
Figure P7-113

7-114* Determine the force in each member of the truss represented in

Figure P7-114.
 7-116 Determine the forces in members BC. BG. CG and CF of the 7-118* Three bars are connected by smooth pins forming the
reinforcement represented in Figure P7-116. framework of Figure P7-118. The weights of the bars are negligible.
Determine

to. The force that pin D exerts on member CDE. b. The reactions at
supports A and E.

Figure P7-118

7-119 The weights of the bars of the structure represented in Figure P7-
119 are negligible. Determine

a. The force in the cable that joins the pins By E.

b. The reactions of supports A and F.
7-117 Determine the force in each member of the space truss depicted
in Fig. P7-117. The support at A is a kneecap. The supports in D. E and
F are link bars.

Figure P7-117

324
7-120 Three bars are connected by smooth pins for control the b. The force that pin C exerts on member ABC.
framework of figure P7-120. The weights of the ba rras are despicable. 7-122 1 A car jack is shown in Figure P7-122. movable, The threads
Determine exert a force F on the blocks located two at nodes A and B.Determine
the force P exerted on the car if F= 800 N and (a) 0= 15.(b)e=30 and (c)
a. The force that pin R exerts on member ABC.
0 = 45'.

400N /m

Figure P7-122
Figure P7-120

7-121" A triangular plate is supported in a vertical plane cal by a bar <. The force that pin C exerts on the plate.
and a cable, as indicated in Figure P7-121. The plate weighs 875 N. ~ i 2 l A system of levers and bars connected by passes dores is used as
Determine a crutch in a press, as indicated in Figure P7-123. Determine the force F
exerted on the boat at .4 when a force P = 500 N is applied to the lever
a. The force in the cable joining pins B and D.
b. The reaction of support A. at G.

Figure P7-121

325
 7-124 Figure P7-124 shows pliers. Determine the force F that the jaws
exert on the subject. those of the pliers when a force P of modulus 100
N is applied to the handles.

Figure P7-124

Problems to solve with a computer

C7-125 An overhead crane consists car vil as a point mass located at c

of a 1-beam supported by a simple and graphically represent the force
truss as shown in Figure P7-125. If in members AB. AE, BC and BE
the uniform I -beam weighs 2 kN, depending on the al ture b of the
graph the force za in members AB, bridge (0.25a <b <a. where a =12

BC, EF and FG depending on the m).

position d(0<d<2.4m).
C7-127 The simple truss shown in
C7-126 The simple truss shown in Figure P7-126 supports one side of a
Figure P7-126 supports one side of a bridge; another armor the same sir
bridge; another armor the same sir go as support to the other side. A car
go as support to the other side. A weighing 22.5 kN is stopped on the
2000 kg car is stopped do on the bridge in position c and the floor
bridge at position c = 18 m and the beams carry the weight of the
floor beams transport the weight of vehicle at the nodes. The
the vehicle to the nodes. Treat the dimensions of the reinforcement are

326
a = 12 m and b = 6 m. Treat the car
as a point mass located at c and
graph the force on members AB,
AE, BC , and BE as a function of
position. tion c of the car (0 <c <48
m).

C7-128 The Gambrel truss shown in

Figure P7-128 supports one side of a
bridge; another armor the same sir
go as support to the other side. A
3400 kg truck is stopped on the
bridge in the position shown and the
floor beams carry the weight of the
vehicle to the nodes of the trusses. If
the center of gravity of the truck is
located 1.5 m in front of the rear
wheels, graph the force in members
AB. BC, BG and GH depending on
the position d of the truck (0 <d <20
m).

327
 C7-129The mechanism shown in two uniform sections mes hinged in
Figure P7-129 is intended to keep the middle as indicated in figure P7-
the load level while lifting it. A pin 131. The door is raised by a cable
located on the edge of the 1.2 m that is tied attached to a bar located
diameter pulley passes through a on the lower edge of the door.
slot in arm ABC. The ABC and DE Smooth rollers located at the ends
arms tie nen, each one. a length of slide through a smooth vertical
1.2 m and the lifted package weighs channel. mos of the bar (C). If the
door is 9 m wide. 4.5 m high and
400 N. The mechanism rises by
weighs 8100 N:
pulling the coiled rope onto the
pulley. a. Graphically represent the force
P necessary to maintain have
a. Graphically represent the force
the door open, depending on the
P that must be applied to
height h of the aper ture (0.15 <
support the platform as a
h <4.35 m).
function of its height h (0sh
b. Graphically represent the forces
<1.65 m).
in hinges A and B, as a function
b. Graphically represent the
of height h (0.15 </i < 4.35 m).
modules A C and E of the c. What is the maximum height h
forces reaction forces of pins 4, that prevents the force on the
C and E as a function of h (0 < hinges from exceeding 25,000
h < 1.65 m). N?
C7-131 A hangar door consists of •

Figure P7-129

328

Figure P7-131
C7-130 Forces of P = 100 N are applied to the handles of the pliers shown in
Figure P7-130. Represent graph mind the force applied by the jaws to the
object depending tion of the distance d (20 < d <30 mm).

329