3

C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 61

C HAPTER

Learning and Memory

Chapter Objectives
When you finish reading this chapter you will:

1 Understand why it is important to know how 5 Understand that we can learn about products by
consumers learn about products and services. observing others’ behaviour.

2 Understand that conditioning results in learning. 6 Understand how the memory process works.

3 Understand that learned associations with brands 7 Understand that marketers use various measures
generalize to other products, and know why this is to assess our memories about brands, products,
important to marketers. and ads.

4 Understand that there is a difference between

classical and instrumental conditioning, and that
both processes help consumers learn about
products.

The Learning Process CO 1

The proliferation of Internet usage has changed how consumers learn and retain informa-
tion. For example, consumers can now use search tools to learn about and easily compare
information via sites such as Yelp, Trip Advisor, and Amazon.ca. Google and other search
engines have changed the way we learn and process information, putting vast sources of
data just a few clicks away. In addition, platforms such as Instagram, Flickr, and Facebook
make it increasingly easy to curate our memories through the photos we save and share
with others. However, the Internet may also have a downside for consumer learning and
memory. Research shows that this ease of access to online information may influence the
way our memories function. In particular, researchers have found that when people have
access to search engines, they remember fewer facts and less information because they
know they can rely on “search” as a readily available shortcut.1 This chapter examines the
processes by which consumers go about learning and remembering information.
The development of vivid memories is relevant to the study of how brand attitudes are
formed. Marketers realize that developing long-standing, learned connections between prod-
ucts and memorable experiences is a potent way to build and keep brand loyalty. In this
chapter, we’ll also explore how learned associations among feelings, events, and products—
and the memories they evoke—are an important aspect of consumer behaviour.
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is caused by
experience. This experience does not have to affect the learner directly; we can learn
vicariously by observing events that affect others.2 We also learn even when we are not
trying. Consumers recognize many brand names and can hum many product jingles, even
for product categories they themselves do not use. This casual, unintentional acquisition
of knowledge is known as incidental learning.
62 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world is constantly being
revised as we are exposed to new stimuli and receive ongoing feedback that allows us to
modify behaviour in other similar situations at a later time. The concept of learning cov-
ers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between a stimulus
such as a product logo (Sprite) and the concept of a “refreshing soft drink” to a complex
series of cognitive activities (writing an essay on learning for a consumer behaviour
exam). Psychologists who study learning have advanced several theories to explain the
learning process. These theories range from those focusing on simple stimulus–response
connections (behavioural theories) to perspectives that regard consumers as complex
problem solvers who learn abstract rules and concepts by observing others (cognitive
theories). Understanding these theories is important to marketers as well since basic
learning principles are at the heart of many consumer purchase decisions.

Behavioural Learning Theories

Behavioural learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses
to external events, as opposed to internal thought processes. Psychologists who sub-
scribe to this viewpoint do not focus on internal cognitive processes. Instead, they
approach the mind as a “black box” that cannot be directly investigated and emphasize
the observable aspects of behaviour. These observable aspects consist of things that go
into the box (the stimuli or events perceived from the outside world) and things that
come out of the box (the responses or reactions to these stimuli). Take, for example, a
McDonald’s Big Mac as the stimulus and salivating in reaction to this as a response.
This view is represented by two major approaches to behavioural learning: classi-
cal conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Consumers respond to brand names,
scents, jingles, and other marketing stimuli on the basis of the learned associations or
connections they have formed over time. Similarly, people also learn that actions they
take result in rewards and punishments, and this feedback influences the way they
will respond in similar situations in the future. Consumers who receive compliments
on a product choice will be more likely to buy that brand again (i.e., a form of positive
reinforcement), while those who get food poisoning at a new restaurant will not likely
eat there in the future (i.e., a form of punishment).

CO 2 Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response is paired
with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time this
second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first
stimulus. This phenomenon was first demonstrated in dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist doing research on digestion in animals, and is shown in Figure 3–1.
Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell)
with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat

FIGURE 3–1

Diagram of the Classical Conditioning Process

DURING CONDITIONING AFTER CONDITIONING

Stimuli Responses Stimulus Response

Bell Alerts the Dog Bell

(paired with)
Meat Powder Salivation Salivation
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 63

powder into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), because it
was naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned
stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the
bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only. The drooling,
caused by a sound now linked to feeding time, was a conditioned response (CR).
This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov applies primar-
ily to responses controlled by the autonomic (e.g., salivation) and nervous (e.g., eye-
blink) systems. That is, it focuses on visual and olfactory cues that induce physiological
responses such as hunger, thirst, or sexual arousal. When these cues are consistently
paired with conditioned stimuli, such as brand names, consumers may learn to feel
hungry, thirsty, or aroused when later exposed to the brand cues.
Classical conditioning effects can also emerge when a product that is originally
neutral (e.g., a conditioned stimulus) is paired over time with a product that produces
an emotion-inducing response (i.e., an unconditioned stimulus). In one study, for exam-
ple, participants viewed pens paired with either pleasant or unpleasant mood-inducing
music; they were much more likely to later select the pen that appeared with pleasant
music.3 Researchers have shown that classical conditioning effects can be triggered by
unconditioned stimuli such as the Star Wars theme song or pleasant pictures paired
with conditioned stimuli such as geometric shapes, colas, and toothpaste.4

Associative Learning
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which consumers learn
associations between stimuli in a rather simple fashion without more complex pro-
cesses such as memory or cognition taking place.5 Associative learning can occur for
more complex reactions to stimuli as well. Even a credit card becomes a conditioned
cue that triggers greater spending, especially since it is a stimulus present only in situ-
ations in which consumers are spending money. Over time, people may make associa-
tions between credit cards and the ability to make larger purchases; and consequently
have been found to leave larger tips than they do when using cash.6 Small wonder that
American Express reminds us, “Don’t leave home without it.”

R e p etition
Associative learning effects are more likely to occur after a conditioned stimulus and
an unconditioned stimulus have been paired a number of times.7 Repeated exposures
increase the strength of stimulus–response associations and prevent the decay of these

Many classic advertising campaigns consist

of product slogans that have been repeated
so many times that they are etched in
consumers’ minds. Sleep Country’s slogan is
well known, and consumers can finish the
tune once they hear the beginning of the
jingle “Why buy a mattress . . .”
Courtesy of Sleep Country Canada. www.sleepcountry.ca
 64 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

associations in memory. Research indicates that the interval between exposures may
Marketing influence the effectiveness of this strategy as well as the type of medium used to com-
Insight municate the stimulus–response associations; the most effective repetition strategy
seems to be a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media that
How often should an advertiser repeat ads it are more and less involving, such as TV advertising complemented by print media.8
places on websites? Research indicates the Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that have been repeated
answer depends on whether the ad relates to so many times they are etched in consumers’ minds.
the site’s content, and whether there are also Associative learning will not occur or will take longer if the paired stimuli are
competing ads present on the site. The study only occasionally presented with each other. One result of this lack of association
found support for the general idea that repeti- may be extinction, which happens when the effects of prior conditioning are reduced
tive ad messages resulted in higher recall and and finally disappear. This can occur, for example, when a product is overexposed in
interest in learning more about the advertised the marketplace, or forms new associations such that the brand is no longer consis-
product (in this case, a laptop). However,
tently paired with the original stimulus. For example, Coach has done an excellent
repeating the same ad was primarily effective
job of pairing its brand with high-end, luxury imagery. When Nicole “Snookie”
when competitors also showed ads on the site.
Polizzi from MTV’s Jersey Shore began to become well known for always being pho-
Otherwise it was better to vary the ad mes-
tographed with her Coach purse, Coach became worried that its former luxury-brand
sages for the laptop (presumably because
association might wear off. The news media reported that Coach had carefully
people tuned out the ad if it appeared repeat-
edly). And these ads were more effective when
orchestrated a change in her behaviour. By sending her its competition’s (Gucci’s)
they appeared on a site where the content products, Coach hoped to decrease the undesirable associations of Snookie being
related to the advertised product.9 seen using its brand!

S t imul us G en eralizatio n
CO 3 Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke sim-
ilar conditioned responses.10 For example, Pavlov noticed in subsequent studies that
his dogs would sometimes salivate when they heard noises that only resembled the
sound of a bell (e.g., keys jangling). People react to other similar stimuli in much the
same way as they respond to an original stimulus. A drugstore’s bottle of private-brand
mouthwash deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine mouthwash may evoke a sim-
ilar response among consumers who assume that this “me-too” product shares other
characteristics of the original.
Indeed, consumers in one study on shampoo brands tended to rate those with simi-
lar packages as also being similar in quality and performance.11 This “piggybacking”
strategy can cut both ways: When the quality of the me-too product turns out to be lower
than that of the original brand, consumers may exhibit even more positive feelings
toward the original; however, if the quality of the two competitors is perceived to be
about equal, consumers may conclude the price premium they are paying for the original
is not worth it.12 In addition, consumers’ learned associations with a large corporation
can influence what they believe about its products. The company’s overall reputation
has been shown to have a particularly strong impact on brand evaluations. To a lesser
extent the same is also true of the company’s reputation for social responsibility.13

S t imul us D i scr imin atio n

Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by a
UCS. In these situations reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. Part of the
learning process involves learning to respond to some stimuli but not to other similar
stimuli. Manufacturers of well-established brands commonly encourage consumers to
discriminate by urging them not to buy “cheap imitations” because the results will not
be what they expect.
In a recent twist on this principle, some companies are using a strategy called
masked branding, which deliberately hides a product’s true origin. For example, think
of the Dove brand, which does an excellent job of evoking associations around posi-
tive self-esteem and body image for women. Dove is owned by Unilever, a company
that also has the brand Axe in its portfolio. The set of associations that have been cre-
ated around the Axe brand relate to unrealistic body image expectations and the objec-
tification of women. As such, Dove would prefer to downplay its true origin, which is
associated with the Axe brand.
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 65

Marketing Applications of Conditioning

Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associations between stimuli
and responses. Behavioural learning principles apply to many consumer phenomena,
ranging from the creation of a distinctive brand image to the perceived link between a
product and an underlying need.
These conditioned associations are crucial to many marketing strategies that rely
on the creation and perpetuation of positive brand equity, in which a brand has strong
positive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a
result.14 As we will see in the following chapters, a product with brand equity holds a
tremendous advantage in the marketplace.

R e p etition
One advertising researcher argued that scheduling more than three exposures is a
waste. The first exposure creates awareness of the product, the second exposure dem-
onstrates its relevance to the consumer, and the third exposure serves as a reminder of
the product’s benefits.15 However, even this bare-bones approach implies that repeti-
tion is needed to ensure that the consumer is actually exposed to (and processes)

The “Got Milk?” campaign avoids advertis-

ing wearout by repeatedly creating positive
associations with the product, but varying
the execution of the advertisements.
MilkPEP
 66 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

the ad at least three times. As we saw in the last chapter, this exposure is by no means
Marketing guaranteed since people often tune out or distort many marketing communications.
Insight Marketers attempting to condition a particular association must ensure that the con-
sumers they have targeted will be exposed to the stimulus a sufficient number of times
The choice of a great brand name is so impor- to make it “stick.”
tant that companies often hire specialists, On the other hand, it is possible to have too much of a good thing. Consumers can
called naming consultants, to come up with a become so used to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulus that they no longer pay
winning selection. These experts often try to attention to it. This problem, known as advertising wearout, can be alleviated by vary-
find semantic associations that click because ing the way in which the basic message is presented. For example, the marketer can
they evoke some desirable connection. That maintain the themes and associations conveyed by an advertising message, while
strategy brought us names such as Qualcomm varying the actual execution of the message itself. A good example of this is the “Got
(“quality” and “communications”), Verizon Milk?” campaign, which pairs unconditioned stimuli (attractive celebrities) with the
(“horizon,” as in forward-looking), and Intel
product (which presumably leads to the unconditioned response of positive affect),
(“intelligent” and “electronics”). The name
but varies the actual celebrities used to avoid consumers getting bored or blocking out
“Viagra” rhymes with “Niagara,” the famous
the marketing message. Another example of this is TELUS’s “The Future Is Friendly”
waterfall. People associate water with both
campaign, which involves different message executions around cute animals to repre-
sexuality and life, and Niagara Falls is a honey-
sent the brand.
moon mecca. Philip Morris has renamed itself
Altria Group to convey its expansion beyond
cigarettes into packaged foods and brewing.18 C o nd it io n ing Pro duct Asso ciatio ns
Appropriate semantic combinations are Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable
getting harder to find, so some consultants are association. Various aspects of a marketing message, such as music, humour, or imag-
trying to appeal to consumers’ more basic ery, can affect conditioning.
instincts by focusing on links between the raw Importantly, the order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned
sounds of vowels and consonants (called stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur. Generally
phonemes) and emotional responses. To get at speaking, the conditioned stimulus should be presented prior to the unconditioned
these associations, researchers usually give stimulus. That is, it is more effective to present a soft drink (CS) first and then follow
subjects pairs of nonsense names that differ in with the sound of a jingle (UCS). The technique of backward conditioning, such as
only a single phoneme, such as Paressa and playing a jingle (the USC) first and then showing the soft drink (the CS), is generally
Taressa, where the phonemes that differ are p not effective.16
and t, and ask which word sounds faster, more
Just as product associations can be formed, they can also be extinguished. Because
daring, nicer, and so on. They have found that
of the danger of extinction, a classical conditioning strategy may not be as effective for
sounds that come to a full stop (p, b, t, and d  )
products that are frequently encountered, since there is no guarantee they will be con-
connote slowness, while f, v, s, and z are fast.
sistently accompanied by the CS. A bottle of Pepsi paired with the refreshing sound of
The words “Prozac” and “Amazon” convey a
a carbonated beverage being poured over ice may seem like a good example of condi-
sense of speed (of recovery or of delivery). When
naming consultants were asked to label a new
tioning. Unfortunately, the product would also be seen in many other contexts in
handheld personal digital assistant (PDA), they which this sound was absent, reducing the effectiveness of the conditioning strategy.
first thought of “StrawBerry,” because the little By the same reasoning, a novel tune should be chosen over a popular one to pair with
keyboard buttons resembled seeds. They liked a product, since the popular song might also be heard in many situations in which the
the “berry” part of the name because they product is not present.17
knew that people associated the letter b with
reliability, and a berry communicated smallness A p p l ic at io ns o f Stim ulus G en eralizatio n
compared to other PDAs. But a linguist pointed The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging deci-
out that “straw” is a slow syllable, and the sions that attempt to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an existing
product needed to have a fast connotation. brand or company name. The marketing value of an admired stimulus is clearly dem-
Voilà! The BlackBerry was born.19 onstrated at universities with winning sports teams, where loyal fans snap up mer-
chandise, from clothing to bathroom accessories, emblazoned with the school’s name.
This business did not even exist 40 years ago, when schools were reluctant to com-
mercialize their images. Today, it’s a different story. Many university administrators
Companies Making Fun of Themselves crave the revenue they receive from sales of products that range from sweatshirts to
drink coasters. Strategies based on stimulus generalization include the following:
• Family branding, in which a variety of products capitalize on the reputation of a
company name. Companies such as Google, Virgin, Campbell, Heinz, and General
Electric rely on their positive corporate images to sell different product lines.
• Product-line extensions, in which related products are added to an established
brand. Dole, which is associated with fruit, was able to introduce refrigerated
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 67

juices and juice bars, while Sun-Maid went from raisins to raisin bread. Mean-
while, Procter & Gamble is cleaning up with its Mr. Clean brand of liquid cleanser,
aggressively putting the name on products such as Mr. Clean Magic Eraser, for
removing crayon marks from walls and scuff marks from chair rails, and Mr. Clean
AutoDry, for leaving a freshly washed car spot-free without hand drying.20
• Licensing, in which well-known names are “rented” by others. This strategy is
increasing in popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with
well-established brands. In response to declining print media sales, Playboy has
entered into many licensing deals with various product categories, including
wine, fragrance, and fashion.21 Maxim magazine, on the other hand, has been crit-
icized for licensing products ranging from men’s hair dye to bedsheets
• Look-alike packaging, in which distinctive packaging designs create strong asso-
ciations with a particular brand. This link is often exploited by makers of generic
or private-label brands that wish to communicate a quality image by putting their
products in similar packages. Imitating the look of an existing successful brand is
common in today’s crowded marketplace. However, one study found that a nega-
tive experience with an imitator brand increased evaluations of the original brand.
A positive experience with the imitator had the opposite effect of decreasing eval-
uations of the original brand.22 Another study found that consumers tend to react
positively to “copycat brands” as long as the imitator doesn’t make grandiose
claims that it can’t fulfil.23
Of course, this strategy can make a lot of work for lawyers if the copycat brand
gets too close to the original. Marketers of distinctive brands work hard to protect their Cops Hold Purse Parties to Catch Alleged
designs and logos, and every year companies file numerous lawsuits that hinge on the Criminals
issue of “consumer confusion”—how likely it is that one company’s logo, product
design, or package is similar enough to another’s that the typical shopper would mis-
take one for the other. For example, Levi Strauss has sued almost 100 other apparel
manufacturers that it claims have borrowed its trademark pocket design or the distinc-
tive tab sewn into its garments’ vertical seams.24
Companies with a well-established brand image try to encourage stimulus discrimi-
nation when they promote the unique attributes of their brand. One big issue arises
when fake products masquerade as the real thing. The International AntiCounterfeiting
Coalition, an industry group that combats piracy, estimates that trademark counterfeit-
ing robs legitimate brand owners of $250 billion annually.25 As you might imagine,
companies like Louis Vuitton go to great lengths to educate their consumers about
the unique attributes of an original product and how to differentiate a true LV from
an impostor.

Instrumental Conditioning CO 4

Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, occurs as the indi-

vidual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid
behaviours that yield negative outcomes. This learning process is most closely associ-
ated with psychologist B.F. Skinner, who demonstrated the effects of instrumental
conditioning by teaching animals to dance, play Ping Pong, and so on by systemati-
cally rewarding them for desired behaviours.26
Under classical conditioning, people respond involuntarily and fairly simply,
often on the basis of very automatic responses. Under instrumental conditioning, peo-
ple perform more complex behaviours and associate these behaviours with either
rewards or punishments. The desired behaviour may be learned over a period of time,
as intermediate actions are rewarded in a process called shaping. Shaping occurs
when consumers are rewarded for successive steps taken toward the desired response.
For example, the owner of a new store might award samples to shoppers just for com-
ing into the store in a way that encourages trial, then provide consumers with coupons
that stimulate low-involvement purchases, then reward consumers for signing up for a
 68 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Tim Hortons rewards customers through its

“Roll Up the Rim to Win” campaign. This is
a form of positive reinforcement, which
serves to increase the chances consumers
will perform the behaviour (buying products)
again in the future.
All Tim Hortons trademarks referenced herein
are owned by Tim Hortons. Used with
permission.

rewards program, and then finally reward them again when they come into the store
and buy something more substantial.
Also, classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli. Instrumen-
tal learning occurs as a result of a reward or punishment received following the desired
behaviour and takes place over a period in which a variety of other behaviours are
attempted and abandoned because they are not reinforced. A good way to remember
the difference is to keep in mind that in instrumental learning the response is per-
formed because it is instrumental to gaining a reward or avoiding a punishment. Over
Marketing time, consumers come to choose products that make them feel good or satisfy some
Insight social need and to associate with people who reward them.
Instrumental learning occurs in one of three ways. When the environment pro-
Marketers are increasingly taking advantage of vides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, the response is strengthened and
the principles of operant conditioning. Aherk! appropriate behaviour is learned. For example, a woman who gets compliments after
helps people reach their objectives by engaging wearing a certain brand of perfume will learn that using this product has the desired
in a bit of self-blackmail: You post a goal and a effect, and she will be more likely to keep buying the product. Similarly, a user who
deadline on the site. You also post an embar- gets a large number of “likes” on his Facebook status for posting humorous content
rassing photo of yourself (they call it “the will be increasingly likely to do so again. Negative reinforcement also strengthens
bomb”). When the deadline hits, your Facebook responses so that appropriate behaviour is learned. Negative reinforcement removes
friends vote on whether you achieved your goal. something negative in a way that increases a desired response. For example, when the
If the vote is negative, boom!—up goes your retailer offers to pay the tax for the consumer, it is removing a negative stimulus (the
photo for all to see. This is an example of using
tax) in a way that encourages the desired behaviour—making a purchase today!
punishment to encourage the consumer to
In contrast to reinforcement strategies that are used when marketers want to
reach a desired goal. Other apps that dole out
increase a particular behaviour, punishment is used to decrease an undesired
a dose of punishment include the GymPact,
behaviour. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by an unpleasant event.
where missed workouts (tracked via smart-
For example, being ridiculed by friends for wearing an offensive cologne or having the
phone) cost the user real money, and Write or
heel of your shoe rip off after buying a cheap pair would both be examples of
Die, a cure for writer’s block that unwrites the
words on your laptop if you sit too long without punishment in the consumer context. We learn not to repeat these behaviours.
adding more. Finally there’s the Virtual Fridge In terms of positive and negative reinforcement, when a positive outcome is no
Lock—it attaches to your refrigerator and longer received, extinction of the behaviour is likely to occur and the learned stimulus–
posts to your Facebook timeline every time you response connection will not be maintained (as when a woman no longer receives
open the door.27 compliments on her perfume). Thus, either positive or negative reinforcement
strengthens the future link between a response and an outcome because of the pleasant
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 69

FIGURE 3–2

Four Types of Learning Outcomes

EVENT
CONDITION APPLIED CONDITION REMOVED

POSITIVE EXTINCTION
REINFORCEMENT Effect: Removal of
Effect: Positive event positive event weakens
strengthens responses, responses, which are
which are then followed no longer followed by
POSITIVE by positive outcome positive outcome
BEHAVIOUR Learning Process: Learning Process:
Consumer learns to Consumer learns that
perform responses responses no longer
that produce positive produce positive
outcome outcome

Str
Co ength n s
nne en ake ion
ctio We nnect
ns Co
BEHAVIOUR

PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE
Effect: Negative event REINFORCEMENT
weakens responses, Effect: Removal of
which are then followed negative event
by negative outcome strengthens responses,
NEGATIVE Learning Process: which allows avoidance
BEHAVIOUR Consumer learns not of negative outcome
to perform responses Learning Process:
leading to punishment Consumer learns to
perform responses that
allow him or her to
avoid negative
outcome

experience. This tie is weakened under conditions of both punishment and extinction
because of the unpleasant experience. The relationships among these four conditions
are easier to understand by referring to Figure 3–2.

Four Types of Learning Schedules

An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate
reinforcements are given for a behaviour. The issue of what is the most effective rein-
forcement schedule to use is important to marketers, because it relates to the amount
of effort and resources they must devote to rewarding consumers to condition desired
behaviours. Two general ways in which consumers are reinforced for desired behav-
iours are ratio schedules and interval schedules. Ratio schedules reinforce the learner
based on the number of responses that have been completed. For example, rewarding
the consumer with a free gift after 10 purchases is an example of a ratio reinforcement
schedule. Interval schedules, on the other hand, reinforce the learner after a certain
amount of time passes since the appropriate response. For example, you might be
rewarded once a year by your bank for being a valued customer.
Drawing on this, several schedules are possible:
1. Fixed-ratio reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of
responses. For example, consumers might keep buying at the same store to earn a
prize, knowing that after they make 14 purchases, they get their fifteenth purchase
for free.
70 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

2. Variable-ratio reinforcement: The behaviour of a person is reinforced after a cer-

tain number of responses, but he or she does not know how many responses are
required. People in such situations tend to respond at very high and steady rates,
and this type of behaviour is very difficult to extinguish. An example of this is the
Tim Hortons “Roll Up the Rim to Win” campaign. Consumers’ chances of winning
are based on a behaviour (buying a cup of coffee), but consumers aren’t certain
how many times they have to engage in the behaviour before they get the reward—
anything from a free doughnut to a Toyota Camry Hybrid.
3. Fixed-interval reinforcement: After a specified time period has passed, the first
response that is made brings the reward. Under such conditions, people tend to
respond slowly right after being reinforced, but their responses speed up as the
time for the next reinforcement looms. For example, consumers may crowd into a
store for the last day of its seasonal sale and not reappear until the next sale.
4. Variable-interval reinforcement: The time that must pass before reinforcement is
delivered varies around some average. Since the person does not know exactly
when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent
rate. Take, for example, a loyalty club member at a spa who gets mailed a coupon
for a free facial once every eight to ten months.

Applications of Instrumental Conditioning

Principles
Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a consumer is rewarded or
punished for a purchase decision. For example, consumers who are rewarded in
online marketplaces with discounts, bonus products, or even involving content are
more likely to return again. Marketers often use shaping by gradually reinforcing
consumers for taking appropriate actions. For example, a car dealer might encourage
a reluctant buyer just to sit in a floor model, then suggest a test drive, and then try to
close the deal. In a particularly ingenious example of shaping, Toyota Canada
encourages consumers to take its vehicles for a weekend—a fairly big step in the
shaping process.

Fre q ue n cy M ark etin g

A popular technique known as frequency marketing reinforces the behaviour of reg-
ular purchasers by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the
amount purchased. This operant learning strategy was pioneered by the airline
industry, which introduced “frequent flyer” programs in the early 1980s to reward
loyal customers.
Frequent-buyer programs are not just about consumers earning free trips and
merchandise. Retailers can use related databases to refine everything from their
merchandise mix to their marketing strategy on the basis of their detailed knowledge
of consumers and their purchases. Costs are lowered by the ability to design focused
and personalized marketing communications to the prime customer, customer
retention programs are more effective, product launches and redesigns are more likely
to be successful, and blunders are prevented.

G a mif ic atio n
One fast-growing tactic used by companies that capitalizes on operant conditioning
principles is called gamification.28 Many organizations are going to the next level in
terms of consumer engagement by borrowing from basic principles of game mechanics
to motivate consumers across a broad spectrum of behaviours. Indeed, one survey
showed that over 70 percent of Forbes Global 2000 companies planned to use some
form of gamification in their marketing and consumer retention strategies.29
Gamification capitalizes on the desire for people to achieve increasing levels of
mastery at tasks. Gamification can take different forms: It can involve awarding points,
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 71

achievement badges, or levels; filling a progress bar; or showing the performance of

the self and others on leader boards. Here are some examples of marketers’ use of
gamification:
Store and brand loyalty. Foursquare gives people virtual badges when they check
in at a local café or restaurant. Some of them check in as often as they can to compete
for the honour of being named “mayor” of the location.
Social marketing. Recyclebank rewards consumers for doing everyday things that
are sustainable. Users can earn points for working through questions and answers
related to sustainability, by purchasing greener products, or by pledging to engage in
various green behaviours. Consumers can then trade in their points for deals at more
than 3000 local and national businesses.
Employee performance. Some restaurants use a software platform called Muse to
rank the performances of servers on a leader board, rewarding the top performers with
the most lucrative shifts.

Cognitive Learning Theory

In contrast to behavioural theories of learning, cognitive learning theory stresses the
importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem
solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their envi-
ronment. Supporters of this viewpoint also stress the role of creativity and insight
during the learning process.
An Ocean Spray commercial for diet cranberry juice illustrates how marketers can
harness their knowledge of cognitive learning theories to tweak marketing messages.
The spot features two men, in the role of cranberry growers, standing knee-deep in a
bog. A group of women who are exercising joins them. Originally the ad depicted the
women having a party, but a cognitive scientist who worked on the campaign nixed
that idea; she argued that the exercise class would send the diet message more quickly
whereas the party scene would confuse viewers who would spend too much time try-
ing to figure out why the group was celebrating. This extra cognitive activity would
distract from the ad’s message. And, contrary to the standard advertising practice of
mentioning the product as early as possible, she decided that the main characters

The Shoppers Optimum loyalty program

from Shoppers Drug Mart is an example of
frequency marketing.
Courtesy of Shoppers Drug Mart
72 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

should wait a few seconds before mentioning the new diet product. She reasoned that
viewers would need a few more seconds to process the images, because of the addi-
tional action in the ad (the exercising). In a test of which ads get remembered best, this
new version scored in the top 10 percent.30

Is Learning Conscious or Not?

A lot of controversy surrounds the issue of whether or when people are aware of their
learning processes. While behavioural learning theorists emphasize the routine, auto-
matic nature of conditioning, proponents of cognitive learning argue that even these
simple effects are based on cognitive factors; that is, expectations are created that a
stimulus will be followed by a response (the formation of expectations requires mental
activity). According to this school of thought, conditioning occurs because individuals
develop conscious hypotheses and then act on them.
On the one hand, there is some evidence for the existence of unconscious pro-
cedural knowledge. People apparently do process at least some information in an
automatic, passive way, which is a condition that has been termed mindless-
ness.31 When we meet someone new or encounter a new product, for example, we
have a tendency to respond to the stimulus in terms of existing categories rather
than taking the trouble to formulate different ones. Our reactions are activated by
a trigger feature—some stimulus that cues us toward a particular pattern. For
example, men in one study rated a car in an ad as superior on a variety of charac-
teristics if a seductive woman (the trigger feature) was present, despite the fact
that the men did not believe the woman’s presence actually had an influence on
their evaluations.32
Another study also illustrates this process. Undergraduates who were on their
way to participate in a psychology experiment “accidentally” encountered a labora-
tory assistant who was laden with textbooks, a clipboard, papers, and a cup of hot or
iced coffee and who asked for help with the cup. Guess what? The students who held
a cup of iced coffee rated a hypothetical person they later read about as much colder,
less social, and more selfish than did those who had helped out by holding a cup of
hot coffee. Other researchers report similar findings: People tidy up more thoroughly
when there’s a faint aroma of cleaning liquid in the air, and they act more competi-
tively if there’s a briefcase in the room. In each case, they change their behaviour with-
out being aware of doing so.33 Indeed, the bestselling book titled Blink: The Power of
Thinking without Thinking argues that we often make snap judgments that result in
decisions superior to those we think about a lot, because we rely on our “adaptive
unconscious” to guide us.34

CO 5 Observational Learning
Observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note
the reinforcements they receive for their behaviours; learning occurs as a result
of vicarious rather than direct experience. Importantly, while behavioural learn-
ing theories propose that individuals must directly experience the stimuli that
influence their behaviours, cognitive learning theories can account for vicarious
learning effects. This type of learning is a complex cognitive process; people store
these observations in memory as they accumulate knowledge, perhaps using this
information at a later point to guide their own behaviours. This process of imitat-
ing the behaviour of others is called modelling. For example, a woman shopping
for a new kind of perfume may remember the reactions a friend received upon
wearing a certain brand several months earlier, and she may base her purchase on
her friend’s experiences.
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 73

FIGURE 3–3

Components of Observational Learning

PRODUCTION
ATTENTION RETENTION MOTIVATION
PROCESSES
The consumer The consumer A situation arises
The consumer
focuses on a retains this wherein the behaviour
has the ability
model’s behaviour in is useful to the
to perform the
behaviour. memory. consumer.
behaviour.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
The consumer acquires and
performs the behaviour
demonstrated earlier by a model.

The modelling process is a powerful form of learning, and people’s tendencies to

imitate others’ behaviours can have negative effects. Of particular concern is the
potential of TV shows and movies to teach violence to children. Children may be
exposed to new methods of aggression by models (e.g., cartoon heroes) in the shows
they watch. At some later point the child may imitate these behaviours when he or she
becomes angry.
A classic study demonstrates the effect of modelling on children’s actions. Kids
who watched an adult stomp on, knock down, and otherwise torture a large inflated
“Bobo doll” repeated these behaviours when later left alone in a room with the doll;
children who did not witness these acts did not.35
For observational learning in the form of modelling to occur, four conditions must
be met (which are summarized in Figure 3–3):36
1. The consumer’s attention must be directed toward the appropriate model whom,
for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity, it is desirable to
emulate.
2. The consumer must remember what the model says or does.
3. The consumer must convert this information into actions.
4. The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.

Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles

Consumers’ ability to learn vicariously by observing how the behaviour of others is
reinforced makes the lives of marketers much easier. Because people do not have to be
reinforced directly for their actions, marketers do not necessarily have to reward or
punish them for purchase behaviours. Instead, they can show what happens to models
who use or do not use their products, in the knowledge that consumers will often be
motivated to imitate these actions at a later time. For example, a perfume commercial
may depict a woman surrounded by a throng of admirers who are providing her with
positive reinforcement for using the product.
Consumers’ evaluations of the people they model go beyond simple stimulus–
response connections. For example, a celebrity’s image often provokes more than a
simple reflexive response of good or bad;37 it is a complex combination of many attri-
butes. In general, the degree to which a model will be emulated depends on his or her
social attractiveness. Attractiveness can be based upon several components, including
physical appearance, expertise, or similarity to the evaluator.
74 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Facebook appeals to consumers by allowing

them to share and recall their special
memories.
JUSTIN SULLIVAN/Getty Images

CO 6 The Role of Memory in Learning

Memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so
that it will be available when needed. Contemporary approaches to the study of
memory employ an information-processing approach. They assume that the mind
is in some ways like a computer: Data are input, processed, and output for later use
in revised form. In the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system
will recognize. In the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what
is already in memory and “warehoused” until needed. During retrieval, the
mind accesses the desired information. 38 The memory process is summarized in
Figure 3–4.
Many of our experiences are locked inside our heads and may surface years
later if prompted by the right cues. Marketers rely on consumers to retain informa-
tion they have learned about products and services, trusting that they will later
apply it when they decide to buy. During the consumer decision-making process,
this internal memory is combined with external memory—which includes all of
the product details on packages, in shopping lists, and through other marketing
stimuli—to permit brand alternatives to be identified and evaluated.39 The grocery
shopping list is a good example of a powerful external memory aid. When consum-
ers use shopping lists, they buy approximately 80 percent of the items on the list,
and the likelihood of a particular list item being purchased is higher if the person
who wrote the list also participates in the shopping trip. Marketers also found
that the likelihood of purchasing a list item increased with household size and is

FIGURE 3–4

The Memory Process

ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

EXTERNAL Information is Information is Information stored
INPUTS placed in retained in in memory is
memory. memory. found as needed.
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 75

marginally greater during holiday periods. This means that if marketers can induce
a consumer to plan to buy an item in advance of shopping, the probability of the Marketing
item being purchased is high.
Research supports the idea that marketers can distort a consumer’s recall of a
Insight
product experience. What we think we “know” about products can be influenced Brand names that use metaphors help trigger
by advertising messages to which we are exposed after using the products. This stories in our minds, and research suggests
postexperience advertising is more likely to alter actual memories when it is very this strategy results in higher consumer evalu-
similar to or activates memories about the actual experience. For example, ations compared to brand names composed of
advertising can make a remembered product experience more favourable than it meaningless letters or numbers. One study
actually was. reported that consumers rated cell phones from
Samsung and LG more positively after they
were the first in the industry to break the prac-
Encoding of Information for Later Retrieval tice of naming the phones with combinations
of letters and numbers—LG’s phones sport
The way information is encoded helps to determine how it will be represented in names such as Chocolate, Shine, Vu, Voyager,
memory. Encoding involves linking new information to existing knowledge in order to Dare, and Decoy, while Samsung started things
make the new information more meaningful. In general, incoming data that are associ- off with the BlackJack, UpStage, FlipShot, and
ated with other information already in memory stand a better chance of being retained. Juke and later added the Access, Instinct, and
For example, brand names that are linked to physical characteristics41 of a product Glyde. During the same period these companies
category (Coffee-mate creamer or Sani-Flush toilet bowl cleaner) or that are easy to increased market share in this category. Com-
visualize (Tide detergent or Jaguar cars) tend to be more easily retained in memory pared to other phone brands, consumers rated
than more abstract brand names.42 these models as modern, creative, engaging,
However, memory for brand names may interact with one’s involvement in the original, cool, and easy to remember.40
product class. Low-involvement products, such as household cleaners, seem to benefit
from descriptive names by being easier to remember. There is no evidence that descrip-
tive names for high-involvement products, such as automobiles, are remembered any
better than non-descriptive names.43

T yp es of M e a n in g
A consumer may process a stimulus simply in terms of its sensory meaning, such as
its colour or shape. When this occurs the meaning may be activated when the person
sees a picture of the stimulus. We may experience a sense of familiarity upon seeing an
ad for a new snack food we tasted recently, for example. In many cases, though, mean-
ings are encoded at a more abstract level. Semantic meaning refers to symbolic asso-
ciations, such as the idea that rich people drink champagne.

Pe rs ona l Re l e va n c e
Episodic memories are memories for events that are personally relevant. 44 As a
result, a person’s motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. Cou-
ples often have a song that reminds them of their first date or their wedding. Often
an important and compelling episodic event, such as one’s wedding, will lead to
memories that are quite vivid and unique, and are sometimes called flashbulb
memories.
One method of conveying product information is through a narrative or a
story. Much of the social information that an individual acquires is represented in
memory this way. Therefore, using this method in product advertising can be an
effective marketing technique. Narratives persuade people to construct a mental
representation of the information they are viewing. Pictures aid in this construc-
tion and allow for a more developed and detailed mental representation.45 Recent
research supports the idea that brands are more likely to be positively evaluated
and purchased when they connect to a consumer through a narrative.46 For exam-
ple, Chanel created a narrative short film around a love story starring model Gisele
Bündchen. The story made the film very memorable: It was viewed over 7 million
times on YouTube!
76 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

As I See It
Consumers confront a daily to the high-involvement condition (making a truth rating). Again,
barrage of marketing informa- familiarity with the claims helped explain these results.
tion from an increasing num- However, the familiarity of a claim had much less (although
ber of sources in a growing still significant) influence on participants’ beliefs under high
variety of contexts. The num- involvement. High-involvement processing leads to greater elab-
Courtesy of Dr. Scott Hawkins

ber, pacing, placement, and oration, which in turn leads to greater familiarity of the claim.
complexity of the messages High-involvement processing also produces more evaluative pro-
can quickly overwhelm con- cessing, which may limit the effects of familiarity. Thus, repeti-
sumers’ abilities to process tion of marketing messages can have a particularly strong impact
them. In addition, consumers on consumer beliefs under low involvement because consumers
tend to view many marketing are likely to rely on the familiarity associated with the claims to
Dr. Scott Hawkins Rotman School of claims as irrelevant to their assess their validity.
Management, University of Toronto current goals or of trivial In another study, my colleague and I tested this interpreta-
value. This suggests that con- tion by attempting to increase memory for the claims without
sumers process many promotional messages with minimal levels also encouraging evaluative processing, which increases the
of involvement. accessibility of relevant prior knowledge. Repetition-induced
Herbert Krugman was one of the first to argue that the high- belief was strongest when subjects engaged in a processing task
involvement persuasion model, which portrays advertising as a (rote rehearsal) that increased familiarity without increasing
means to overcome resistant attitudes, might not always offer the evaluative processing of the information. It is interesting to note
most appropriate criteria for gauging advertising effectiveness.1 that marketers routinely use mnemonic devices such as rote rep-
He argued that information processed under high involvement can etition (“How do you spell relief? R-O-L-A-I-D-S”) and jingles (“I
raise consumer defences, whereas information processed under wish I were an Oscar Mayer wiener”) to increase rehearsal with-
low involvement can have powerful effects on consumers’ beliefs out inducing evaluative processing.
because their passive acceptance of messages can (perhaps The power of simple repetition to build brand knowledge,
­without their awareness) alter the way they think about products especially when consumers are relatively uninvolved in process-
and brands (i.e., incidentally learned information can influence ing those messages, seems especially important in a media envi-
consumers as much as, or even more than, intentionally learned ronment that continues to become more cluttered. In a later
information). study, my colleagues and I examined how greater levels of claim
In a series of studies, my colleague and I examined how repetition and the relationships among claims can influence
participants’ level of involvement during initial exposure to mar- belief.3 We found that increasing the number of repetitions of a
keting claims influenced what they learned and what they subse- claim continues to increase belief in that claim, but the greatest
quently came to believe.2 Participants rated consumer trivia impact occurs with the first exposure (i.e., there is some wearout
statements (e.g., “Antihistamines have no effect on the common of repetition). In addition, we found that by varying the claims
cold”) as more true when they had been exposed to those state- slightly (so that there were multiple claims about related product
ments earlier than when they had not (repetition-induced belief). features that all implied a common benefit), we could increase
It appeared that the repetition-induced belief resulted from the belief that a product had a general benefit simply by exposing
increased familiarity with the previously exposed claims. That is, participants to more of the related feature claims. Marketers
repetition increased the familiarity of claims, and familiar claims often use “variations-on-a-theme advertising” that exposes
were judged to be more valid than unfamiliar ones. Moreover, ­consumers to multiple executions of the same brand benefit,
when participants processed the information during initial expo- which will not only help keep consumers interested but may also
sure in a less involved way (making a comprehension rating), the contribute to greater belief in the brand’s benefit compared to
effect of repetition on belief became more pronounced relative simple repetition of the same advertising execution.

1 Herbert E. Krugman, “The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning without Involvement,” Public Opinion Quarterly 29 (Fall 1965): 349–356.
2 Scott A. Hawkins and Stephen J. Hoch, “Low-Involvement Learning: Memory without Evaluation,” Journal of Consumer Research 19 (September 1992): 212–225.
3Scott A. Hawkins, Stephen J. Hoch, and Joan Meyers-Levy, “Low-Involvement Learning: Repetition and Coherence in Familiarity and Belief,” Journal of Consumer
Psychology 11 (2001): 1–11.

Memory Systems
According to the information-processing perspective, there are three distinct memory
systems: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
Each plays a role in processing information. The interrelationships of these memory
systems are summarized in Figure 3–5.
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 77

FIGURE 3–5

Relationships among Memory Systems

SENSORY MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY

Temporary storage of Brief storage of information Relatively permanent
sensory information currently being used storage of information
Capacity: High Capacity: Limited Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Less than 1 second Duration: Less than 20 Duration: Long or permanent
(vision) or a few seconds
seconds (hearing)

ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
ATTENTION
Information subjected to
Information that passes
elaborative rehearsal or deep
through an attentional gate is
processing (e.g., its meaning
transferred to short-term
is considered) is transferred
memory.
to long-term memory.

Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses.
This storage is very temporary; it lasts a couple of seconds at most. For example, a
person might be walking past a doughnut shop and get a quick, enticing whiff of some-
thing baking inside. While this sensation would last for only a few seconds, it would
be sufficient to allow the person to determine whether he or she should investigate
further. If the information is retained for further processing, it passes through an atten-
tional gate and is transferred to short-term memory.
Short-term memory also stores information for a limited period of time, and its
capacity is limited. As with the RAM in a computer, this system can be regarded as work-
ing memory; it holds the information we are currently processing. Verbal input may be
stored acoustically (in terms of how it sounds) or semantically (in terms of its meaning).47
The information is stored by combining small pieces into larger ones in a process
known as chunking. A chunk is a configuration that is familiar to the person and can
be manipulated as a unit. For example, a brand name can be a chunk that summarizes
a great deal of detailed information about the brand.
Initially it was believed that STM was capable of processing between five and nine
chunks of information at a time, and for this reason phone numbers were designed to
have seven digits.48 It now appears that three to four chunks is the optimum size for effi-
cient retrieval (10-digit phone numbers can be remembered because the individual digits
are chunked, so we may remember a three-digit exchange as one piece of information).49
Long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long
period of time. For information to enter into long-term memory from short-term mem-
ory, elaborative rehearsal is required. This process involves thinking about the mean-
ing of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory. Marketers
sometimes assist in the process by devising catchy slogans or jingles that consumers
repeat on their own.

Storing Information in Memory

Relationships among the types of memory are a source of some controversy. The tradi-
tional perspective, known as multiple-store, assumes that STM and LTM are separate sys-
tems. More recent research has moved away from the distinction between the two types of
memory, instead emphasizing the interdependence of the systems. This work argues that,
depending on the nature of the processing task, different levels of processing occur that
activate some aspects of memory rather than others. These approaches are called activa-
tion models of memory.50 The more effort it takes to process information (so-called deep
processing), the more likely it is that information will be placed in long-term memory.
 78 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Ass o c iat ive N etw ork Model s

Consumers Associative network models propose that an incoming piece of information is stored
in Focus in an associative network containing many bits of related information organized
according to some set of relationships. The consumer has organized systems of con-
Social networks like Facebook have revolution- cepts relating to brands, stores, manufacturers, etc. Associative network models
ized how people store and share memories. assume that it is the associations that form in consumers’ minds that lead to learning
However, at least some users are starting to about brands and products. For example, the more times a brand name (e.g., Volvo)
feel that maybe these platforms do it a bit too becomes associated with a trait or benefit (e.g., safety) in memory, the stronger the link
well: They don’t necessarily want others (espe- between the brand and the benefit becomes,53 particularly if the brand and the benefit
cially employers, parents, and other authority are uniquely associated.54
figures) to know about all of their “awesome” These storage units, known as knowledge structures, can be thought of as com-
experiences. Incidentally, 75 percent of recruit- plex spiderwebs filled with pieces of data. Information is placed into nodes, which
ers report conducting online research about job
are connected by associative links within these structures. Pieces of information
candidates, and many use social media sites
seen as similar or associated in some way are chunked together under some more
like Facebook and Instagram to get informa-
abstract category. New, incoming information is interpreted to be consistent with
tion.51 As a result, a number of platforms,
the structure already in place.55 According to the hierarchical processing model, a
including Wickr and Vidburs, allow photos,
message—an ad, for instance—is processed in a bottom-up fashion: Processing
messages, or videos to be viewed for a few sec-
begins at a very basic level and is subject to increasingly complex processing oper-
onds before they vanish into cyberspace. The
biggest hit is Snapchat, which posts and then ations that require greater cognitive capacity. If processing at one level fails to
destroys more than 60 million photos or mes- evoke the next level, processing of the ad is terminated and capacity is allocated to
sages every day—already a tenth of the activ- other tasks.56
ity that occurs on the much bigger Facebook Links form between nodes as an associative network is developed. For example, a
platform. One of Snapchat’s founders explained consumer might have a network for “perfumes.” Each node represents a concept
the thinking behind the app: “It became clear related to the category. This node can be an attribute, a specific brand, a celebrity iden-
how awful social media is. There is real value tified with a perfume, or even a related product. A network for perfumes might include
in sharing moments that don’t live forever.”52 concepts such as the names Chanel, Obsession, and Calvin Klein, as well as attributes
such as sexy and elegant.
When asked to list perfumes, the consumer would recall only those brands con-
tained in the appropriate category. This group constitutes that person’s evoked set
(something we discuss in greater detail in Chapter 9). The task of a new entrant that
wants to position itself as a category member (e.g., a new luxury perfume) is to provide
cues that facilitate its placement in the appropriate category. A sample network for
perfumes is shown in Figure 3–6.

FIGURE 3–6

An Associative Network for Perfumes

PERFUMES

Young

Colognes Sensual Floral

Girlfriend by
Justin Bieber

Tom Ford Victoria’s Obsession Elegant Nina by

Secret by CK Nina Ricci

sexy Chanel Playful

Rich

Mercedes
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 79

The term spreading activation refers to the notion that the activation of concepts
can spread between different nodes in the associative network. As one node is acti-
vated, other nodes associated with it also begin to be triggered.
Meaning thus spreads across the network, bringing related concepts to mind.
These related concepts could include competing brands and relevant attributes that
are used to form attitudes toward the brand.

L e ve ls of K now l e dge
Knowledge is coded at different levels of abstraction and complexity. Meaning concepts
are individual nodes (e.g., elegant). These may be combined into a larger unit, called a
proposition (also known as a belief  ). A proposition links two nodes together to form a
more complex meaning, which can serve as a single chunk of information. For example,
a proposition might be that “Titleist is a golf ball brand used by professionals.”
Propositions are, in turn, integrated to produce a complex unit known as a
schema. As was noted in Chapter 2, a schema is a cognitive framework that is devel-
oped through experience. Information consistent with an existing schema is encoded
more readily.57 The ability to move up and down among levels of abstraction greatly
increases processing flexibility and efficiency. For this reason, young children, who do
not yet have well-developed schemas, are not able to make as efficient use of purchase
information as older children.58
One type of schema that is relevant to consumer behaviour is a script—a sequence
of procedures that is expected by an individual. For example, consumers learn service
scripts that guide expectations and purchasing behaviour in business settings. Con-
sumers learn to expect a certain sequence of events and may become uncomfortable if
the service departs from the script. A service script for your visit to the dentist might
include events such as the following: (1) driving to the dentist, (2) reading old maga-
zines in the waiting room, (3) hearing your name called and sitting in the dentist’s
chair, (4) having the hygienist put a funny substance on your teeth, (5) having the
dentist examine your teeth, and so on. This desire to follow a script helps explain why
such service innovations as self-serve checkouts at grocery stores initially met with
resistance by some consumers who had trouble adapting to a new sequence of events.

Analogical Learning
One implication of the notion of these cognitive structures that exist in memory is that
it helps to explain ways marketers can help consumers learn new information, some-
thing that marketers often care about when introducing new and innovative prod-
ucts.59 One way consumers can learn about new products and features is through
analogical learning. If the marketer wants to inform or educate the consumer about a
new product, the marketer might do so by drawing an analogy (i.e., highlighting simi-
larities) between the new product and an existing product.
In analogical learning, the existing product is called the base (as it is the original
source of knowledge) and the new product is called the target (as this is what the
existing knowledge will be transferred to). Analogical learning occurs because the
consumer can easily integrate existing knowledge from the base into the formation of
the new knowledge structure (e.g., the schema for the target) regarding the new prod-
uct.60 For example, when Listerine first introduced its new Fresh Burst Breath Strips,
which dissolve on the tongue and freshen breath, it compared the new product to a
well-established and familiar existing product—Listerine Mouthwash—to highlight
the ability of the new product to freshen breath.
Analogical learning can take one of two forms. First, it may occur at the level of
attributes, which are identifiable features or properties of the product. In the example
of the Listerine breath strips, realizing that a previous product and the new product
both come in distinctive green packaging would be an example of attribute-based
learning. Second, analogical learning can occur at the level of relations. Relations refer
to how the product relates to a desired outcome. In the example above, realizing that
80 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

This ad from BC Hydro (British Columbia’s

main electricity provider) uses an analogy
to help consumers understand how little
sense it makes to waste household energy.
Ad Agency: DDB Canada/Vancouver B.C., Photography:
Frank Hoedl. BC Hydro. All rights reserved

Why doesn’t Wasting poWer seem as ridiculous?

Let’s be smart with our power and waste less energy by switching to ENERGY STAR® CFL and
LED bulbs, installing dimmer switches and motion sensors, and using ENERGY STAR qualified
lighting fixtures. For more tips and great deals on energy-saving products during Power Smart
Month visit powersmart.ca

Ad # P22493_BCH_Ketchup_A 28 SeP 2012 1030 100% APProved By

FILE NAME TRIM DA COLOURS BIG AD/CD
P22493_BCH_Ketchup_A.indd 8" x 12.143" kl C M y K
CLIENT BLEED AD PIC INFO

both mouthwash and the fresh strips can serve to freshen breath highlights a relational
BC Hydro
DOCKET
BHY GEN P22493
n/a
LIVE
n/a
dom
PR
tb
Hi Res
FONTS
Helvetica Neue LT PRO, Din, Dinot
WRITER PROD

analogy.61 Importantly, what types of analogies are most effective may depend on the
DESCRIPTION FOLDS TO PAGE SEPS RUN OUTPUT
Power Smart – Fall Awareness Print 1 of 1 PROOFREAD CLIENT

PUB NOTES
Body 10.511/15.767

target market; while experts represent product information in terms of relational fea-
DDB CanaDa 1600 – 777 HornBy Street, VanCoUVer, BC, CanaDa V6Z 2t3 t 604 687 7911 F 604 640 4344

tures, novices tend to think about products more in terms of attributes. For example, a
professional golfer will learn about a new innovative golfing product by relating its
performance (e.g., swing speed) to previous clubs that he or she has used. In contrast,
a novice golfer would be more likely to understand a new innovative golf product by
comparing its physical attributes (e.g., size of club head) to golf clubs that he or she
had previously seen.

Retrieving Information for Purchase Decisions

Retrieval is the process of accessing information from long-term memory. As evi-
denced by the popularity of the TV show Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?, people
have a vast quantity of information stored in their heads that is not necessarily avail-
able on demand. Although most of the information entered into long-term memory
does not go away, it may be difficult or impossible to retrieve unless the appropriate
cues are present.

Fa c t o rs I n fluen cin g R etrieval

Some differences in retrieval ability are physiological. Older adults consistently display
inferior recall ability for current items, such as prescription information, though events
that happened to them when they were younger may be recalled with great clarity.62
Other factors are situational, relating to the environment in which the message is
delivered. Not surprisingly, recall is enhanced when the consumer pays more atten-
tion to the message in the first place. Some evidence indicates that information about
a pioneering brand (the first brand to enter a market) is more easily retrieved from
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 81

memory than follower brands because the product’s introduction is likely to be dis-
tinctive and, for the time being, no competitors divert the consumer’s attention.63 In
addition, in the case of low-involvement products, descriptive brand names are more
likely to be recalled than those that do not provide adequate cues about what the prod-
uct is.64
The viewing environment of a marketing message can also affect recall. For exam-
ple, commercials shown during baseball games yield the lowest recall scores among
sports programs because the activity is stop-and-go rather than continuous. Unlike
hockey or basketball, the pacing of baseball gives many opportunities for attention to
wander, even during play. Similarly, General Electric found that its commercials fare
better in TV shows with continuous activity, such as stories or dramas, compared with
variety shows or talk shows punctuated by a series of acts.65 Finally, a large-scale
analysis of TV commercials found that commercials shown first in a series of ads are
recalled better than those shown last.66
Recent research on postexperience advertising effects underscores how powerful
marketing communications can be in shaping our daily experiences. Language and
imagery from ads we have seen recently can become confused with our own experien-
tial memories so that we may come to believe that what we saw in advertising actually
was our own experience with products. One study showed that when consumers were
exposed to advertising after they had directly experienced a product, the ad altered
their recollections of the experience.67

FAMILIARITY AND RECALL As a general rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances
its recall. Indeed, this is one of the basic goals of marketers who are trying to create
and maintain awareness of their products. The more experience a consumer has with
a product, the better use that person is able to make of product information.68
However, there is a possible fly in the ointment. As noted earlier in this chapter,
some evidence indicates that extreme familiarity can result in inferior learning and
recall. When consumers are highly familiar with a brand or an advertisement, they
may attend to fewer attributes because they do not believe that any additional effort
will yield a gain in knowledge.69 For example, when consumers are exposed to the
technique of radio replay, in which the audio track from a TV ad is replayed on the
radio, they do very little critical, evaluative processing and instead mentally replay
the video portion of the ad.70
Marketing
Insight
SALIENCE AND RECALL The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activa-
One factor that can influence recall and liking
tion in memory. As noted in Chapter 2, stimuli that stand out in contrast to their envi-
of an advertisement is the context in which it
ronment are more likely to command attention, which in turn increases the likelihood
is viewed. Nielsen (the company that measures
that they will be recalled. Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus
who watches which media) reports that viewers
also improves recall (a result known as the von Restorff effect).73 This effect explains
who enjoy a program are more likely to respond
why unusual advertising or distinctive packaging tends to facilitate brand recall.74
positively to an embedded commercial and to
Introducing a surprise element into a marketing message (such as the acronym
say they want to buy the advertised product.
FCUK, which stands for French Connection, United Kingdom) can be particularly effec- Nielsen studied the responses of 10 000 people
tive in aiding recall even if the stimulus is not relevant to the factual information being across 50 shows and 200 brands. Viewers are
presented.75 In addition, so-called mystery ads, in which the brand is not identified almost one-third more likely to remember
until the end of the ad, are more effective at building associations in memory between brands whose products are placed in shows
the product category and that brand—especially in the case of relatively unknown they enjoy. The impact of this factor varies
brands.76 And the intensity and type of emotions we experience at the time also affect across show format; it’s weaker in sitcoms but
the way we recall the event later. We recall mixed emotions (those with positive and much stronger in “lifestyle programs” such as
negative components) differently from unipolar emotions (those that are either wholly Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. 71 It also
positive or wholly negative). The latter become even more polarized over time, so that helps when the marketer’s message is consis-
we recall good things as even better than they were and bad things as even worse.77 tent with the theme or events in the program—
and it’s even better when the advertised
PICTORIAL VERSUS VERBAL CUES  Is a picture worth a thousand words? There is product actually makes a reference to the
some evidence for the superiority of visual memory over verbal memory, but this show. Such ads are referred to as hybrid ads.72
advantage is unclear because it is more difficult to measure recall of pictures.78
82 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

However, the available data indicate that information presented in picture form is
more likely to be recognized later.79 Certainly visual aspects of an ad are more likely
to grab a consumer’s attention. In fact, eye-movement studies indicate that about
90 percent of viewers look at the dominant picture in an ad before they bother to
view the copy.80
Although pictorial ads may enhance recall, they do not necessarily improve com-
prehension. One study found that TV news items presented with illustrations (still
pictures) as a backdrop result in improved recall for details of the news story, even
though understanding of the story’s content does not improve.81

Fa c t o rs I n fluen cin g Fo rgettin g

Marketers obviously hope that consumers will not forget about their products. How-
ever, in a poll of more than 13 000 adults, more than half were unable to remember any
specific ad they had seen, heard, or read in the last 30 days.82 Forgetting is obviously
a problem for marketers.
Early memory theorists assumed that memories fade because of the simple pas-
sage of time. In a process of decay, the structural changes in the brain produced by
learning simply go away. Forgetting also occurs because of interference; as additional
information is learned, it displaces earlier information.
Stimulus–response associations will be forgotten if consumers subsequently
learn new responses to the same or similar stimuli in a process known as retroac-
tive interference. On the other hand, prior learning can interfere with new learn-
ing, a process called proactive interference. Since pieces of information are stored
in memory as nodes that are connected to one another by links, a meaning con-
cept that is connected by a larger number of links is more likely to be retrieved.
But, as new responses are learned, a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving
the old response.83
These interference effects help to explain problems in remembering brand infor-
mation. Consumers tend to organize attribute information by brand.84 Additional attri-
bute information regarding a brand or similar brands may limit a person’s ability to
recall old brand information. Recall may also be inhibited if the brand name com-
prises frequently used words. These words cue competing associations and result in
less retention of brand information.85
In one study, brand evaluations deteriorated more rapidly when ads for the brand
appeared with messages for other brands in the same category than when the ad was
shown with ads for 12 dissimilar products.86 By increasing the salience of a brand,
marketers can impair the recall of other brands.87 However, calling a competitor by
name can result in poorer recall for one’s own brand.88

Products as Memory Markers

Products and ads can themselves serve as powerful retrieval cues. Indeed, the
three types of possessions most valued by consumers are furniture, visual art, and
photos. The most common explanation for this attachment is the ability of these
things to call forth memories of the past.89 Studies find that valued possessions can
evoke thoughts about people and prior events on several dimensions, including
friends and loved ones, sensory experiences, and memories of breaking away from
parents or former partners.90 In fact, researchers are just beginning to probe the
effects of autobiographical memories on buying behaviour. These memories appear
to be one way that advertisements create emotional responses. Ads that succeed in
getting us to think about our own past also appear to get us to like these ads more—
especially if the link between the nostalgia experience and the brand is strong.91
Products are particularly important as life-markers when our sense of the past is
threatened, as when a consumer’s current identity is challenged because of some
change in role caused by divorce, moving, graduation, and so on. 92 Our
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 83

Fossil plays on consumers’ positive, nos-

talgic memories.
Reprinted with permission from Fossil Group, Inc.

possessions often have mnemonic qualities that serve as a form of external memory
by prompting consumers to retrieve episodic memories. For example, family pho-
tography allows consumers to create their own retrieval cues, with the 11 billion
amateur photos taken annually forming a kind of external memory bank for our
culture.

Th e Ma r ke tin g P o we r o f N os ta l gia
Nostalgia has been described as a bittersweet emotion, in which the past is viewed
with both sadness and longing. References to “the good old days” are increasingly
common as advertisers call up memories of distant youth—feelings they hope will
translate to what they’re selling today. A stimulus can sometimes evoke a weakened
response much later, an effect known as spontaneous recovery. This reestablished
connection may explain consumers’ powerful nostalgic reactions to songs, pictures, or
brands they have not been exposed to in many years.
Not only can nostalgic products connect consumers to their own memories of the
past, but they can also resonate with younger consumers. As a PepsiCo marketing
executive explained, “Retro is very cool with 20-somethings, because it ties in with
their desire for simpler, cleaner, more authentic lives. Many of them are engaged in
identity self-creation through their Facebook pages, Instagram, Twitter, and other
social media, and they see nostalgia as a way to differentiate themselves.” This is why
programs such as the Pepsi “Throwback” campaign (which featured retro cans and
old-fashioned style Pepsi sweetened with beet sugar rather than cane sugar) can be so
successful.93
A retro brand is an updated version of a brand from a prior historical period.
These products trigger nostalgia, and researchers find that they often inspire con-
sumers to think back to an era where (at least in our memories) life was more stable,
simple, or even utopian; they let us “look back through rose-coloured glasses.” 94
Recent research suggests that consumer preferences for nostalgic brands are related
to a need to belong and that consumption of nostalgic products can resolve belong-
ingness needs.95 One example of a retro success story is the “Old Spice Guy” cam-
paign that went viral and revived a men’s deodorant brand that is more than 70
years old.
 84 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

M e mory a n d A est hetic Preferen ces

Marketing We like ads and products that remind us of our past; prior experiences also determine
Insight what we like now. The nostalgia index indicates that people’s tastes in such products
as movies and clothing are influenced by what was popular during certain critical
The head office for Fluevog Shoes, a world- periods of their youth. For example, liking a specific song appears to be related to how
famous, fashion-forward shoe store, is located old a person was when that song was popular. On average, songs that were popular
in Vancouver. Fluevog stores are also found in
when an individual was 23.5 years old are the most likely to be favoured; favourite
Boston, San Francisco, Seattle, Toronto, and New
movie stars and fashion models are usually those who were popular when that indi-
York. Fluevog’s success illustrates the power of
vidual was 26 and 33 years old, respectively; and men, but not women, also show
applying learning theories effectively. The store
evidence of nostalgic attachment to cars from their youth.96
name, for example, is just difficult (and interest-
ing) enough to pronounce to be easy to remem-
ber. (John Fluevog’s family name was adopted Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli CO 7
from the Norwegian village from which they emi-
grated to Canada.) They sell memorable (i.e., fun Because advertisers pay so much money to place their messages in front of consumers,
and imaginative) styles, with names such as they are naturally concerned about whether people will actually remember these mes-
Lounge Lizards, Swingers, Wok n Roll, Angels, sages at a later point in time. It seems that they have good reason to be concerned. In
Demerol (yes, it’s a nurse’s Fluevog), and Granny one study, fewer than 40 percent of TV viewers made positive links between commer-
Glamour, to a primarily youthful market (aged cial messages and the corresponding products, only 65 percent noticed the brand
18 to 50 years, 60 percent female). name in a commercial, and only 38 percent recognized a connection to an important
Fluevog carries the strategy of being dis- point.98 Even more sadly, only 7 percent of TV viewers can recall the product or com-
tinctive through to store decor and marketing pany featured in the most recent TV commercial they watched.
communications. Each store is designed to fit
with its neighbourhood and the previous life of
Re c o gn it io n Versus R ecall
that neighbourhood. The Toronto store retained
some fixtures and furnishings from its diner One indicator of good advertising is, of course, the impression it makes on consum-
days, while the San Francisco store is reminis- ers. But how can this impact be defined and measured? Two basic measures of impact
cent of a smoking parlour with overstuffed are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test, subjects are shown ads one
couches. Fluevog stays away from runway at a time and asked whether they have seen them before. In contrast, free-recall tests
placements and conventional promotions, opt- ask consumers to think independently of what they have seen, without being
ing for wacky ads, pocket-sized catalogues, prompted for this information first; obviously, this task requires greater effort on the
in-store fashion shows and sample sales, part of respondents.
angels moulded on shoe soles, and poetry Under some conditions these two memory measures tend to yield the same results,
enclosures in shoes. The company’s website especially when the researchers try to keep the viewers’ interest in the ads constant.99
(www.fluevog.com) attracts about 2 million Generally, though, recognition scores tend to be more reliable and do not decay over
visits every month.97 time the way recall scores do.100 Recognition scores are almost always better than
recall scores, because recognition is a simpler process and more retrieval cues are
available to the consumer.
Both types of retrieval play important roles in purchase decisions. Recall tends to
be more important in situations in which consumers do not have product data at their
disposal, and so they must rely on memory to generate this information.101 On the
other hand, recognition is more likely to be an important factor in a store where con-
sumers are confronted with thousands of product options and information (i.e., where
external memory is abundantly available) and where the task may simply be to recog-
nize a familiar package. Unfortunately, package recognition and familiarity can have a
negative consequence in that warning labels may be ignored, since their existence is
taken for granted and not really noticed.102

Prob l e ms with Memo ry Mea sures

Although the measurement of an ad’s memorability is important, the ability of existing
measures to accurately assess these dimensions has been criticized for several reasons.

RESPONSE BIASES  Results obtained from a measuring instrument are not necessarily
caused by what is being measured, but rather by something else about the instrument
or the respondent. This form of contamination is called a response bias. For example,
people tend to give “yes” responses to questions, regardless of what is asked. In addi-
tion, consumers are often eager to be “good subjects” by pleasing the experimenter.
 C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 85

They will try to give the responses they think the experimenter is looking for. In some
studies, the claimed recognition of bogus ads (ads that have not been seen before) is
almost as high as the recognition rate of real ads.103

MEMORY LAPSES  People are also prone to unintentionally forgetting information.

Typical problems include omitting (the leaving out of facts), averaging (the tendency
to “normalize” things and not report extreme cases), and telescoping (the inaccurate
recall of time).104 These distortions call into question the accuracy of various product
usage databases that rely on consumers to recall their purchases and consumption of
food and household items. In one study, for example, people were asked to describe
what portion of various foods—small, medium, or large—they ate in a normal meal.
However, different definitions of medium were used (e.g., 3/4 cup versus 1-1/2 cups).
Regardless of the measurement specified, about the same number of people claimed
they normally ate medium portions.105

MEMORY FOR FACTS VERSUS FEELINGS  Although techniques are being developed to
increase the accuracy of memory scores, these improvements do not address the more
fundamental issue of whether recall is necessary for advertising to have an effect. In
particular, some critics argue that these measures do not adequately tap the impact of
“feeling” ads, where the objective is to arouse strong emotions rather than to convey
concrete product benefits. Many ad campaigns, including those for Hallmark, Tim
Hortons, and Bell, use this approach. An effective strategy relies on a long-term buildup
of feeling rather than on a one-shot attempt to convince consumers to buy the product.106
Also, it is not clear that recall translates into preference. We may recall the ben-
efits touted in an ad but not believe them. Or the ad may be memorable because it is
obnoxious, and the product becomes one we “love to hate.” The bottom line is that
while recall is important, especially for creating brand awareness, it is not necessar-
ily sufficient to alter consumer preferences. To accomplish this, marketers need
more sophisticated attitude-change strategies. These issues will be discussed in
Chapters 7 and 8.

MyMarketingLab Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Interactive Lesson Presentations: Work through interactive presentations and assessments to test your knowledge
of business concepts.
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Dynamic Study Modules: Work through adaptive study modules on your computer, tablet, or mobile device.
• Simulations: Practise decision-making in simulated business environments.

Chapter Summary

It’s important for marketers to understand how consumers response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with
learn about products and services. another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response.
Over multiple pairings, the second stimulus (the condi-
• Learning is a change in behaviour that is caused by expe-
tioned stimulus) comes to elicit the response as well.
rience. Learning can occur through simple associations
between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series Learned associations can generalize to other things, which
of cognitive activities. is important to marketers.
• This response can also extend to other, similar stimuli in
Conditioning results in learning.
a process known as stimulus generalization. This process
• Behavioural learning theories assume that learning occurs is the basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and
as a result of responses to external events. Classical con- family branding, in which a consumer’s positive associa-
ditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a tions with a product are transferred to other contexts.