Chapter 4 – Advanced Metrology

Co-ordinate metrology

Coordinate metrology is a field of metrology that is becoming increasingly popular in the

manufacturing industry. Coordinate metrology enables the three-dimensional measurement to be
carried out on complex object in a single setup. The instrument used for this purpose is known as the
coordinate measuring machine or CMM.

Coordinate Measuring Machine:

Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) are extremely powerful metrological instrument. It is a

device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine may be
manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled. In these machines the
measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of this machine. This probe
touches the part of interest and allows collecting discrete points on the object's surface.

In general, the CMM comprises three frames that move along three orthogonal axes, i.e. X-, Y- and
Z-axis. Usually, a contact device known as measuring probe is attached to the end of the Z-axis. The
displacement along each axis is measured by a linear measurement system and the readings are sent
to an electronic controller. The electronic controller is connected to a computer that also enables
various types of data processing to be performed. Repeated measurements on similar objects can be
done easily by programming the motion of the axes of the machine. This reduces the time taken for
measurement and inspection up to 80% to 90%. These machines are made in various sizes and the
methods of operation are based on either manual or computer-aided.

Comparison between conventional and coordinate measuring technology

Conventional Metrology Coordinate Metrology

Manual, time consuming alignment of the test piece Alignment of the test piece not necessary
Single purpose and multi-point measuring Simple adaptation to the measuring test by
instruments making it hard to adapt to changing software
measuring task
Comparison of measurement with material Comparison of measurement with
measures, i.e., gauge block mathematical or numerical value
Separate determination of size, form, location and Determination of size, form, location and
orientation with different machines orientation in one setup using one
reference system

Advantages of CMM Technology:

1. Less Setup Time: If we are doing inspection on surface plate then it is very time consuming
activity. Where CMM can align a part in three axes in one go. It can orient a part in drawing
direction with reference points easily. Data can be comparing directly with drawing dimensions.
This can create part reference system very easily with operator defined orientation also.

2. Highly Flexible: CMMs are essentially universal measuring machines and need not be dedicated
to any particular task. They can measure almost any dimensional characteristic of a part
configuration, including cams, gears and warped surfaces. No special fixtures or gages are
 required. Because probe contact is light, most parts can be inspected without being clamped to
the table.

3. More Accurate: With CMM all measurement results comes from one origin that is part
coordinate system. Because of this errors are generally reduced and achieved good accuracy in
comparison to the hand inspection tools.

4. Reduced Operator Influence: Due to computer controlled machine it can do the measurement
of similar parts without operator influence. This will reduce the chances of errors in
measurement and all parts can be measured with same process.

5. Improved Productivity: The above-mentioned advantages help make CMMs more productive
than conventional inspection techniques. Furthermore, productivity is realized through the
computational and analytical capabilities of associated data-handling systems, including
calculators and all levels of computers.

Types of CMM (CMM configurations)

The basic CMM consists of three axes, each provided with a guide way that enable precise
movement along a straight line. Each guide way has a carrier that moves along. The carrier enables
the second carrier to move along a straight line based on the first guide way. Each axis is fitted with
a precision scale that records the position of the carrier measured from a reference point. The
measuring probe is fitted to the carrier on the third axis. When the measuring probe touches the
object being measured, the measurement system records the position of all three axes.

There are several physical configurations of CMMs. All the configurations have a method of moving
the probe along three axes relative to the object. Although there are many designs of CMMs but they
can be grouped into five basic types as follows:

(a) Cantilever type

(b) Bridge type

(c) Horizontal arm type

(d) Column type and

(e) Gantry type

Cantilever type CMM:

The schematic diagram of the cantilever type CMM is shown in

figure. In the cantilever type CMM the measuring probe it attached
to the Z-axis and moves in the vertical direction. The Z-axis carrier is
fitted to the cantilever arm and provides movement in the Y-
direction. The Z-axis movement is provided by the table. This type
of CMM design provides easy access to the work area and has high
workspace volume.
Bridge type CMM:

In principle, the bridge type CMM has a moving bridge as shown

in figure. The measuring probe is fitted to the Z-axis arm and the
Z-axis carrier is fitted to the X-axis arm. The X-axis carrier in
turn is fitted to the Y-axis arm. Both ends of the Y-axis are
supported on the table, usually using air bearings. This type of
design provides better rigidity and thus the CMM has higher
accuracy compared to the horizontal arm type. The weakness of
this design is that it is difficult to place work onto the table
because of the obstruction from the vertical parts of the Y-axis
frame. However, this design is one of the most popular.

Column type CMM:

The design of the column type CMM is similar to the drilling machine or
the vertical milling machine (see figure). This type of CMM is commonly
known as the universal measuring machine. The construction of the
column type CMM provides very good rigidity and high accuracy. The
movement in the X and Y directions are achieved by moving the table.

Horizontal arm type CMM:

The horizontal arm type CMM has a horizontal arm that moves in
the horizontal direction. The measuring probe is fitted to the Y-
axis arm and not the Z-axis arm as in the other designs of CMM.
The main advantage of this type of CMM is that the work volume
is large and free from obstruction. This type of machine can be
used for large work piece such as a car body.

Gantry type CMM:

In the gantry type CMM the X and Y-axes are placed overhead
and supported by four columns from the base as shown in
figure. The main advantage of this type of construction is that
the operator can move with the probe and measurement on
large objects, such as the body of car, can be carried out.
Parts of CMM

Co-ordinate Measuring Machines are built rigidly and are very precise. They are equipped with
digital readout or can be linked to computers for online inspection of parts. These machines can be
placed close to machine tools for efficient inspection and rapid feedback for correction of processing
parameter before the next part is made. They are also made more rugged to resist environmental
effects in manufacturing plants such as temperature variations, vibration and dirt

CMM include three main components:

1. Main Structure which include three axes of motion

2. Probing system which include sensing device
3. Data collection and reduction system which include application software, Machine controller
& Desktop computer

1. Structure of CMM:

Co-ordinate Measuring Machines are built rigidly and are very precise. To give maximum rigidity to
machines without excessive weight, all the moving members, the bridge structure, Z-axis carriage,
and Z-column are made of hollow box construction. They are equipped with digital readout or can be
linked to computers for online inspection of parts. A map of systematic errors in machine is built up
and fed into the computer system so that the error is compensated.

They are designed to resist environmental effects in manufacturing plants such as temperature
variations, vibration and dirt. Each axis is fitted with a reference system and a linear measurement
transducer for positional feedback (0.5 micron resolution). Passive vibration damping system isolates
external vibrations. FEA designed beam extrusion provides optimum moment of inertia for
minimum deflection when operating at high accelerations.

The bearings employed on CMMs have a direct impact on the accuracy of the machine because of
their effect on every motion along its axes, and hence high demands are made on the bearing
construction

Air bearings:

Air bearings are provided for ensuring friction free travel

to all axes. Compressed air is forced through a series of
very small holes in a flat bearing surface to provide a
smooth but controlled air cushion on which the CMM can
move in a frictionless manner.

Being non-contact, air bearings avoid the traditional

bearing related problems of friction, wear, lubricant
handling etc and offer distinct advantages in precision
positioning and high speed applications.

The fluid film of the bearing is achieved by supplying a

flow of air through the bearing itself to the bearing surface. Numerous bearing designs exist to
ensure uniform pressure is distributed across the entire bearing area. The design of the air bearing is
such that, although the air constantly dissipates from the bearing site, the continual flow of
pressurized air through the bearing is sufficient to support the working loads.
2. Probing system:

The probe system is the principle item of a CMM. Its function is to identify a coordinate point on the
object surface. The variety of probe systems used on CMMs is numerous. In the beginning, when
CMMs were introduced, hard probes were applied. Today, electro-mechanical, electronic and optical
probe systems are exclusively used. The type of probe system installed on a CMM determines its
capability and application based on system specific characteristics. The two basic types of probe
systems are:
• Contact Systems
• Touch trigger Probe
• Analog scanning probe
• Non-contact Systems
• Laser probes
• Video probes

Contact Systems: Contact Systems carry a stylus tip at the end of the probe system that makes
physical contact with the object surface. Usually, the tip is in the shape of a sphere and made out of a
ruby. Ruby, a precious stone, is a very homogenous, hard and wear-resistant material. High-precise
spheres can be produced, with deviation of just 0.25 in the shape of an ideal sphere. When contact is
made with the object surface the electronic probe system triggers an electric signal to record the
current position instantaneously by reading the scales of the CMM. Contact systems are the most
frequently used sensors. For some industrial applications, as in the measurement of very flat, filigree
or soft objects, they are limited in use and sometimes not applicable.

Non-contact Systems: Non-contact Systems are optical devices where no stylus is used to detect the
part surface. These systems are mostly used for two-dimensional measuring of flat parts, like
electronic boards or objects made of soft material, where a contact system might deflect the part
being measured. Another advantage of non-contact systems is their measurement speed. Depending
on the measuring task, they can be as much as three hundred percent (300 %) faster than contact
systems. In addition, problems like stylus compensation, friction angles or changing contact forces
are not encountered by these systems.

Touch trigger probe:

As the sensor makes contact with the part, the difference in contact resistance
indicates that the probe has been deflected

The computer records this contact point coordinate space

An LED light and an audible signal usually indicate contact

Analog scanning probe:

The tip of the stylus is in continues contact with the part surface. Analog
probes for continuous scanning--designed to send an uninterrupted
stream of data back to the system’s computer
Laser scanning probe:
Laser probes project a light beam onto the surface
of a part

When the light beam is triggered, the position of

beam is read by triangulation through a lens in the
probe receptor

Laser tool have a high degree of speed and accuracy

Video probe:
It is used to measure features where touch probe cannot be accessed.

The features are measured by computer ‘count’ of the pixels of the

electronic image

The camera is capable of generating multitude of measurements

points within a single video frame

3. Data collection and reduction system:

The computer hardware and the applied CMM-software determine the capabilities and the versatility
of CMMs. The computer hardware being used is versatile, and varies from Personal Computers (PC)
to networked workstations. The computer hardware needed can be usually purchased from the CMM
manufacturer directly, or if a suitable hardware environment for the CMM software already exists at
the customer site, the CMM software can be loaded onto the customers system. Input devices are
generally in the form of a keyboard and a control box that are supplied with the machine. Today
tablets, digitizers, light-pens and touch-screens for shop-floor applications or any combination of
them are also being used. The output devices are as versatile as the input devices and vary from
CRTs, disk drives or tapes to peripherals like printers or plotters to document the results.

The CMM problem oriented software, which usually runs on a UNIX based or a VMS operating
system, was tremendously developed in the last few years. In the early stage of DCC-CMMs it was
necessary to program the measuring routines in a standard program language like FORTRAN. Today
most of the CMM manufacturers offer their own problem oriented programming language to
program their machines in. The programming systems on today's CMM market are user friendly and
menu driven, which apply a plain English style command set that is easy to remember and is also self
explanatory. In addition to the basic CMM software the customers usually can choose according to
their needs from a wide variety of special software modules to solve complex measuring tasks. This
special software also offer advanced evaluation and documentation capabilities.
Software Features:
▪ Tools for generating complex inspection programs, including touch scanning probe paths.
▪ Analysis tools for evaluating data from inspection runs against CAD geometry without
requiring use of a data translator.
▪ Real-time 3D graphics for quick analysis and review.
▪ Ability to leverage inspection data in CAD-native environments using a familiar and easy-
to-learn user interface.
▪ Ability to utilize model-based tolerances, component and assembly.
▪ Ability to generate industry standard DMIS programs

Sources of errors in CMM measurements:

The accuracy of a Coordinate Measuring Machine is very difficult to define due to its complexity,
i.e. as a consequence of its spatial coordinate system and the large number of subassemblies. Like
every other measuring device that is used in metrology, a CMM has a certain degree of measuring
accuracy, or in other words the measured part dimensions deviate by a certain value from the real
value of the dimension. The measuring uncertainty consists of two different types of deviations, one
which is caused by spatial errors and the other by computational errors.

Spatial errors are errors in the measured position of a point on the surface of the workpiece.

The factors affecting spatial errors are:

▪ The accuracy of the components of the CMM such as guide ways, the scales, the probe
system and the qualification sphere.
▪ The environment in which CMM operates i.e. the ambient temperature, temperature
gradients, humidity and vibrations
▪ The probing strategy used i.e. the magnitude and direction of the probe force, the type of
stylus used and the measuring speed of the probe.
▪ The characteristics of the workpiece i.e. elasticity, surface roughness, hardness and the mass
of the component

Computational errors are the errors in estimated dimensions and form deviations of the workpiece

The factors affecting Computational errors are:

▪ The CMM software used to estimate the geometry of the workpiece.

▪ The precision of the computer used on the CMM.
▪ The number and relative position of the measured points.
▪ The extent to which the geometry departs from the ideal geometric form.
 LASER METROLOGY

Laser Metrology
Michelson's Interferometer:

Construction:

A schematic diagram of Michelson's Interferometer is given in Fig. It consists of two highly polished
plane mirror M1 and M2, with two optically plane glass plate G1 and G2 which are of same material
and same thickness. The mirror M1 and M2 are adjusted in such a way that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other. The plate G1 and G2 are exactly parallel to each other and placed at 45°
to mirror M1 and M2. Plate G1 is half silvered from its back while G2 is plane and act as
compensating plate. Plate G1 is known as beam-splitter plate.

The mirror M2 with screw on its back can slightly titled about vertical and horizontal direction to
make it exactly perpendicular to mirror M1. The mirror M1 can be moved forward or backward with
the help of micrometer screw and this movement can be measured very accurately.

Working:

Light from a broad source is made paralied by using a convex lens L. Light from lens L is made to
fall on glass plate G1 which is half silver polished from its back. This plate divides the incident beam
into two light rays by the partial reflection and partial transmission, known as Beam splitter plate.
The reflected ray travels towards mirror M1 and transmitted ray towards mirror M2. These rays after
reflection from their respective mirrors meet again at 'O' and superpose to each other to produce
interference fringes. This firings pattern is observed by using telescope.