MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS FOR

TECHNOLOGISTS

DR. SHERIF AL HOSARY

DEFINITIONS: TRANSDUCER AND SENSORS

Transducer
A device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal
with a different energy form (Mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.)

Sensor
Is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a
signal which can be measured or recorded Acquires
information from the “real world”
TRANSDUCER AND SENSORS
A typical sensor system
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal

Sensor/ transducer:
senses “real world” parameter and converted into a suitable signal

Signal conditioning:
converts the sensed signal into an analog or digital electrical value
PERFORMANCE AND TERMINOLOGY
The desirable features of sensors are:

Features of Sensors
Range / span Reliability
Errors and accuracy Sensitivity
Nonlinearity Resolution
Hysteresis Frequency Response
Dead band and Saturation Response time
Output impedance calibration
Repeatability
RANGE AND SPAN
Range:
lowest and highest values of the stimulus
Span:
the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest values of the
input that being sensed.
Input full scale (IFS):
= span
Output full scale (OFS):
difference between the upper and lower ranges of the output of the sensor.
Dynamic range:
ratio between the upper and lower limits and is usually expressed in db
RANGE AND SPAN

Example:
A sensor is designed for: -30°C to +80 °C to output 1.2 V to 2.5 V
• Range: -30°C and +80 °C
• Span: 80- (-30) =110 °C
• Input full scale = 110 °C
• Output full scale = 2.5 V-1.2 V=1.3 V
ERRORS AND ACCURACY
Error:
Is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the quantity being 𝑽
measured 𝟐. 𝟖

Error = measured value – true value

±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗 𝑽
As a percentage of full scale (forexample)
error is calculated as; 𝟏. 𝟓

𝒆= ∆𝒕/
𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 ∗ 𝟏0𝟎 𝑻
−𝟑𝟎 𝒐𝑪 ±𝟎. 𝟓 𝒐𝑪 𝟖𝟎 𝒐𝑪

where 𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 are the maximum and minimum values the device is designed to
operate at.
ERRORS AND ACCURACY
Accuracy:
Is the extent to which the measured value might be wrong and
normally expressed in percentage
Example:
A thermistor is used to measure temperature between –30 and +80 °C and produce an
output voltage between 2.8 V and 1.5 V. Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is
±0.5 °C. so the measured value may be higher than or lower than the true value by
0.5 °C
• In terms of the input as ±0.5 °C
• Percentage of input: error = 0.5/(80+30)*100 = 0.454%
• In terms of output: error = ± 0.059 V. ?
HYSTERESIS
• Hysteresis is the deviation of the sensor’s output at any
given point when approached from two different directions 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
• Caused by electrical or mechanical systems
➢ Magnetization
➢ Thermal properties 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈
➢ Loose linkages
• If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of 50 °C, the
output might be 4.95 V when temperature increases but 5.05 V error 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈
when temperature decreases.
• This is an error of ± 0.5 % (for an output full scale of 10 V in this
idealized example). 𝟎 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
NONLINEARITY
• Nonlinearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the
ideal linear transfer function. 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
• Nonlinearity must be deduced from the actual transfer 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬
𝟐
function or from the calibration curve 𝟏
𝟑
Few methods are available to do so: 𝒄

a) by use of the range of the sensor 𝑳𝟏

𝑳𝟐 𝑭𝑺
▪ Pass a straight line between the range points (line 1)
𝟎 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔
𝒂
b) use a linear best fit (least squares) through the points of the
curve (line 2)
c) use the tangent to the curve at some point on the curve
▪ Take a point in the middle of the range of interest
▪ Draw the tangent and extend to the range of the curve (line 3)
DEAD BAND
• Dead band: the lack of response or insensitivity of a device over a specific range of
the input.
• In this range which may be small, the output remains constant.
• A device should not operate in this range unless this insensitivity is acceptable.

𝑫𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
Output impedance:
Ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit current of the port
(i.e. current when the output is shorted) output impedance is important
for interfacing

Example:
500 𝛀 sensor (output impedance) connected to a processor
• Processor input impedance is infinite
• Processor input impedance is 500 𝛀
OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒗
500
+
500
𝑅1 𝟓𝒗 500
−
+
𝟓𝒗 𝒃
− 𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝒗
500
+
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒓
𝟓𝒗 500 500
−
𝒂 𝒄
REPEATABILITY
Also called reproducibility:
failure of the sensor to represent the same value under identical conditions
when measured at different times.
o Usually associated with calibration
o Given as percentage of input full scale of the maximum difference between two
readings taken at different times under identical input conditions.

𝒎𝒂𝒙. −𝒎𝒊𝒏.
𝑹𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
SENSITIVITY
• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output for a given
change in input, usually a unit change in input.
• Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function.

• Also is used to indicate sensitivity to other environment that is not

measured.
Example:
sensitivity of resistance measurement to temperature change.
𝒅𝑹
𝐑 = 𝐚𝐓 + 𝐛 , =𝒂 𝛀/ 𝑪
𝒅𝑻
RESOLUTION
Resolution:
The minimum increment in stimulus to which the sensor can respond.
It is the magnitude of the input change which results in the smallest
observable output.
Example:
A digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1 V is used to measure the
output of a sensor. The change in input (temperature, pressure, etc.)
that will provide a change of 0.1 V on the voltmeter is the resolution of
the sensor/voltmeter system.
In digital systems generally, resolution may be specified as 𝟏/𝟐𝑵 (N is the
number of bits.)
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Frequency response:
The ability of the device to respond to a harmonic input
A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.) as a function of frequency Indicates
the range of the stimulus in which the device is usable (sensors and actuators)
Provides important design parameters
Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode
diagram of the device)
FREQUENCY RESPONSE (CONT.)
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
(normalized)

𝟏
𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕

𝑨 𝑪 𝑫 𝑩 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

Important design parameters

– Bandwidth (B-A, in Hz)
– Flat frequency range (D-C in Hz)
– Cutoff frequencies (points A and B in Hz)
– Resonant frequencies
FREQUENCY RESPONSE (EXAMPLE)
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
(normalized)

𝟏
𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕

𝒇[𝑯𝒛]
𝟕𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝒌 𝟏𝟐 𝒌 𝟏𝟔. 𝟓 𝒌

• Bandwidth: 16.5 kHz -70 Hz =16.43 kHz

• Flat frequency range: 10 kHz -120 Hz =9880 Hz
• Cutoff frequencies: 70 Hz and 16.5 kHz
• Resonance: 12 kHz
RESPONSE TIME
Response time:
Indicates the time needed for the output to reach steady state for a step change
in input.
• Typically the response time will be given as the time needed to reach 95% of
steady state output upon exposure to a unit step change in input.
• The response time of the device is due to the inertia of the device (both
“mechanical” and “electrical”).
• Fast response time is usually desirable
• Slow response times tend to average readings
RESPONSE TIME
CALIBRATION
Calibration:
The experimental determination of the transfer function of a sensor or
actuator.
Typically, needed when the transfer function is not known.
When the device must be operated at tolerances below those specified by the
manufacturer.
Example
Using a thermistor with a 5% tolerance on a full scale from 0 to 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑜 𝐶 to
measure temperature with accuracy of, say, ±0.5 𝑜 𝐶.
The only way this can be done is by first establishing the transfer function of the
sensor.
 CALIBRATION (CONT.)
Two methods:
Method1. known transfer function:
1. Determine the slope and crossing point (line function) from two known
stimuli (say two temperatures) if the transfer function is linear Measure
the output
2. Calculate the slope and crossing point in 𝑽 = 𝒂𝑻 + 𝒃
3. If the function is more complex, need more points:
𝑽 = 𝒂𝑻 + 𝒃𝑻𝟐 + 𝒄𝑻𝟑 + 𝒅
4. measurements to calculate a, b, c, d
Must choose points effectively - if linear, use points close to the range. If not,
use equally spaced points or points around the locations of highest curvature
 CALIBRATION (CONT.)
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
Number of Primary nominal nominal output 5
Primary turns r.m.s current voltage 4.5
𝑰𝑷𝑵 [A] 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 [V] 3.125
1 ±𝟔 𝟐. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 2.5
1.875
2 ±𝟑 𝟐. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓
0.5
3 ±𝟐 𝟐. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓
𝑰𝒑
−𝑰𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 −𝑰𝑷𝑵𝟎 𝑰𝑷𝑵 𝑰𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
CALIBRATION (CONT.)
Method 2: Unknown transfer function:
1. Measure the output 𝑹𝒊 at as many input values 𝑻𝒊 as is practical
2. Use the entire span
3. Calculate a best linear fit (least squares for example)
4. If the curve is not linear use a polynomial fit
5. May use piecewise linear segments if the number of points is large.
CALIBRATION (CONT.)

Calibration is sometimes an operational requirement (thermocouples,

pressure sensors)

• Calibration data is usually supplied by the manufacturer

• Calibration procedures must be included with the design documents
• Errors due to calibration must be evaluated and specified
THANK
YOU