INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL RELATIONS

Quincy rights defined IR as“ relations between groups of major

importance in the like of the world at any period of history, in

particular those of territorially organised nation States.” Raymond
Plating “ defines IR as the studies of the distribution of power on
Global scale and the interplay between and among power
centres”
The essence of IR
The core and essence of IR is the interaction of nation States.
Although the primary focus of IR is the actions. Although the
primary focus of IR is the actions and interactions of government,
the study of IR also encompasses the multiplicity of factors
influencing intergovernmental interaction. Such factors are
generally of two kinds:
• Those related to the characteristics of the governments,
including their relationships with people they govern and
• Those related to the context or international environment
within which interaction among national government
occurs. To the extent that they affect interaction among
governments, technological, economic, legal, social and
cultural relations are part of the study of the IR. Broadly
conceived IR includes all types of transactions between
governments and between peoples, from the sending of
letters to a recipient in another country to the exchange of
gunfire between the military forces of two countries.
Nation: - the people living within a country with the same political
interests, for example in Zimbabwe, the land issue since it can be
traced back from the first Chimurenga in 1896 up to the present
day events.
Country: - the physical geographical territory in which a specific
people live in.
State: - the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and
which is represented by the arms of the State such as the
executive, the parliament and the judiciary.
94Government: - the arm of the State, which is tasked with the
ruling or exercising the executive powers of the State that is
representing the nation at the international forum, defending and
keeping law and order in the nation; implementing political,
economic and social policy of the ruling party. The government is
formed by the winner at general elections and therefore comes
and goes.
The practice of international relations
Society-people within a nation are a society or societies of people.
To become a nation therefore the people should have similar
political interests, however, the norms and behavioural patterns
within that society will determine the distribution of resources and
hence the development of classes. Classes in turn bring
inequalities, however in international relations, instead of people
forming the society or community we have nations being members
of the international society. Again within this international society
there is also an unequal distribution of resources.
International society
Is a recent development in the world’s history, which comes into
existence in the 16th century to resolve conflicts. It came up with principles to govern different
nations, which was done thorough
conventions or international agreements.

The classical approach

The proponents of this approach are to large extent social
contract theorists. Thomas Hobbes sees a State as arising out of
the need to escape from a State of nature, where there is anarchy
and life is insecure, short, nasty and brutal. A State of nature
presupposes the non-existence of society and therefore the non
existence of the law. In such a lawless States everyone does as
he pleases and those with more clout (more power) survive. In
others words the law of the jungle” might is right” and survival of
the fittest rules supreme. In another sense, this approach is also
Evolutionists or Darwinian.
Idealist approach
These ideas are centred on the existence of the law. This
approach involves nations becoming members of specific treaties
such as the League of Nations, which was established in 1918,
was meant to stop further wars. Woodrow Wilson of USA
proposed this. This meant that nation members to the league
were going to be bound together by laws, however, USA refused
to join the league in spite of championing it. The League of
Nations failed to bring peace as evidenced by the war fought in
1927 between German and Italy and the Second World War in
1945. Idealism therefore sought to affect the thinking of Global
society. This idea is part of idealism.
Rational approach (realist approach)
Between the Second World War and First World War the thinking
on international relations shifted from idealism to rational
approach. This simply means that people started to look at the
practicability of international relations. Explaining the behaviour of
various States did this. The behaviouralist approach incorporates
all social sciences techniques and concludes that there is danger
to peaceful co-existence. Co-existence may result in unilateral law
due to misinformation. The classical example is the recent Iraq
War, which was fuelled by USA and Great Britain by misinforming
the whole world that Iraq had weapons of Mass destruction.
The Global approach
Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a
centralised one-world government, with nation States
disappearing.
Regional approach
Involves regional politics, for example, SADC. Zimbabwe went to
DRC guided by the SADC banner.
Billiard ball approach: -Recognises States as individual entities
Cobweb model
John Burton sees international relations as existing within a
complex matrix web or matrix in which each State is linked to the
other directly or indirectly.
The strategic model: - This believes in power politics
THE THREE Cs TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The three Cs of International Relations are Conflict, Competition
and Co-operation.
Conflicts
These are disagreements sparkling diplomatic wrangles between
nations. A conflict is also synonymous with War. It is a result of
serious differences associated with hostilities that may lead to an
outbreak of War. Conflict can be caused by competition and by a
scramble for scarce resources. It may be a result of differences in
trade and political relations. If not resolved, conflict can lead to
hostility and Wars, gaps on co-operation, poor relations and may
hinder internal, regional and international development. Conflict
can be resolved through negotiations, compromising, and external
intervention. It can also be resolved through the International
Court of Justice through the United Nations intervention (ICJ).
Competition Involves rivalry, struggling and competing for
supremacy and resources. Nation States could compete in trade
and international sports, in technological development, in space exploration and in agriculture,
etc. Has led to allegiances, regional
blocs and the development of trade routes. Can lead to
development and attainment of targets if managed well. Can also
develop into conflict and cause poor relations if not managed
properly
Co-operation Involves collective efforts nations put to the
development of States. A concept of practice used by the principle
of interdependence of nations. Working together to ensure
development and to promote peace and security. Co-operation
can also be used to solve problems that know no boundaries e.g.
AIDS, Ebola, Sars and Malaria. The need to co-operate to resolve
problems have led to the formation of regional and international
organisations such as UN, AU, SADC, and NATO etc. Nations
come together to deal with various challenges and problems that
mankind face. Positive effects of co-operation include bringing
development to the participants. Can promote peace and stability.
The Global Power Balance
Is an issue that emanated from the military supremacy attained by
countries, however, after the first and second Wars, the world was
split into two blocks with the former USSR leading the War Saw
Pact group (the communists as referred to by the West) and USA
leading NATO or the Western Block. However, in the late 80s the
former USSR collapsed following the introduction of the Glasnost
Policy by Mikhail Gorbachev. Also the collapse was a result of the
un sustainability of the arms race by former USSR. After the
collapse the world became a Uni-polar
Multipolar System
Power is distributed among more than two states. They have more military ,cultural and
economic power ,influence in the world. Several states have have influence and control over the
affairs of the world. From 1789 to 1945 there was a balance of power where many countries
possessed a lot of military and economic influence.
Bipolar System
It is when the distribution of power is in the hands of two powerful nations or two major
states ,commanding a lot of economic influence and military.Russia and USA had more nuclear
power and produced missels

Diplomacy
Can be defined as the application of intelligence and tact to the
conduct of official relations between governments of independent
States. Formal contact between Nations in the Global Community
takes place through the medium of diplomacy and the interaction
of diplomats. Diplomats are emissaries or representatives of their
governments in other countries and are the direct contact between
different governments. The Ministers of foreign affairs in all States
have the responsibility for the development of diplomats and
carrying out of the foreign policy of each respective country.
The Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy
Zimbabwean’s original foreign policy has been that of non-aligned
that is of not taking sides between the competing superpowers of
the Warsaw Pact under the leadership or guidance of the former
USSR and the West (NATO) under the guidance of USA. Of late
the Zimbabwean Government has adopted a look East Policy as a
result of illegal sanctions put in place by the West and its North
American allies who are opposed to Zimbabwean Government
Policy of empowering its people.
Objectives
• To formulate policies that promote the preservation of natural
sovereignty
• To be an equal partner in the regional / international affairs
especially in the maintenance of peace and stability
To purse and promote Pan-Africanism
• To protect the Zimbabwean national and self-interest and
promote its prestige and reputation
• To determine the most suitable regional and international
economic relations
To promote friendly relations with other countries.

Non-substantive duties
These include attending to ceremonial functions of the host
country, cocktail parties, luncheons, parades, honour giving
ceremonies, registration of births, deaths and marriages of
citizens from their country residing in the host State and validating
and replacing passports.
Substantive routine duties
The work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering
although this is not an official or a declared function of diplomats,
however, the other functions include reporting on political, social
and economic issues. For military cases specialised diplomats
called “attaches” may be appointed.
The IMF and World Bank (Breton wood’s Institutions): - these
are the institutions that lend money to developing countries at very
high interests rates. The major contributors are the USA and UK.
Therefore, most of their policies favour those of the major
financiers. They usually set conditions for any one country
interested in receiving money from the higher lending institutions.
Some of the conditions include: the devaluation of the local
currency, trade liberalisation / removal of tariffs, privatisation of
government owned enterprises e.g. NRZ, CSC, ZISCO, etc.,
reduce expenditure on social services e.g. education, health,
reduce budget deficit, etc, raise interest rates to their natural
(market) level, remove government subsidies on goods and
services, remove minimum wages and allow market forces to
determine wages.
Zimbabwe’s Intervention In Mozambique
Soon after attaining independence in Zimbabwe, Mozambique
was facing a barrage of attack from Mozambique National
Resistance Army (MNR) under Alfonso Dlakhama. This was a
rebel group that was formed by the Ian Smith regime in
conjunction with the Boers in the Republic of South Africa to
destabilise both Zimbabwe and Mozambique. This rebel group
was trained and armed at a Military base near Marymount
Teachers’ college in Zimbabwe. Young as she was in terms of
being independent, Zimbabwe found herself in Mozambique
fighting along side the Samora Machel Government against the
MNR) due the following reasons: this was in response to the
request by the Government of Mozambique, which was in a State
of a Civil War, long-standing friendship between ZANU (PF) and
the Frelimo Government, to help Mozambique maintain its
integrity and sovereignty, restore peace in Mozambique and the region, protect Mozambique
from the destructive and destabilising
Activities of the RENAMO or the MNR, Protect railway lines,
which Zimbabwe used to export her products through Port of
Biera and Maputo., to prevent RENAMO Activities spilling into the
Eastern Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe’s Intervention in DRC
This was a complex War in the Great Lakes region as it involved
various nations, such as Uganda, Rwanda, Angola, Namibia and
Zimbabwe. DRC was under siege from the Rwandan and
Ugandan armies who were fighting the Government under Laurent
Kabila who had succeeded in overthrowing the government of
Mobuthu Seseseko. DRC is a SADC member and by the time the
War broke out R. G. Mugabe was the leader of the security organ
in SADC. Therefore the following reasons led Zimbabwe and the
allied forces to intervene in the DRC: it was in response to an
appeal by the DRC government led by Laurent Kabila, together
with Angola and Namibia to drive off Rwandan and Ugandan
forces which were attacking the D. R. Congo, to protect the
integrity and sovereignty of the D. R. Congo, to prevent the
division of the DRC into three or more States, to help restore
peace in the DRC – since she had not known peace for decades,
to show and express solidarity with the DRC in line with SADC
principles and objectives.
International Capital and Imperialism
Hunter-gatherer / Communal stage
Between 400BC up to 1500BC, this was the mode of production,
however, during this mode of production, it was dominated by the
non-existence of classes (lawless society). Therefore, the class
contradictions and antagonisms were non-existent as this period
was dominated by the survival of the fittest. Their political
economy was dominated by free for all economic activities as
people specialised in hunting and gathering (no ownership).
Feudalism/ Slave Society
This mode of production existed between 500A.D and 700A.D.
Aristocracy/ rulers, soldiers, slaves; serfs (half slaves and half
worker) dominated the class structure. The presence of these
classes meant the existence of class contradictions. For example
contradictions emanating from slave labour leading to rebellion
against the elite, slaves rebelling against the their leaders. The
political economy that existed at this time was the elite or
aristocracy owned the means of production, for example, there
was the extraction of the surplus through the exploitation of free
labour. Mercantile capital (1700 to 1800)
The following classes existed during this mode of production;
aristocracy (elite), merchants, craftsman / industrialists,
labourers/workers. The antagonism or the contractions existed
between merchants and landlords or it emanated from the
formation of joint stock companies, which led to Globalisation of
trade, slaves and colonisation for example, the BSAC under
Rhodes.
Competitive Capital 1800-1900
99The following classes existed in this mode of production,
industrialists, and workers and peasants (communal farmers). The
contractions existed between industrialists, bankers, exploiting
workers and merchants’ exploitation industrialist. The political
economy was free trade based on international division of labour,
which involved exploitation of workers, by the industry, monopoly
of machines, money and land.
Monopoly Capital 1900-1945.
In this mode of production, the following classes existed e.g.,
bankers, industrialist, workers and peasants. Contradictions
existed between workers’ labour that was under valued leading to
acute concentration of capital. Political Economy was the
extraction of surplus value through repay for workers needs not
for value for labour. (There was monopoly ownership of capital
land, money and machines).
Multilateral / Finance Capital from 1945 to the present
The classes that existed in this mode of production were finance
institution, for example, WB (World Bank) IMF- (International
Monetary Fund) and borrowers (developing countries). The
contradictions emanated from the fact that buyers determined
prices (developing nations determining prices for goods produced
by developing countries) .The political economy that exists
involves selling of money (export of money), for IMF sending us
money at a higher international rate, money monopoly and
ownership of capital by banks.
International Economic Relations
The Second World War marks the beginning point of the present
Global economic arrangement. The idealism of the immediate
post world War two periods led to massive government led
initiatives to bring the shattered economy of the world back to its
feet. By 1979 however this role of government in economic activity
was under attack and has to a large extent been abandoned
altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing of the
past and a new ideology, emphasising the role of the market in
determining all-economic activity as well as social and political
decisions has been adopted. In current economic thinking
cooperation or business have total freedom and collective
bargaining and trade unionism and the consumer and citizen in
general have found themselves at the receiving end of the new
international economic order. This new international economic
order had by the middle of the 1990s assumed a new form and
characteristic namely Globalisation. The IMF, World Bank and
Breton Woods Financial institutions were formed for the specific
purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing
those economic and social issues that led and that might lead to a
new War. The mandate of this financial institution was to provide
lending for reconstruction and for short-term balance of payment
support. These institutions after 1979 have increasingly taken
over individual government, economic policies and intervene in
national policy will beyond the scope of their mandate .The post
1945 period saw a massive realignment of Global Economic
relations with Europe being mortgaged to the U.S.A under the
Marshall Plan which saw infusion of capital into Europe from the U.S.A and newly created
Breton Woods financial institutions .The
U.S.A insisted on decolonisation as a condition of giving financial
support to Europe and declared the end to empire .Thus the USA
gained the empires that Europe lost through decolonisation as it
gained unprecedented control of former colonies through new
economic relations specifically the supply of manufactured goods
and the provision of finance capital debt becomes primary form of
survival technique for all former colonies and the supply of new
materials from former colonies was accelerated in order to raise
money to payoff the debt .By the end of the 1970s the so called
debt crisis had developed with a new economic Global structure
which split the world into producers of raw materials and importers
of finance capital and finished goods and producers of finished
goods and exporters of finance capital .This relationship was
marked or characterised by a high level injustice in the form of
unequal exchange .The former colonies from America , Africa and
Asia were selling raw materials with little value added to them at
prices set by the buyer that is the developed countries .The latter
sell manufactured goods to the developing countries at high profit
margins and over and above this drain of resources from the
south servicing the loans obtained from the north compounds or
increases the flow of resources to the south .
The flow of wealth from the south to the north through debt
servicing and unequal exchange is further increased with the
insistence on structural adjustments programmes in the south by
the so called donor community that is western government and
the Breton Woods financial institutions or the north. The catch word on economic structures
adjustments programmes forced on
the south are similar to the free market economic policies
instituted on the domestic economics of the north which result in
net gains for the super rich and net loss for the average worker.
Average income in the 1980s of the top 10% of American families
increased by 16%, the top 5% increased by 23%, the top 1% got
50% the bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the same
period The same policies during the same period of time applied
to Global policies saw an increase in net flows of income to the
north and decrease in income to the south with the result that IMF
policies have led to increased poverty in the south. These policies
are what can be termed Globalisation and are hinged upon, free
trade in goods and services between countries through the
removal of trade barriers, free circulation of capital, freedom and
protection of investments, reduction of governmental expenditure
and government interference in the economy, Privatisation of
Parastatals, these points have become the conditionalties for
receiving or disbursement of aid by north.
Features of Globalisation
Globalisation is a process of linking all parts of the globe to each
other through the opening up of borders to allow free movement of
goods and resources, in short trade liberalisation accompanied
by closer political ties through the mechanism of the UN. This
process is facilitated by modern methods of communications in
transport and through cyberspace or the Internet. These features
include the following, new forms of transport and information
101technology are faster and economic, investors can trade stocks on
internet, standardisation of products – services and
communication / civilisation, competition to produce products that
measure up to international standards, imperialism or Global
Capital is the major beneficiary of Globalisation in that the
exportation of capital supersedes all other forms interaction and
this leads to the de-industrialisation of or in the smaller States or
those that import capital, cultural domination / disintegration of
smaller States by dominant players e.g. the USA, schisms and
conflict as in the middle east ,super power unilateralism. [AFRICAN UNION] AU
Purpose
The main purpose of the AU is to promote unity and solidarity
among African States, to co-ordinate and intensify their co
operation, to achieve better life for the people of Africa, to defend
the African State’s Sovereignty, Territorial integrity and
Independence, to eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa, to
respect the principles of sovereign equality of all member
countries, to encourage peaceful settlements of dispute between
member States and not to interfere in domestic affairs of fellow
citizens.
Structure
The structure of the African Union remains that of the OAU, which
disbanded in 2001. Its policy-making body is the annual assembly
of Heads of State and Government. The assembly coordinates
policy and approves decisions made at the periodic meetings of
the Council of Ministers, which consists of the foreign Ministers of
member countries. Efforts to resolve disputes are handled by the
commission of Mediation, Conciliation, and Arbitration. In 1991 the
OAU decided to set up a conflict management division to monitor
potential disputes and to try and prevent them erupting into
violence; a peace fund was created to finance the division’s
operations. The OAU had a number of specialised commissions
dealing with areas such as Economics, Transport and
Communications, and Education as well as a few specialised
agencies-including the Pan African News Agency, the Pan
African- Postal Union, and the Scientific, Technical, and Research
Commission. The organisation while maintaining its political
nature became increasingly involved with promoting economic
integration and cooperation. These efforts led to the decisions to
establish an African Economic Community whose Treaty was
signed by African leaders in 1991. After receiving the two-thirds
ratification, the Treaty entered into force in April 1994, and in early
2001 African leaders agreed in principle to proposals to set up an
African Union similar to that of the European Union. The
permanent administrative body of the organisation is the general
secretariat. It is headed by the Secretary General, elected for a
four-year term and aided by five assistant secretaries in charge of
the various departments. The secretariat carries out the
resolutions and decisions of the assembly, keeps archives, and
conducts the organisation’s public relations.
Composition: - All independent African Countries belong to the
AU.
102Positive Impact
It established an African Development Bank in 1964, has acted
and mediated in several disputes between African States, it has
provided forum for debate and meeting place for the continent’s
heads where they debate issues of mutual concern.
Negative Impact of AU
National interests at times appear to be more important to
individual countries than common interests of AU, its non
intervention policy is a hand cap as it can watch helplessly when
member countries are ravaged by Civil War, it has failed to take a
serious stance against human rights, it has failed to stop conflicts,
Africa is poverty stricken, no funds to support or promote policies,
problems of economic integration, uneven development among
member States which have their roots in colonial period, those
with resources and technology dominate the grouping, e.g.
Nigeria and SA.
SADC
SADC was established in August 1992 and is the successor to the
Southern African Development Coordinating Conference
(SADCC), which was initially set up in 1980. The former Front line
States in Southern Africa and nine members formed this and were
as follows: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Structure
The headquarters of SADC will remain in Gaborone. It is
governed by a Summit comprising the Head of State and
Government of all member States and the Council comprising the
Minister from each Member to advise the Summit on matters of
Policy and efficient and harmonious functioning and development
of SADC.
Purpose
To promote collective self-reliance, the whole region to be able to
support itself, in food, fuel, energy goods and services, to promote
and defend peace and security, to protect the people and
safeguard the development of the region against internal
instability, inter-State conflict and external aggression, to promote
political co-operation, to promote and defend peace and security,
promote and maximise productive employment and utilisation of
resources of the region.
Composition
SADC now consists of the following members: Angola, Botswana,
DRC, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
Seychelles, SA, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Positive Impact Of SADC
Implementing projects covering the duties assigned to each
member, rehabilitation of transport systems to Mozambique, that
is, part of Beira through active participation of SADC
Governments and International Foreign Donors.
The Three Major Characteristics Of Finance Capital.
Domination of weaker States by stronger States or domination of
developing countries by the developed countries:
•
Developing countries being indebted to the developing countries.
•
Exportation of capital.
•
Monopolisation of capital.
•
Creation of external markets.
•
International Division of Labour.
• Determination of prices by developed countries characterised
by borrowers who are in most cases developing nations.
•
Dumping of access goods in the developing nations.
•
Globalisation.
• Control of International Finance Capital of developed countries,
e.g. IMF and the World Bank.
•
Money class owners, e.g. America and Britain.
• Demise of trade and use f Tariffs and brutal force to extract
surplus.
DONOR COUNTRIES/ FOREIGN AID
Foreign Aid is the transfer of concessional resources from one
government to another or from a government to aid international
aid agency or any NGO, which then transfers those resources to
poor nations.
Objectives
Goal of promoting development in less developed countries
Reflecting on the humanitarian values
Gaining diplomatic recognition
Establishing military bases
Obtaining a supportive vote e.g. in the Un
• Maintaining a cordial relationship with a recipient government
where other foreign Governments are also providing Aid
Merits
Assist in the development of the recipient country, help establish
cordials relationships, the donor countries obtain supportive vote,
helps in the balance of payments, creates employment through
relief, advocacy and developmental, brings in new technology and
brings relief in times of natural disasters such as drought,
earthquakes, diseases, etc.
Demerits
The donor country may interfere in the political systems of the
recipient country, that is, by helping puppets to power for example
in Zimbabwe, the Case Of the MDC. It can be aid with strings
attached, can lead to further exploitation of the recipient country’s
resources, the recipient country can develop a dependency
syndrome, the recipient country can become a dumping ground
for irrelevant and out dated technology, donors may gain political
mileage through their donations at the expense of the third world
governments and may determine national Sovereignty of recipient countries.