CAD/CAM

UNIT -II
Syllabus: Requirements of geometric modelling, types of geometric models, entities of
wireframe model – mathematical representation of line and circle, significance of efficient
algorithm to generate a curve, synthetic curves – cubic spline and Bezier curve, continuity of
curves, types of surfaces – brief treatment, solid modelling – sweep representation, constructive
solid geometry and boundary representation.

Course objectives:

 To present the role of computers and technology that drives the modern industry.

Course Outcome:

Upon successful completion of the chapter, the students will be able to

 Apply principles of computer graphics for product design.

Importance of Geometric Modelling:

The total product cycle in a manufacturing environment involves a large number of
interconnected functions. If the product concept is to be translated into reality, the designer needs
to present it in a relevant form for the manufacturing engineer to understand and carry out the
necessary operations on it for its production.

Figure: Total Product cycle in a manufacturing environment

The total process will have to be carefully integrated such that a large amount of duplication of
work is avoided. This may consist of some kind of a problem identification based on market
research, product feedback or some innovative new idea. Based on this input, some preliminary
ideas could be developed. These preliminary ideas then can be expanded into some preliminary
designs, which are basically gross designs, without going really into the various principles
involved init. Based on all this, one or more candidate designs could be generated which needs
further exploration. For all these activities, geometric modelling becomes the central part that is
manipulated at all these stages as shown in the above figure.

Traditionally product drawings were made together with the prototypes for passing across the
information. However, in a computerized environment the information a designer generates can
form the basic unit which is accessed by a number of other elements of a CAM system. Hence it
is important that the geometric model generated should be as clear and comprehensive as
possible s that the other modules of the modelling and manufacturing system are able to use this
information in the most optimal way.

The functions that are expected of geometric modelling are:

1. Design Analysis:
 Evaluation of areas and volumes.
 Evaluation of mass and inertia properties.
 Interference checking in assemblies.
 Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies.
 Analysis of kinematics – mechanics, robotics
 Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis.
2. Drafting:
 Automatic planar cross sectioning.
 Automatic hidden line and surface removal.
 Automatic production of shaded images.
 Automatic dimensioning.
 Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations.
3. Manufacturing:
 Parts classification.
 Process planning.
 Numerical control data generation and verification.
 Robot program generation
4. Production Engineering:
 Bill of materials.
  Material requirement.
 Manufacturing resource requirement.
 Scheduling.
5. Inspection and Quality Control:
 Program generation for inspection machines.
 Comparison of produced part with design.

Requirements of Geometric Modelling:

In view of such varied applications, the geometric modelling technique used has to provide all
such facilities for interaction. The modelling system should be able describe the parts,
assemblies, raw materials used, and the manufacturing requirements. From geometric model it is
possible to obtain the manufacturing, assembly and inspection plans and command data for
numerically controlled machine tools.

Therefore, it becomes necessary for the geometric modelling system to provide complete
information on all aspects related with the further use of the system and at the same time be
simple and in tune with the designer’s method. Requicha and Voelker [1981] specified the
following properties to be desired of in any geometric modelling (solid) system.

1. The configuration of the solid (geometric model) must stay invariant with regard to its
location and orientation.
2. The solid must have an exterior and must not have isolated parts.
3. The solid must be finite and occupy only a finite shape.
4. The application of a transformation or other operation that adds or removes parts must
produce another solid.
5. The model of the solid in E3 (Euler Space) may contain infinite number of points.
However, it must have a finite number of surfaces which can be described.
6. The boundary of the solid must uniquely identify which part of the solid is exterior and
which is interior.

Geometric Models:

The geometric models can be broadly categorized into two types:

1. Two – dimensional.
 2. Three – dimensional.

Two – dimensional model:

The two – dimensional models, were the first ones to be developed in the view of their relatively
lesser complexity. However, their utility is limited because of their inherent difficulty in
representing complex objects. Their utility lies in many of the low – end drafting packages, or in
representing essentially two – dimensional manufacturing applications such as simple turning
jobs (axi – symmetric), sheet metal punching or flame or laser cutting.

Three – dimensional model:

These have ability to provide all the information require for manufacturing applications. There
are a number of ways in which the three – dimensional representation can be arrived at. The
three principal classifications can be :

a. The line model ( Wire Frame Modelling)

b. The surface model
c. The solid or volume model.

Figure: 3D Geometric representation techniques

The Line Model (Wire Frame Model):

A wire frame model of an object is the simplest, but most verbose, geometric model that can be
used to represent it mathematically in the computer. It is sometimes, referred as stick figure or
edge representation of the object.

Early wireframe modelling techniques developed in the 1960’s been strictly two dimensional and
were designed to automate drafting and simple NC. Two – dimensional wire frame models
contained enough useful information to perform the NC work. Users had to construct geometry
in the desired various views independently due to the lack of centralization and associativity of
the resulting database. Later in the 1970’s, the centralized associative database concept enabled
modelling of three –dimensional objects as wire frame models that can be subject to three
dimensional transformations. Creating geometry in one view is automatically projected and
displayed in other views. This representation is substantial saving and flexibility over manual
design and drafting.

The detailed step by step procedures to create models may vary according to system capabilities
and the individual habits. In addition to the commands required to create the common wire frame
entities, users are provided with other tools that facilitate the model construction. For example,
typical CAD/CAM system provides users with possibly three modes to input coordinates:
Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical. Each model has explicit or implicit inputs. Explicit input
could be absolute or incremental coordinates. Implicit input involves digitizers. Another example
is the geometric modifiers which automatically identify specific locations such as end – or
midpoints of entities that are convenient to access once these entities are created by the system.

Advantages:

The major advantage of wire frame modelling is its simplicity to construct. Therefore, it does not
require much computer time and memory as does surface or solid modelling. It does not require
extensive training of users; nor does it demand the use of unusual terminology as surfaces and
solids. Wireframe models form the basis of surfaces models. The CPU time required to retrieve,
edit, or update a wire frame model is usually small compared to surface or solid models. It is also
possible to draw some impossible solid objects using wire frame model as shown in the below
figure:

Figure: Impossible objects that can be modelled using a wire frame model
Disadvantages:

These models are usually ambiguous representation of real objects and rely heavily on human
interpretation. For example, a wire frame model of a box offers a typical example where the
model may represent more than one object depending on which faces is assumed to exist.

Figure: Ambiguities present in the wire frame model

Models of complex design having many edges become very confusing and perhaps even
impossible to interpret. To overcome this confusion, lines can be hidden, dashed, or blanked.
Automatic hidden line removal algorithms based on wire frame modelling are usually helpful.

The lack of visual coherence and information to determine the object profile is another
disadvantage. For example the representation of the hole or a curved portion of the object. In
most systems, the hole is displayed as two parallel circles separated by the hole length. Some
systems may connect a line between the two circles on one side of the hole. In many cases, users
add edges of the hole for appearance purposes at the drafting mode or may use a cylindrical
surface to represent the hole which introduces problems later on during the model clean up
phase. In adding the edges, inexperienced users tend to attempt to create the tangent lines
between the hole circles which obviously does not work.

Figure: Displaying Holes and Curved Ends in Wire Frame Models

From an application point of view wire frame models are of limited use. Unless the object is two
and a half dimensional, volume and mass properties, NC tool path generation, cross sectioning
and interference detections cannot be calculated.

Wire Frame Entities:

All existing CAD/CAM systems provide users with basic wire frame entities which can be
divided in analytical and synthetic entities. Analytical entities are points, lines, arcs, and circles,
fillets and chamfers and conics (ellipse, parabolas and hyperbolas). Synthetic entities include
various types of spline [cubic spline, B- spline, β – spline, υ – spline] and Bezier curves.

Mathematical Representation of Wire frame Entities:

Curves can be described mathematically by non parametric form or parametric form of
equations.

For non parametric curve, the coordinates y & z of a point on the curve are expressed as two
separate functions of the third coordinate x as the independent variable. This curve representation
is known as the “non – parametric explicit form”.

P  x z  x g ( x)
T T
y f ( x)

Where, P is the position vector of point. This form cannot be used to represent closed or
multivalued curves.

The “implicit non parametric representation” can solve this problem and is given by the
intersection of two surfaces.

F ( x, y , z )  0
G ( x, y , z )  0

The equations must be solved for its roots (y and z values) if a certain value of x is given. This
may be inconvenient and lengthy. Other limitations of non parametric representations are:

1. If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infinity or a
very large value, a difficult condition to deal with both computationally and
programming wise.
 2. Shapes of the most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate
system. The relationship between the data points will define the shape of an object but
not between the data points and some arbitrary coordinate system.
3. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight line segments the
computations involved could be extensive.

Parametric representation of curves overcomes all of the above difficulties. In parametric form,
each point on a curve is expressed as a function of a parameter u. The parameter acts as a local
coordinate for points on the curve. The parametric equation for a three – dimensional curve in
space takes the following vector form:

P (u )   x z    x (u ) z (u )  , umin  u  umax
T T
y y (u )

The above equation implies that the coordinates of a point on the curve are the components of its
position vector. It is a one to one mapping from the parametric space to the Cartesian space as
shown in the figure.

Figure: Parametric Representation of a 3D Curve

Methods of Defining a points in Explicit and Implicit forms:
Mathematical Representation of a Straight Line:
Explicit Form: y  mx  c

Parametric Form: P  u   P0  u  P1  P0 

Mathematical Representation of a Circle:

(a) Circle center located at origin

Implicit Form: x 2  y 2  r 2

Explicit Form: y  r 2  x 2

x  r cos 
Parametric Form: 0    2
y  r sin 

 1 u2 
x  r 2 
 1 u  1  u  1
 2u 
y  r 2 
 1 u 

(b) Circle centre located at  xc , yc 

Implicit Form:  x  xc    y  yc   r 2
2 2

Explicit Form: y  yc  r 2   x  xc 
2

x  xc  r cos 
Parametric Form: 0    2
y  yc  r sin 

 1 u2 
x  xc  r  2 
 1 u  1  u  1
 2u 
y  yc  r  2 
 1 u 
Synthetic Curves:
The need of synthetic curve arises in two conditions:
 When the curve is represented by a collection of measured data points.
 When the existing curve must change its shape to meet the new design requirements.
Synthetic curves represent a curve fitting problem to construct a smooth curve that passes
through given data points. Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to
impose various degrees of smoothness of resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes more
important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced together end to
end. Minimum C1 is the order of continuity that is required in engineering design. To generate
C1 continuity curve cubic polynomial is the minimum order polynomial
C0 Position Continuity Curve.
C1 & C 2 Slope & Curvature Continuity Curves.
Synthetic curves are three types: Hermite cubic spline, Bezier & B – Spline curves. The cubic
spline curve passes through the data points and therefore it is an interpolant. Bezier and B –
Spline curves in general approximate the data points. Both cubic spline and Bezier curves have a
first orfer continuity and the B – spline curve has a second order continuity.
Hermite Cubic Splines:
Piecewise polynomial curves with a certain order of continuity. A polynomial of degree N has
continuity of derivatives of order  N  1 . The Hermite form of a cubic spline is determined by

defining positions and tangent vectors at the data points. The parametric cubic spline curve
connects two data points and utilizes a cubic equation. When these are the positions of the two
end points and the two tangent vectors at the points, a Hermite Cubic Spline results.
The parametric equation of the curve is given by the equation:
3
P  u    Ci u i 0  u 1 (1)
i 0

Expanding the equation along three axis we get,

x  u   C3 xu 3  C2 xu 2  C1xu  C0 x

y  u   C3 y u 3  C2 y u 2  C1 y u  C0 y

z  u   C3 z u 3  C2 z u 2  C1z u  C0 z
and
P  u   C3u 3  C2u 2  C1u  C0

Expressing the equation in the matrix form, we get:

P u   U T C (2)

where,
T
U  u 3 u2 u 1

C   C3 C1 C0 
T
C2

The tangent vector is given by,

3
P '  u    Ci iu i 1 0  u 1 (3)
i 0

In order to find the coefficients Ci , consider the cubic spline curve with the the two end points

P , P 
0 0
'

at u  0 and  P1 , P1  at u  1 we get,
'
P0 and P1 . Applying the boundary conditions P
P0' & P1'

P0  C0
P0'  C1
P1  C3  C2  C1  C0
P1'  3C3  2C2  C1
Solving these four equations simulataneously for the constants we get,
C0  P0
C1  P0'
C2  3( P1  P0 )  2( P0'  P1' )
C3  2( P0  P1 )  P0'  P1'
Substituting the values of constants in the equation (1) and (3) we get,
P (u )  (2u 3  3u 2  1) P0  (2u 3  3u 2 ) P1  (u 3  2u 2  u ) P0'  (u 3  u 2 ) P1' 0  u 1

P ' (u )  (6u 2  6u ) P0  (6u 2  6u ) P1  (3u 2  4u  1) P0'  (3u 2  2u ) P1' 0  u 1

Representing the above equations in matrix form we get,

P (u )  U T M H V 0  u 1
Where,
  2 2 1 1 
 3 3 2 1
MH   
0 0 1 0
 
1 0 0 0
T
V   P0 P0 P0' P1' 

and,

P ' (u )  U T  M H  V
u

where,
0 0 0 0
 6 6 3 3 
M H   
u

 6 6 4 2 
 
0 0 1 0
Properties of Hermite Cubic Spline:
1. It can be observed that the curve passes through the end points.
2. It also shows that the curve’s shape can be controlled by changing its end points or its
tangent vectors.

3. If two end points P0 and P1 are fixed in space, the designer can control the shape of the
' '
spline by changing its magnitude or the direction of tangent vectors P0 & P1 .
Bezier Curve:
In these type of curves an approximation techniques are used to generate the curve. The curve
does not passes through the given data points. Instead, these points are used to control the shape
of the curve.
Difference between the Bezier and Cubic Spline Curve:
1. The shape of the Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only.
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the no. of points
defining it. i.e.,
Surface Models:

Surface modeling has been developing rapidly due to the shortcomings and inconveniences of
wire frame modeling. Surface description is usually tackled as an extension to the wire frame
representation. Databases of surface models are centralized and associative. Thus, a manuplating
surface entity in one view is automatically reflected in other views. From a practical point of
view it is more convenient to construct a surface model in an isometric view to enable clear
display and visualization of its entities.

Visualization of a surface is aided by the additional of artificial fairing lines called mesh which
criss – cross the surface and so break it up into a network of interconnected patches. It should be
noted that the finer the mesh size of surface entities in a model, the longer the CPU time to
construct the entities and to update the graphics display and the longer it takes to plot the surface
model. Surface models define only the geometry of their corresponding objects. They store no
information regarding the topology of these objects.

Advantages:

1. They are less ambiguous than wireframe models.

2. They provide hidden line and surface algorithms to add realism to display the geometry.
3. Can be utilized in volume and mass property calculations, finite element modeling, NC
path generations, cross sectioning and interference detection.
4. Shading algorithms can be utilized for surface modeling.
Disadvantages:

1. Requires more training and mathematical background on the user’s part.

2. These are generally more complex in computation that they need more computing time
and memory for storage to create a model.
Types of Surface Entities:

The following are description of major surface entities provided by CAD/CAM systems:

i. Plane Surfaces:
This is the simplest surface. It requires three non – coincident points to define an infinite
plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross sectional views by intersecting a
surface model with it, generate cross sections for mass property calculations, or other
similar applications where plane is needed.
 Figure: Plane Surface

ii. Ruled (Lofted) Surface:

This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that define
the surface (rails). Rails can be any wireframe entity. This entity is ideal to represent
surface that do not have any twists or kinks.

Figure: Ruled Surface

iii. Surface of Revolution:

This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is generated by
rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle.
 Figure: Surface of Revolution

iv. Tabulated Cylinder:

This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a certain distance along a
specified direction (axis of the cylinder). The plane of the curve is perpendicular to the
axis of the cylinder. It is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved cross
sections.

Figure: Tabulated Cylindrical Surface

v. Bezier Surface:
This is a surface that approximates given input data. It is a synthetic surface. It does not
pass through all given data points. It is general surface that permits twists and kinks. The
Bezier surface allows only global control of the surface.
 Figure: Bezier Surface

vi. B – Spline Surface:

This is a surface that can approximate or interpolate given input data. It is a synthetic
surface. It is a general surface like the Bezier surface but with advantages of permitting
local control of the surface.

Figure: B – Spline Surface

vii. Coons Patch:

The above surfaces are used with either open boundaries or given data points. The coons
patch is used to create a surface using curves that form closed boundaries.
 Figure: Coons Patch

viii. Fillet Surface:

This is a B – spline surface that blends two surfaces together. The original surfaces may
or may not be trimmed.

Figure: Fillet Surface

ix. Offset Surface:

Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but may have
different dimensions. It is a useful surface to use to speed up surface construction. Offset
surface command becomes very efficient to use if the original surface is a composite one.

Figure: Offset Surfaces

Solid Modeling:

A solid model of an object is a more complete representation than its surface model. Typically, a
solid model consists of both the topological and geometrical data of its corresponding object.
Topology is the connectivity and associativity of the object entities. Defining an object with a
solid model is the easiest of the available three modeling techniques. Solid models can be
quickly created without having to define individual locations as with wireframes. Primitives are
simple basic shapes and are considered the solid modeling entities which can be combined by a
mathematical set of Boolean operations to create solid models. The four most commonly used
are the block, cylinder, cone and sphere.
 1. Block: This is a box whose geometrical data is its width, height and depth. Its local
coordinates system XLYLZL are shown in the below figure. Point P defines the origin of
XLYLZL system. The signs of W, H and D determine the position of the block relative to its
coordinate system.
2. Cylinder: This primitive is a right circular cylinder whose geometry is denned by its
radius R and length H. The length is usually taken along the direction of the ZL axis.
3. Cone: This is a right circular cone or a frustum of a right circular cone whose base radius
R, top radius (for truncated cone) and height H are user – defined.
4. Sphere: This is defined by its radius or diameter and is centered about the origin of its
local coordinate system.
5. Wedge: This is a right – angeled wedge whose height H, width W and base depth D form
its geometrical data.
6. Torus: This primitive is generated by the revolution of a circle about an axis lying in its
plane. The torus geometry can be defined by the radius (or diameter) of its body R1 and
the radius of the centerline of the torus body R2, or the geometry can be defined by the
inner radius (or diameter) R1, and outer radius (or diameter) R0.

Solid Model Representation Methods:

The solid objects can be defined in the following methods:

1. Boundary Representation (B – Rep)

2. Sweep
3. Constructive Solid Geometry

1. Boundary Representation (B –Rep):

A B – rep model or boundary model is based on the topological notion that a physical object is
bounded by a set of faces. These faces are regions or subsets of closed and orientable surfaces. A
closed surface is one that is continuous without breaks. An orientable surface is one in which it is
possible to distinguish two sides by using the direction of the surface normal to point to the
inside or outside of the solid model under construction. Thus, topologically, a boundary model of
an object linked together in such a way as to ensure the topological consistency of the model.

The database of a boundary model contains both its topology and geometry. Topology is created
by performing Euler operations and geometry is created by performing Euclidean calculations.
Euler operations are used to create, manipulate and edit the faces, edges and vertices of a
boundary model as the set operations create, manipulate and edit primitives of CSG models.
Geometry includes coordinates of vertices, rigid motion and transformation and metric
information such as distances, angles, areas, volumes and inertia tensors. It should be noted that
topology and geometry are interrelated and cannot be separated entirely.
A B – rep systems require an explicit representation of the boundary of the solid, they must
evaluate the new boundary that is the result of the operation. B – Rep systems store only the
bounding surfaces of the solid; it is still possible to compute volumetric properties such as mass
properties by virtue of the Gauss divergence theorem which relates volume integrals to surface
ones.

If a solid system is to be designed, the domain of its representation scheme must be defined, the
basic elements needed to cover such modeling domain must be identified, the proper operators
that enable the system users to build complex objects by combining primitives must be
developed and finally a suitable data structure

2. Sweeping:

Sweeping is based on the notion of moving a point, curve, or a surface along a given path. There
are three types of sweep: linear, nonlinear and hybrid sweeps. In linear sweep, the path is a linear
or circular vector described by a linear, most often parametric, equation while in non linear
sweep, the path is a curve described by a higher order equation (quadratic, cubic or higher).
Hybrid sweep combines linear and/or nonlinear sweep via set operations and is, therefore, a
means of increasing the modeling domain of sweep representations.

Linear sweep can be divided further into translational and rotational sweep. In translational
sweep, a planar two – dimensional point set described by its boundary can be moved a given
distance in space in a perpendicular direction to the plane of the set. The boundary of the point
set must be closed otherwise invalid solids result. In rotational sweep, the planar two –
dimensional point set is rotated about an axis of rotation by a given angle. Nonlinear sweep is
similar to linear sweep but with the directrix being a curve instead of a vector.

Sweeping operations are useful in engineering applications that involve swept volumes in space.
Two widely known applications are simulations of material removal due to machining operations
and interference detection of moving objects in space. In the first application, the volume swept
by a moving cutter along a specific direction is intersected with raw stock of the part. The
intersection volume represents the material removed from the part. In interference detection, a
moving object collides with a fixed one if the swept volume due to the motion of the first
intersects the fixed object.

Nonlinear sweep may be useful in creating non-rigid objects and studying their deformation in
space. Complex mechanical parts such as screws, springs and other components that require
helical and special loci can be represented by sweeping.
3. Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive Geometry, often referred to as Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), is a
fundamental method used in solid modeling and computer graphics to represent complex 3D
objects by combining simple geometric shapes or primitives through set operations. These set
operations include union, intersection, and difference, and they enable the creation of more
intricate and detailed objects from basic building blocks. Here's an elaboration on the
constructive geometry method in solid modeling:
1. Primitives:
In CSG, objects are constructed using primitive geometric shapes, such as cubes, spheres,
cylinders, cones, and more. These primitives are predefined and well-defined mathematical
shapes that serve as the building blocks for more complex models.
2. Set Operations:
CSG primarily relies on three fundamental set operations:
a. Union: The union operation combines two or more primitives to create a single, larger
shape. It effectively merges the volume occupied by the input shapes.
b. Intersection: The intersection operation creates a new shape by considering only the
overlapping regions of two or more primitives. This operation results in a shape that exists
only where the input shapes intersect.
c. Difference: The difference operation subtracts one or more primitives from another. It is
used to create shapes with holes, remove portions from a larger shape, or carve out specific
features.
3. Hierarchical Structure:
CSG models are often constructed using a hierarchical structure. Primitives and the results of set
operations are organized in a tree-like structure known as a CSG tree. Each node in the tree
represents a primitive or a set operation, and the leaves of the tree represent the individual
geometric primitives.
4. Boolean Operations:
The set operations used in CSG can be considered as Boolean operations on the volumes
occupied by the primitives. For example, union is analogous to a logical OR, intersection is
analogous to a logical AND, and difference is analogous to a logical subtraction.
5. Advantages:
i. Parametric Modeling: It allows for the creation of parametric models, where changes to the
underlying primitives or their arrangement can easily lead to variations of the final model.
ii. Accuracy: CSG operations are mathematically precise, which ensures accuracy in modeling
complex shapes.
iii. Efficiency: Rendering and visualization of CSG models can be more efficient since the
geometry is explicitly defined through simple operations.
6. Limitations:
i. Complexity: Building highly detailed and complex models may require a large number of
primitives and operations, which can become cumbersome to manage.
ii. Topological Issues: Ensuring that CSG models are well-formed and do not result in
degenerate or invalid shapes can be challenging.
iii. Real-time Rendering: Real-time rendering of CSG models can be computationally
expensive, especially when there are many operations involved.