NEURAL

CONTROL & COORDINATION

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isn
Function of organ systems - Coordinated --> to maintain
HOMEOSTASIS

it a process
through which

h
two or more

s
organs

a k
R
interact complement

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 e.g - Physical exercise --> Energy demand increase

g h
is n
a
if stopped for maintaining
O2 supply

t
increased

i
increased muscular

h
necessitates activity

s
Nerves , lungs , return to respiration

k
heart & kidney --> normal Increased in
conditions

a
rate of blood flow

R heart beat
Neural & Endocrine system --> Jointly co-ordinate activities

function in a synchronised way

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 Neural system + Endocrine system

g h
is n
a
point to point Chemical integration

h
quick coordination
i t through hormones

k s Transmission of

a
nerve impulse
Points to Study --> Neural system of Human Impulse

R
mechanism of neural conduction
coordination
Physiology of
reflex

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 Neural system

gh
n
highly Ectodermal organised in simple in lower

i
specialised cells

s
origin insects invertebrates
eg: Hydra

a
( was

t
Ectodermal network of

i
neurons Brain + Ganglia + neurons)
origin Neural tissues

s h
Detect

k
Receive

a
Stimuli

R
Transmit

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 Human Neural system

gh
n
Central Nervous

i
system [CNS] Peripheral Nervous

s
system [ PNS ]

a
Control &

i t
processes All nerves
information associated with

s h
CNS

k
Brain spinal cord

a
Afferent Efferent

R
--Impulse from -- From CNS
tissue-->CNS -- Peripheral
tissue/organs

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 PNS

gh
n
Somatic Neural

i
system Autonomic neural

s
system

a
Classified

t
impulses from CNS

i
to skeletal muscles impulses CNS

sh
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
neural system neural system

k
Brain spinal cord Involuntary

a
organs &
smooth muscles

R
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is n
Visceral nervous system - part of PNS
Nerves

a
Impulse from

t
Fibres

i
CNS to viscers &

h
Ganglia viscera to CNS

k s Plexuses

R a
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 Neuron --> Microscopic structure

g h
is n
Composed of

a
Cell Body Dendrites Axon
cytoplasm + cell
organelles

h i t
- short fibres - Long fibre

s
+Certain - Branched - Impulse away

k
granulare repeatedly from body --> to
bodies synapse / Neuro-

a
- projects out muscular Junction

R
of cell body
2018 -distal end --> Branches
Nissl's granules - Contains Nissl's
granules --> has bulb like str. -->
synaptic knob -> synaptic
has free ribosomes - Transmit impulse vesicles -> chemical -
+ RER towards body neurotransmitters
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Division of neurons --> Basis --> no. of axon & Dendrites

g
is n
a
Multi-polar Bipolar unipolar
-one axon

h i t
- One Axon - One Axon
only

s
-Two or more

k
- one Dendrites - In embryonic
dendrites

a
stage

R
- found in cerebral - Retina of eye
cortex

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Types of Axons

is n g
a
Myelinated Non-Myelinated
-Enveloped by Schwann cells

h i t -Myelin sheath absent

s
2012 - Schwann cell present

k
form myelin sheath
- Delay in transmission

a
- Faster transmission - Found in autonomous &

R
somatic neural system
- Found in spinal &
Cranial nerves
- Nodes of Ranvier - gap between
adjacent myelin sheaths
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 g h
n
Generation & Conduction of Nerve Impulses

is
it a
Neurons -- Excitable cells Membrane polarised
Because

h
to maintain

s
HOMEOSTASIS different ion channels

a k selectively on neural

R
permeable to membrane
different ions

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n
Generation & Conduction of Nerve Impulses

is
it a
Neurons -- Excitable cells Membrane polarised
Because

h
to maintain

s
HOMEOSTASIS different ion channels

a k selectively on neural

R
permeable to membrane
different ions

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 Resting stage

gh
n
Impermeable to Nearly Axonal No impulse

i
negatively Impermeable to conduction

s
membrane
charged Na+ ions

a
proteins of
2011 more permeable

t
axoplasm

i
to K+ ions

h
Maintained by Na+

s
increase concentration of K+ &-ve
proteins - INSIDE Creates & K+ pump (Active

k
-And low concentration of Na+ concentration transport)

a
low concentration of K+ ions &
gradient

R
- OUTSIDE
-High concentration of Na+ Positive charge
outer surface
Transports 3Na+
outward & 2k+
Negative charge
Inner surface Inward

Resting Potential -> Electric Potential Difference --> Across Resting Plasma membrane

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 2010
Mechanism

Stimulus
Becomes
permeable to
Polarity
Reversed

gh
i.e outside
Negatively

i n
Na+ (short lived) charged

Polarised
membrane

a s Depolarised

h i t
Impulse continued Cycle continues

k s
Action potential :- Electric potential difference between

a
polarised & depolarised membrane

R
Nerve Impulse
Reversed Polarity :- K+ diffuses outside membrane -->
Restores resting potential --> Fibres become
responsive to further stimulation
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 Transmission of Impulses

SYNAPSE
Junction through which
impulse transfers from one

gh
i n
neuron to another

Formed by Pre-
synaptic (before

a s
i t
synapse)

h
synaptic cleft ( gap between two neurons )
+

s
(May / may not

k
Post synaptic
be present)
membrane

a
(After synapse)

R
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Types of Synapses

Electrical synapses
is ng Chemical synapses

ta
- Pre & Post membrane lies in

i
close promixity
-Separated by synaptic
cleft ( fluid filled cavity)

h
- Impulse can flow directly - Neurotransmitters

s
involved

k
- Transmission to impulse - Slower transmission
conduction along single axon

a
- Max. transmission

R
- Faster transmission occurs through these
synapses

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 Transmission though chemical sympses :-

Neurotransmitters

gh
Bind to specific

n
Axon terminal receptors

i
( from synaptic

s
vesicles )
2017

a
On post - synaptic

t
membrane

h i
Excitatory

s
New potential Allows entry of

k
generated ions

a
Inhibitory

R
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 Central Neural System

h
Forebrain

g
Regulate

n
activities of Midbrain
three Parts

i
several

s
endocrine glands Hindbrain
+ human Central information

a
activities Processing organ
Brain
Site for processing

h i t Command &
Control system

s
of vision ,

k
Hearing Well protected by Controls Voluntary
speech SKULL

a
movement
memory --> Inside Cranial Meninges

R
Balance of Body
intelligence a) Dura Mater -> outer layer Functioning of vital
Emotions b) Arachnoid -> Thin + middle involuntary organs
Thoughts layer Thermoregulation
c) Piamater -> Inner layer Hunger
Thirst
has contact with brain tissue Ciracadian Rhythms

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Cerebrum Forms major part of brain

g
Thalamus

n
Forebrain

s i
Hypothalamus
separated by deep cleft

a
Cerebrum :- Has 2 Hemispheres :- Left & Right

h i t Connected by Corpus Callosum

( tract of nerve fibres )

s
covered by 2018

k
cortex [ layer of

a
cells ]

R Prominent folds

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 Cerebral Cortex

gh
Cell bodies concentrated here

n
outer part

s i
Has motor , sensory & large areas
Inner part of cerebral

a
Hemispheres is called

t
White matter Neither sensory nor motor

s h i Called " associated areas "

k
Opaque & white - Myelin
sheath --> Fibres of tracts

R a Perform complex
functional
Cerebrum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
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 Thalamus :- Wrapped by cerebrum

gh

signaling
Sensory

i n
Co-ordinary centre for

s
Motor

a
Hypothalamus :- Base of thalamus

i t
2014, 2010 , 2018
Body temperature

h
Controls

s
Urge for eating & drinking

k
Has 2018
Neurosecretory Limbic system Responsible for

a
cells --> regulation of
[ Cerebral Hemisphere +

R
sexual behaviour
deep structure ] --> expression of
like Amygdalo emotional reaction
Secrete Hippocampus
Hypothalamic :- Excitement ,
Hormone pleasure , fear etc
--> Motivation
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Thalamus/hypothalamus -
Mid - Brain :- Located between Forebrain

i n
Pons - Hindbrain

a s
Dorsal portion has 4 rounds swellings - Corpora Quadrigemina

i t
Forms Brain stem with hind brain [ except cerebrllum ]

h
Connection between brain & spinal cord

k s
Cerebral aquedact [ canal ] passes through it

R a
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 Hind brain-
gh
Cerebellum
s i n Medulla

a
Pons (Medulla oblongata)

t
convoluted surface-

i
Fibre traces Additional space for connected to spinal chord

h
-interconnects diff region’s

s
neutron has centre for

k
•respiration

a
•cardiovascular reflexes

R
•gastric secretions

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 Reflex Action & Reflex Arc :-
Reflex Action Process of response to

gh
Involuntary

i n
PNS

a s
Conscious efforts/thoughts- NOT Required

i t
Reflex arc :- pathway through which inpulse is transmitted

h
via dorsal new root .

s
Receptor Afferent neuron. CNS efferent neuron

k
[organ to CNS ]

a
[Spinal cord] [CNS -> organ]

R
eg , Knee Jerk reflex [ Monosynaptic reflex Response

Withdrawal of body parts comes in touch with objects that

are extremely hot , cold , pointed , scary , poisonous

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 Sensory Reception & Processing

gh
Sensory organs :- detect all types of changes in environment

send signals to CNS

s i n
impacts
Processed

a
Analysed

t
Sense organs:-

i
Nose - Has mucus coated Receptors

h
Specialised for sensation of smell Olfactory receptors

k s Made of olfactory epithelium

a
Functionally similar + interrelated

R
Nose + tongue Neurons extends from external
environments--> into pair of broad
detect dissolved chemicals bean structure --> olfactory Bulb -->
extension of Brain's Limbic system

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Tongue - Has taste buds
gh
gustatory receptors
s i
impacts n Processed

i t a Analysed

s h
provides differential input --> Brain -->

k
a
Complex flavour is perceived

R
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 EYE
one pair

h
Photosensitive spherical structure

g
located in sockets of skull --> Orbits

n
Parts of an EYE :-

is
External layer - Dense connective tissue
wall - has 3 layers -Selera
- Anterior portion - cornia

t a
Middle layer - Choroid - bluish

i
- Has many blood vessels

h
- This over posteriors 2/3rd part

s
- Thick - anterior -> 1/3rd part Form ciliary body

a k forms Iris [ opaque + Pigmented ]

R visible coloured portion

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 Internal layer

h
Photosensitive compound -

g
Retina

n
Retina

is
Retinal opsin [ Protein ]
3 layer of neural cells ( Aldehyde ) 2016

a
Inside - outside

t
has

i
photopigments

s h
ganglion Bipolar Photoreceptors

k
cells cells cells

a
Rods Cones

R
-> Twilight [ scotopic ]
Red Stimulated
Purple red -> daylight [photopic] equally
vision
protein vision
-> has Rhodopsin [ visual Blue
-> colour vision White light
purple]
derivation of vit. A 2017, 2011 -> 3 types produced
Green
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Lens - Transparent + Crystalline

is n g
In front aperture surronded by Iris - Pupil

t a
diameter controlled by muscle fibres

s h i
--> Due to Ciliary muscles 2018

a k
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 h
Optic nerves + Retinal Blood vessels --> Leaves & enter at a point

g
medial to 2 slightly -- above posterior pole of eye ball

n
Blind spot :- Photoreceptor cells - Absent

is
At lateral side of posterior pole --> Macule ( Yellovish spot )

t a
2015

i
Has central pit --> FOVEA

k s h max. visual Cones densely Thinned out

a
acuity packed portion

R
Aqueous Chamber :- space between lens & cornea
-> has Thiny watery fluid - aqueous humor
Vitrous Chamber :- space between lens & retina
--> Filled with transparent gel - vitrous humour
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 Mechanism of vision :-
Light rays Focussed on Generate

gh induces

i n
potential in rods dissociation of
Retina

s
& cones retinal from opsin

a
Through

t
cornea & lens Changes in

i
structure of opsin

Impulse
analysed -

k s h Membrane permeability

a
changes
Image formed

R
Action potential in P.D generated in
Visual cortex Optic nerves
ganglion cell photoreceptors
[Brain ]

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 Two sensory functions
The Ear 1 . Hearing 2. Maintenance of body balance

h
Three major section

g
Fluid filled -> labyrinth

isn
outer ear middle ear inner ear membranes
Bony
surrounded by
3 Ear ossicles series of channel
perilympho filled with
pinna external inside

a
increases efficiency of endolymph
auditory

t
transmission of sound

i
meatus coiled portion
collects waves .
cochlea membrane

h
vibration

s
extends 1. Malleus : attached to
upto tympanic membrane

k
which tympanic 2. Incus basilar membrane
reisner's membrane
membrane

a
produces 3. Stapes : attached to
sound (ear drum) oval window of lower scale tympani

R
cochlea divides perilyrphy into
upper scala vestibule
Composed of connective tissue
terminates at round
outside - skin
ends at oval window window
inside - mucous membrane
middle ear
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 Eustachian tube :

h
-> connects middle ear with pharynx

n
-> equalise pressure on either sides of ear drum

is
Space within Cochlea --> Scala Media - has endolymph
g
Organ of corti: on Basilar Membrane

i t a
s h
has hair cells - auditory receptors

k
present in rows on internal side

R aBasalend - contact with afferent fibes .

Apical part - has strescocilia ( in large no. )

- Above rows of hair cells - thin & elastic - Tectorial membrane

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Vestibular Apparatus : above cochlea - inner ear

g
2012

isn
has 3 semi circular canals + otolith

a
lies at 90° to each other macula - sensory part of

i t
- suspended in perilymph

h
- base - swollen - Ampulla
saccule utricle

k s
projecting ridge

a
crista ampublaris

R
( has hair cells )
crista + macula -> specific
receptors for maintenance of
body balance & posture

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Mechanism of hearing : - sound waves - neural impulses

g
external ear -> ear drum -> vibrations -> transmitted to ear ossicles

n
( collects vibrations )

is
Auditory cortex (brain ) -> impulse analysed oval window

a
sound recognised fluid of cochlea

i t
auditory nerves waves in lymphs

h
nerve impulses

s
waves in lymphs

k
presses against tectorial bends hair cells ripple in baselar

a
membrane

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