Vector Calculus
Divergence: Divergence of a vector field gives the account of how fast the field diverges or goes
away from a point (or region of space) or comes towards it. It is a scalar quantity.
The divergence of a vector field A is represented by .A . So, it is given by divA = . A
. A = (i + j + k ).(iAx + jAy + kAz )
x y z
A Ay Az
= x+ +
x y z
Thus the divergence of a vector field is a scalar.
Actually the divergence of A at given point is a measure of how much the vector A spreads out,
that is diverges from that point.
Figure (a) shows that the divergence of a vector field at point ‘O’ is positive as the vector spreads
out. In figure(b), the vector converges and hence the divergence at ’O’ is negative. In figure (c)
the divergence of vector field is zero, as the magnitude of the vector remains the same. So, div A
=0, if A is a constant vector.
Curl: Curl of a vector field gives the account of whether the field has a curling effect around a
point and its direction (clockwise or anti clock wise).
The curl of vector field is a vector field indicating the rotational properties of a field.
The curl of a vector field A is represented by A .
i j k
A Ay A A Ay Ax
CurlA = A = = i( z − ) + j( x − z ) + k ( − )
x y z y z z x x y
Ax Ay Az
Thus, curl of a vector is a vector quantity, that is it has both direction and magnitude.
The general meaning of curl is rotation. If curl A=0, it means that the vector A will not show any
rotational effect, where as curl A is non-zero, it means that rotation is attached with the vector.
The curl measures the degree to which the vector is rotating about a given point, whirl pools and
tornadoes being extreme examples.
An alternative definition is that “Curl of a vector is rotation per unit area”. If A is a constant
vector, then Curl A=0.
Gauss’s Divergence Theorem:
It states that the volume integral of the divergence of any vector field (A) over any volume is
equal to the surface integral of that field taken over the closed surface enclosing the volume V.
divAdv = .Adv = A.ds
(OR) divAdv = . Adv = A.ds
v v s
The divergence theorem is used to transform a volume integral into a surface integral (OR) vice
versa. This theorem is very useful in the situations where it is difficult to calculate the volume
integral.
Stoke’s theorem: It states that the integral of the curl of a vector function over a patch of surface
is equal to the volume of the function at the perimeter of the patch. So here the derivative is the
curl, region is the surface and the boundary is the perimeter of the patch of the surface.
curlA.ds = ( A).ds = A.dl
(OR) curlA.ds = ( A).ds = A.dl
s s l
This theorem converts the surface integral into the line integral (OR) vice-versa.
Divergence of electric field:
Ex E y Ez
div.E = .E = + +
x y z
.E can be taken as a measure of the spreading out of the field E. If E spreads out from a point,
then it has a positive divergence at that point and the point acts as a source of the field E. If the
field converges to a point, then .E would be negative at that point and the point acts as a sink
for the field E. If the vector field neither converges nor diverges, then .E = 0.
Curl of a vector field: The curl of the electric field is zero that is E = 0 . Since the electric
field is nonradial (no twisting of electric field lines). Electric field cannot rotate, it just starts
from a positive charge and ends in anegative charge. Positive and negative charges can be
separated.
Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations: Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations are very useful
mathematical relations for the calculations of electric fields and potentials that cannot be computed
by using Coulomb’s law and Gauss’s law in electrostatic problems.
These equations can be derived as follows:
Gauss’s in electrostatics is given by divE =
0
Electric field and potential are related as E = − gradV = −.V
Thus, we obtain div(− gradV ) =
0
(OR) .( −V ) =
0
−
(OR) 2V =
0
The above equation is called Poisson’s equation.
For a charge free region, that is where = 0 , the Poisson’s equation takes the form
2V = 0
This equation is called Laplace’s equation. This equation is applicable to those electrostatic
problems, where the entire charge resides on the surface of the conductor (OR) is concentrated in
the form of point charges, line charges (OR) surface charges at a single position. It is also
applicable in the cases, where the region between two conductors is filled with one (OR) more
homogeneous dielectrics.
