BACTERIOLOGICAL

SAMPLING
CONTINUING EDUCATION COURSE
4 Contact Hours, 4 PDHs, .4 CEU upon completion
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Printing and Saving Instructions
The best thing to do is to download this pdf document to your
computer desktop and open it with Adobe Acrobat reader.

Abode Acrobat reader is a free computer software program and you

can find it at Abode Acrobat’s website.

You can complete the course by viewing the course materials on your
computer or you can print it out. We give you permission to print this
document.

Printing Instructions: If you are going to print this document, this

document is designed to be printed double-sided or duplexed but can
be single-sided.

This course booklet does not have the assignment. Please visit our
website and download the assignment also.

You can obtain a printed version from TLC for an additional $49.95
plus shipping charges.

Link to Assignment…
http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/BacTSamplingAss.pdf

State Approval Listing Link

http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/CEU%20State%20Approvals.pdf

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We have taught this course to over 5,000 students in a conventional classroom
setting. Call and schedule a class at your facility or utilize the distance learning
course to obtain your CEUs.

Contributing Editors

Joseph Camerata has a BS in Management with honors (magna cum laude). He retired
as a Chemist in 2006 having worked in the field of chemical, environmental, and
industrial hygiene sampling and analysis for 40 years. He has been a professional
presenter at an EPA analytical conference at the Biosphere in Arizona and a
presenter at an AWWA conference in Mesa, Arizona. He also taught safety classes at
the Honeywell and City of Phoenix, and is a motivational/inspirational speaker nationally
and internationally.

Eric Pearce S.M.E., chemistry and biological review.

Pete Greer S.M.E., retired biology instructor.

Jack White, Environmental, Health, Safety expert, City of Phoenix. Art Credits.

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Technical Learning College’s Scope and Function
Technical Learning College (TLC) offers affordable continuing education for today’s
working professionals who need to maintain licenses or certifications. TLC holds
approximately eighty different governmental approvals for granting of continuing
education credit.

TLC’s delivery method of continuing education can include traditional types of classroom
lectures and distance-based courses or independent study. Most TLC’s distance based
or independent study courses are offered in a print based format and you are welcome
to examine this material on your computer with no obligation. Our courses are designed
to be flexible and for you do finish the material on your leisure. Students can also receive
course materials through the mail. The CEU course or e-manual will contain all your
lessons, activities and assignments. Most CEU courses allow students to submit lessons
using e-mail or fax, however some courses require students to submit lessons by postal
mail. (See the course description for more information.) Students have direct contact
with their instructor—primarily by e-mail. TLC’s CEU courses may use such technologies
as the World Wide Web, e-mail, CD-ROMs, videotapes and hard copies. (See the
course description.) Make sure you have access to the necessary equipment before
enrolling, i.e., printer, Microsoft Word and/or Adobe Acrobat Reader. Some courses may
require proctored exams depending upon your state requirements.

Flexible Learning
At TLC, there are no scheduled online sessions you need contend with, nor are you
required to participate in learning teams or groups designed for the "typical" younger
campus based student. You will work at your own pace, completing assignments in time
frames that work best for you. TLC's method of flexible individualized instruction is
designed to provide each student the guidance and support needed for successful
course completion.

We will beat any other training competitor’s price for the same CEU material or
classroom training. Student satisfaction is guaranteed.

Course Structure
TLC's online courses combine the best of online delivery and traditional university
textbooks. Online you will find the course syllabus, course content, assignments, and
online open book exams. This student friendly course design allows you the most
flexibility in choosing when and where you will study.

Classroom of One
TLC Online offers you the best of both worlds. You learn on your own terms, on your
own time, but you are never on your own. Once enrolled, you will be assigned a
personal Student Service Representative who works with you on an individualized basis
throughout your program of study. Course specific faculty members are assigned at the
beginning of each course providing the academic support you need to successfully
complete each course.

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 Satisfaction Guaranteed
Our Iron-Clad, Risk-Free Guarantee ensures you will be another satisfied TLC
student.

We have many years of experience, dealing with thousands of students. We assure

you, our customer satisfaction is second to none. This is one reason we have taught
more than 20,000 students.

Our administrative staff is trained to provide the best customer service in town. Part
of that training is knowing how to solve most problems on the spot with an exchange
or refund.

TLC Continuing Education Course Material Development

Technical Learning College (TLC’s) continuing education course material
development was based upon several factors; extensive academic research, advice
from subject matter experts, data analysis, task analysis and training needs
assessment process information gathered from other states.

We welcome you to complete the assignment in Word. You can easily find the
assignment at www.abctlc.com. Once complete, just simply fax or e-mail the
answer key along with the registration page to us and allow two weeks for
grading. Once we grade it, we will mail a certificate of completion to you. Call us
if you need any help.

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CEU COURSE DESCRIPTION

BACTERIOLOGICAL SAMPLING CEU TRAINING COURSE

This CEU course is a review of Environmental Protection Agency’s Rules and Regulation relating
to proper biological water sampling, water sample preservation, reporting, MCLS and related
microbiological concerns. This course will cover the basic requirements of the federal rule
concerning water sampling (TCR) and general laboratory operations.

Attention Wastewater Treatment, Collections, Water Distribution, Well Drillers, Pump Installers,
and Water Treatment Operators. The target audience for this course is the person interested in
working in a water/wastewater treatment or distribution/collections facility and wishing to maintain
CEUs for certification license or to learn how to do the job safely and effectively, and/or to meet
education needs for promotion.

What is the Total Coliform Rule

(TCR)?
The Total Coliform Rule (TCR)
requires all public water supplies
to monitor for the presence of total
coliforms in the distribution
system. For drinking water, total
coliforms are used to monitor the
sanitary quality of the water,
adequacy of water treatment, and
the integrity of the distribution
system. The absence of total
coliforms in the distribution system
minimizes the likelihood that fecal
pathogens are present. Thus, total
coliforms are used to determine
the vulnerability of a system to
fecal contamination.

Final Examination for Credit

Opportunity to pass the final comprehensive examination is limited to three attempts per course
enrollment.

Course Procedures for Registration and Support

All of Technical Learning College’s distance courses have complete registration and support
services offered. Delivery of services will include, e-mail, web site, telephone, fax and mail
support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service.

When a student registers for a distance or correspondence course, he/she is assigned a start
date and an end date. It is the student's responsibility to note dates for assignments and keep
up with the course work. If a student falls behind, he/she must contact TLC and request an end
date extension in order to complete the course. It is the prerogative of TLC to decide whether to
grant the request. All students will be tracked by their social security number or a unique number
will be assigned to the student.

Instructions for Written Assignments

The Bacteriological Sampling CEU Training course uses a multiple-choice answer key.

Feedback Mechanism (examination procedures)

Each student will receive a feedback form as part of his or her study packet. You will be able to
find this form in the rear of the course or lesson.

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Security and Integrity
All students are required to do their own work. All lesson sheets and final exams are not returned
to the student to discourage sharing of answers. Any fraud or deceit will result in forfeiture of all
fees, and the appropriate agency will be notified.

Grading Criteria
TLC will offer the student either pass/fail or a standard letter grading assignment. If TLC is not
notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice. For security purposes, please fax or e-mail a copy
of your driver’s license and always call us to confirm we’ve received your assignment and to
confirm your identity. TLC offers students the option of either pass/fail or assignment of a
standard letter grade. If a standard letter grade is not requested, a pass/fail notice will be issued.
Final course grades are based on the total number of possible points. The grading scale is
administered equally to all students in the course. Do not expect to receive a grade higher than
that merited by your total points. No point adjustments will be made for class participation or other
subjective factors. If TLC is not notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice. In order to pass
your final assignment, you are required to obtain a minimum score of 70% on your assignment.

Required Texts
The Bacteriological Sampling CEU training course comes complete with a short summary of the
EPA's Rules and Regulations (TCR Rule) and drinking water standards. If you need more
information or a complete set of Rules, you can download them off the EPA’s web page,
www.epa.gov or contact your local state environmental agency. You may need to contact a
laboratory or state agency for certain sampling information.

Recordkeeping and Reporting Practices

TLC will keep all student records for a minimum of seven years. It is the student’s responsibility
to give the completion certificate to the appropriate agencies. TLC will not release any records to
any party, except to the student self. We will send the required information to Texas, Indiana and
Pennsylvania for your certificate renewals.

ADA Compliance
TLC will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities. Students
should notify TLC and their instructors of any special needs. Course content may vary from this
outline to meet the needs of this particular group.

Mission Statement
Our only product is educational service. Our goal is to provide you with the best possible
education service possible. TLC will attempt to make your learning experience an enjoyable
opportunity.

When the Student finishes this course…

At the conclusion of this course:
At the finish of this course, you (the student) should be able to explain and describe various
biological sampling procedures and laboratory bacteriological methods. The student will be able
to explain sampling techniques and biological monitoring, and proper microbes (bacteria)
identification. Describe reporting regulations, chain of custody standards and dealing with a
sampling violation.

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Educational Mission
The educational mission of TLC is:
To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and skills needed
for the environmental education field,

To provide TLC students with opportunities to apply and understand the theory and skills needed
for operator certification,

To provide opportunities for TLC students to learn and practice environmental educational skills
with members of the community for the purpose of sharing diverse perspectives and experience,

To provide a forum in which students can exchange experiences and ideas related to
environmental education,

To provide a forum for the collection and dissemination of current information related to
environmental education, and to maintain an environment that nurtures academic and personal
growth.

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Table of Contents

SDWA Summary 15
Primary Drinking Water Regulations 23
Secondary Drinking Water Standards 29
New EPA Rules 31
Microbial Regulations 33
Timeline 36
Key Words 37
Water Sampling 41
Pathogens 43
Protozoan Diseases 45
Biological Monitoring 47
HPC 53
Total Coliforms 55
Coliform Questions 57
Repeat Sampling 63
Compliance/ Violations 67
Chain of Custody 69
Sampling Plan 72
Collection of Samples 73
Chemical Monitoring 75
Water Disinfection 79
Letters 81
Periodic Tables 87
pH 89
Microorganisms 91
Legionella 133
Math Conversions 147
Glossary 151
References 189

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Copyright Notice
©2005 Technical Learning College (TLC) No part of this work may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means without TLC’s prior written approval. Permission has been sought for
all images and text where we believe copyright exists and where the copyright holder is traceable
and contactable. All material that is not credited or acknowledged is the copyright of Technical
Learning College. This information is intended for educational purposes only. Most unaccredited
photographs have been taken by TLC instructors or TLC students. We will be pleased to hear
from any copyright holder and will make good on your work if any unintentional copyright
infringements were made as soon as these issues are brought to the editor's attention.

Every possible effort is made to ensure that all information provided in this course is accurate. All
written, graphic, photographic or other material is provided for information only. Therefore,
Technical Learning College accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever for the application or
misuse of any information included herein. Requests for permission to make copies should be
made to the following address:
TLC
P.O. Box 420
Payson, AZ 85547-0420
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for errors or
omissions appearing in this document.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
Acronym Full Phrase
AA Approval Authority
AO Administrative Order
BAT Best Available Technology Economically Achievable
BCT Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology
BMP Best Management Practices
BMR Baseline Monitoring Report
BOD5 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BPJ Best Professional Judgment
BPT Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
CA Control Authority
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CIU Categorical Industrial User
CSO Combined Sewer Overflow
CWA Clean Water Act (formerly referred to as the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act or Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972) Pub. L.
92-500, as amended by Pub. L. 95-217, Pub. L. 95-576, Pub. L. 96-483, Pub. L.
97-117, and Pub. L. 100-4, 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.
CWF Combined Wastestream Formula
CWT Centralized Waste Treater
DMR Discharge Monitoring Report
DSE Domestic Sewage Exclusion
DSS Domestic Sewage Study
ELG Effluent Limitations Guideline
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA Emergency Preparedness and Community Right to Know Act
ERP Enforcement Response Plan
FDF Fundamentally Different Factors
FR Federal Register
FWA Flow Weighted Average
gpd Gallons per Day
IU Industrial User
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
MAHL Maximum Allowable Headworks Loading
MAIL Maximum Allowable Industrial Loading
MGD Million Gallons per Day
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
NAICS North American Industry Classification System (replaces SIC coding
system in 1998)
NOV Notice of Violation
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council
NSPS New Source Performance Standard
O&G Oil and Grease
O&M Operations and Maintenance

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OCPSF Organic Chemicals, Plastics, and Synthetic Fibers
P2 Pollution Prevention
PCI Pretreatment Compliance Inspection
PCS Permit Compliance System
PIRT Pretreatment Implementation Review Task Force
POTW Publicly Owned Treatment Works
PSES Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources
PSNS Pretreatment Standards for New Sources
QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
SIC Standard Industrial Classification
SIU Significant Industrial User
SPCC Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures
SNC Significant Noncompliance
SSO Sanitary Sewer Overflow
SUO Sewer Use Ordinance
TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TIE Toxicity Identification Evaluation
TOMP Toxic Organic Management Program
TRE Toxicity Reduction Evaluation
TRI Toxic Release Inventory
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TTO Total Toxic Organics
USC United States Code
UST Underground Storage Tank
WET Whole Effluent Toxicity
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant

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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

On August 6, 1996, President Clinton signed the Reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act, bringing
to a successful conclusion to years of work on the part of water professionals and a broad range of public
interest groups throughout the nation. This new law strikes a balance among federal, state, local, urban,
rural, large and small water systems in a manner that improves the protection of public health and brings
reason and good science to the regulatory process.

The major elements of this law include:

The law updates the standard-setting process by focusing regulations on contaminants known to pose
greater public health risks.

 It replaces the current law's demand for 25 additional standards every three years with a new process
based on occurrence, relative risk, and cost-benefit considerations.
 It also requires the EPA to select at least five new candidate contaminants to consider for regulation
every five years.
 The EPA is directed to require public water systems to provide customers with annual "Consumer
Confidence Reports" in newspapers and by direct mail.
 The reports must list levels of regulated contaminants along with Maximum Contaminant Levels
(MCLs) and Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs), along with plainly worded definitions of
both.
 The reports must also include a plainly worded statement of the health concerns for any contaminants
for which there has been a violation, describe the utility's sources of drinking water and provide data
on unregulated contaminants for which monitoring is required, including Cryptosporidium and radon.
 The EPA must establish a toll-free hot line customers can call to get additional information.
 The EPA is required to publish guidelines for states to develop water source assessment programs
that delineate protection areas and assess contamination risks.
 The EPA is required to identify technologies that are affordable for small systems to comply with
drinking water regulations.
 Technical assistance funds and Small System Technical Assistance Centers are authorized to meet
the training and technical needs of small systems.
 States are authorized to grant variances for compliance with drinking water regulations for systems
serving 3,300 or fewer persons.
 The EPA is required to publish certification guidelines for operators of community and nontransient
noncommunity public water systems.
 States that do not have operator certification programs that meet the requirements of the guidelines
will lose 20 percent of their SRLF grant.
 A source water petition program for voluntary, incentive-based partnerships among public water
systems and others to reduce contamination in source water is authorized.
 The law establishes a new State Revolving Loan Fund (SRLF) of $1 billion per year to provide loans
to public water systems to comply with the new SDWA.
 It also requires states to allocate 15 percent of the SRLF to systems serving 10,000 or fewer people
unless no eligible projects are available for loans.
 It also allows states to jointly administer SDWA and Clean Water Act loan programs and transfer up
to 33 percent between the two accounts.
 States must ensure that all new systems have compliance capacity and that all current systems
maintain capacity, or lose 20 percent of their SRLF grant.
Although the EPA will continue to provide policy, regulations and guidance, state governments will now
have more regulatory flexibility allowing for improved communication between water providers and their
local regulators. Increased collaboration will result in solutions that work better and are more fully
supported by the regulated community. States that have a source water assessment program may adopt
alternative monitoring requirements to provide permanent monitoring relief for public water systems in
accordance with EPA guidance.
Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
(PL 93-523) as amended by:
 The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986
 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 CFR 141
 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations Implementation, 40 CFR142
 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 CFR 143

This is the primary Federal legislation protecting drinking water supplied by public water systems (those
serving more than 25 people). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is lead agency and is
mandated to set standards for drinking water. The EPA establishes national standards of which the states
are responsible for enforcing.

The act provides for the establishment of primary regulations for the protection of the public health and
secondary regulations relating to the taste, odor, and appearance of drinking water. Primary drinking
water regulations, by definition, include either a maximum contaminant level (MCL) or, when a MCL is not
economically or technologically feasible, a prescribed treatment technique which would prevent adverse
health effects to humans. An MCL is the permissible level of a contaminant in water that is delivered to
any user of a public water system. Primary and secondary drinking water regulations are stated in 40
CFR 141 and 143, respectively. As amended in 1986, the EPA is required to set maximum contaminant
levels for 83 contaminants deemed harmful to humans (with specific deadlines). It also has authority over
groundwater. Water agencies are required to monitor water to ensure it meets standards.

National Drinking Water Regulations

The Act instructs the EPA on how to select contaminants for regulation and specifies how EPA must
establish national primary drinking water regulations once a contaminant has been selected (Section
1412). As of late 1996, the EPA had promulgated 84 drinking water regulations.

Contaminant Selection
P.L. 104-182 establishes a new process for the EPA to select contaminants for regulatory consideration
based on occurrence, health effects, and meaningful opportunity for health risk reduction. By February
1998 and every 5 years thereafter, the EPA must publish a list of contaminants that may warrant
regulation. Starting in 2001, and every 5 years thereafter, the EPA must determine whether or not to
regulate at least 5 of the listed contaminants. The Act directs the EPA to evaluate contaminants that
present the greatest health concern and to regulate contaminants that occur at concentration levels and
frequencies of public health concern.

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The law also includes a schedule for the EPA to complete regulations for disinfectants and disinfection
byproducts (D/DBPs) and Cryptosporidium (a waterborne pathogen).

Standard Setting
Developing national drinking water regulations is a two-part process. For each contaminant that the EPA
has determined merits regulation, the EPA must set a non-enforceable maximum contaminant level goal
(MCLG) at a level at which no known or anticipated adverse health effects occur, and which allows an
adequate margin of safety. The EPA must then set an enforceable standard, a maximum contaminant
level (MCL), as close to the MCLG as is "feasible" using best technology, treatment techniques, or other
means available (taking costs into consideration).

Standards are generally based on technologies that are affordable for large communities; however, under
P.L. 104-182, each regulation establishing an MCL must list any technologies, treatment techniques or
other means that comply with the MCL and that are affordable for three categories of small public water
systems. The 1996 Amendments authorize the EPA to set a standard at other than the feasible level if the
feasible level would lead to an increase in health risks by increasing the concentration of other
contaminants or by interfering with the treatment processes used to comply with other SDWA regulations.
In such cases, the standard or treatment techniques must minimize the overall health risk. Also, when
proposing a regulation, the EPA must now publish a determination as to whether or not the benefits of the
standard justify the costs. If EPA determines that the benefits do not justify the costs, the EPA may, with
certain exceptions, promulgate a standard that maximizes health risk reduction benefits at a cost that is
justified by the benefits.

Risk Assessment
P.L. 104-182 adds risk assessment and communication provisions to SDWA. When developing
regulations, the EPA is now required to: (1) use the best available, peer-reviewed science and supporting
studies and data; and (2) make publicly available a risk assessment document that discusses estimated
risks, uncertainties, and studies used in the assessment.

When proposing drinking water regulations, the EPA must publish a health risk reduction and cost
analysis. The law permits the EPA to promulgate an interim standard without first preparing a benefit-cost
analysis or making a determination as to whether the benefits of a regulation would justify the costs if the
EPA determines that a contaminant presents an urgent threat to public health.

New regulations generally become effective 3 years after promulgation. Up to 2 additional years may be
allowed if the EPA (or a state in the case of an individual system) determines the time is needed for
capital improvements. Section 1412 includes specific provisions for arsenic, sulfate, and radon. The law
authorizes states to grant Systems variances from a regulation if raw water quality prevents meeting the
standards despite application of best technology (Section 1415). A new provision authorizes small system
variances based on best affordable technology.

States may grant these variances to systems serving 3,300 or fewer persons if the system cannot afford
to comply (through treatment, an alternative water source, or restructuring) and the variance ensures
adequate protection of public health; states may grant variances to systems serving between 3,300 and
10,000 persons with EPA approval. To receive a small system variance, the system must install a
variance technology identified by EPA. The variance technology need not meet the MCL, but must protect
public health.

The EPA must identify variance technologies for existing regulations. Variances are not available for
microbial contaminants. The Act also provides for exemptions if a regulation cannot be met for other
compelling reasons (including costs) and if the system was in operation before the effective date of a
standard or treatment requirement (Section 1416). An exemption is intended to give a public water
system more time to comply with a regulation and can be issued only if it will not result in an
unreasonable health risk. Small systems may receive exemptions for up to 9 years.

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State Primacy
The primary enforcement responsibility for public water systems lies with the states, provided they adopt
regulations as stringent as the national requirements, adopt authority for administrative penalties, develop
adequate procedures for enforcement, maintain records, and create a plan for providing emergency water
supplies (Section 1413). Currently, 55 of 57 states and territories have primacy authority. P.L. 104-182
authorizes $100 million annually for the EPA to make grants to states to carry out the public water system
supervision program. States may also use a portion of their SRLF grant for this purpose (Section 1443).
Whenever the EPA finds that a public water system in a state with primary enforcement authority does
not comply with regulations, the Agency must notify the state and the system and provide assistance to
bring the system into compliance. If the state fails to commence enforcement action within 30 days after
the notification, the EPA is authorized to issue an administrative order or commence a civil action.

Nonprimacy State
In a non-primacy state, the EPA must notify an elected local official (if any has jurisdiction over the water
system) before commencing an enforcement action against the system (Section 1414). Primacy states
may establish alternative monitoring requirements to provide interim monitoring relief for systems serving
10,000 or fewer persons for most contaminants, if a contaminant is not detected in the first quarterly
sample. States with approved source water protection programs may adopt alternative monitoring
requirements to provide permanent monitoring relief to qualified systems for chemical contaminants
(Section 1418).

P.L. 104-182 requires states to adopt programs for training and certifying operators of community and
nontransient noncommunity systems. The EPA must publish guidelines specifying minimum standards for
operator certification by February 1999. Two years thereafter, the EPA must withhold 20% of a state's
SRLF grant unless the state has an operator certification program (Section 1419). States are also
required to establish capacity development programs based on EPA guidance. State programs must
include: 1) legal authority to ensure that new systems have the technical, financial, and managerial
capacity to meet SDWA requirements; and 2) a strategy to assist existing systems that are experiencing
difficulties to come into compliance. The EPA is required to withhold a portion of SRF grants from states
that do not have compliance development strategies (Section 1420).

Underground Injection Control

Another provision of the Act requires the EPA to promulgate regulations for state underground injection
control (UIC) programs to protect underground sources of drinking water. These regulations contain
minimum requirements for the underground injection of wastes in five well classes to protect underground
sources of drinking water and to require that a state prohibit, by December 1977, any underground
injection that was not authorized by state permit (Section 1421).

Ground Water Protection Grant Programs

The Act contains three additional ground water protection programs. Added in 1986, Section 1427
established procedures for demonstration programs to develop, implement, and assess critical aquifer
protection areas already designated by the Administrator as sole source aquifers. Section 1428, also
added in 1986, and established an elective state program for protecting wellhead areas around public
water system wells. If a state established a wellhead protection program by 1989, and the EPA approved
the state's program, then the EPA may award grants covering between 50% and 90% of the costs of
implementing the program. Section 1429, added by P.L. 104-182 authorizes the EPA to make 50% grants
to states to develop programs to ensure coordinated and comprehensive protection of ground water
within the states.

Source Water Protection Programs

P.L. 104-182 broadens the pollution prevention focus of the Act to embrace surface water as well as
ground water protection. New Section 1453 directs the EPA to publish guidance for states to implement
source water assessment programs that delineate boundaries of assessment areas from which systems
receive their water, and identify the origins of contaminants in delineated areas to determine systems'
susceptibility to contamination. States with approved assessment programs may adopt alternative
monitoring requirements to provide systems with monitoring relief under Section 1418.

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New Section 1454 authorizes a source water petition program based on voluntary partnerships between
state and local governments. States may establish a program under which a community water system or
local government may submit a source water quality partnership petition to the state requesting
assistance in developing a voluntary partnership to: (1) reduce the presence of contaminants in drinking
water; (2) receive financial or technical assistance; and (3) develop a long-term source water protection
strategy. This section authorizes $5 million each year for grants to states to support petition programs.
Also, states may use up to 10% of their annual SRF capitalization grant for the source water assessment
activities or for the petition program.

State Revolving Funds

Section 1452, added by P.L. 104-182 authorizes a State Revolving Loan Fund (SRF) program to help
systems finance improvements needed to comply with drinking water regulations. The law authorizes the
EPA to make grants to states to capitalize SDWA SRFs, which states then use to make loans to public
water systems. States must match 20% of the federal grant.

Grants will be allotted to states using the formula for distributing state PWSS grants through FY1997;
then, grants will be allotted based on a needs survey. Each state will receive at least 1% of funds. The
District of Columbia will receive 1% of funds as well. A state may transfer up to 33% of the grant to the
Clean Water Act (CWA) SRF, or an equivalent amount from the CWA SRF to the SDWA SRF.

Drinking water SRFs may be used to provide loan and

grant assistance for expenditures that the EPA has
determined will facilitate compliance or significantly
further the Act's health protection objectives. States
must make available 15% of their annual allotment for
loan assistance to systems that serve 10,000 or fewer
persons. States may use up to 30% of their SRF grant
to provide grants or forgive loan principle to help
economically disadvantaged communities. Also, states
may use a portion of funds for technical assistance,
source water protection and capacity development
programs, and for operator certification.

Other Provisions
Public water systems must notify customers of violations with potential for serious health effects within 24
hours. Systems must also issue to customers annual reports on contaminants detected in their drinking
water (Section 1414).

Section 1417 requires any pipe, solder, or flux used in the installation or repair of public water systems or
of plumbing in residential or nonresidential facilities providing drinking water to be "lead free" (as defined
in the Act). As of August 1998, it will be unlawful to sell pipes, plumbing fittings or fixtures that are not
"lead free" or to sell solder or flux that is not lead free(unless it is properly labeled); with the exception of
pipes used in manufacturing or industrial processing. P.L. 104-182 sets limits on the amount of lead that
may leach from new plumbing fixtures, and allows one year for a voluntary standard to be established
before requiring the EPA to take regulatory action. The Administrator has emergency powers to issue
orders and commence civil action if a contaminant likely to enter a public drinking water supply system
poses a substantial threat to public health and state or local officials have not taken adequate action
(Section 1431).

If a chemical necessary for water treatment is not reasonably available, the Administrator can issue a
"certification of need," in which case the President can order an allocation of the chemical to those
needing it (Section 1441). The EPA is provided authority to conduct research, studies, and
demonstrations related to the causes, treatment, control, and prevention of diseases resulting from
contaminants in water. The Agency is directed to provide technical assistance to the states and
municipalities in administering their public water system regulatory responsibilities.

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The law authorizes annually, $15 million for technical assistance to small systems and Indian Tribes, and
$25 million for health effects research (Section 1442). P.L. 104-182 authorizes additional appropriations
for drinking water research, not to exceed $26.6 million annually.

The Administrator may make grants to develop and demonstrate new technologies for providing safe
drinking water and to investigate health implications involved in the reclamation/reuse of waste waters
(Section 1444). Also, suppliers of water who may be subject to regulation under the Act are required to
establish and maintain records, monitor, and provide any information that the Administrator requires to
carry out the requirements of the Act (Section 1445). The Administrator may also enter and inspect the
property of water suppliers to enable him/her to carry out the purposes of the Act. Failure to comply with
these provisions may result in criminal penalties. The Act established a National Drinking Water Advisory
Council, composed of 15 members (with at least 2 representing rural systems), to advise, consult, and
make recommendations to the Administrator on activities and policies derived from the Act (Section
1446).

National Security
Any federal agency having jurisdiction over federally owned and maintained public water systems must
comply with all federal, state, and local drinking water requirements as well as any underground injection
control programs (Section 1447). The Act provides for waivers in the interest of national security.
Procedures for judicial review are outlined (Section 1448), and provision for citizens' civil actions is made
(Section 1449). Citizen suits may be brought against any person or agency allegedly in violation of
provisions of the Act, or against the Administrator for alleged failure to perform any action or duty which is
not discretionary.

The EPA may use the new estrogenic substances screening program created in the Food Quality
Protection Act of 1996 (P .L. 104-170) to provide for testing of substances that may be found in drinking
water if the Administrator determines that a substantial population may be exposed to such substances
(Section 1457). The EPA is directed to conduct drinking water studies involving subpopulations at greater
risk and biological mechanisms, and studies to support several rules including those addressing D/DBPs
and Cryptosporidium.

The Act includes a provision amending the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, generally requiring the
Secretary of Health and Human Services to issue bottled drinking water standards for contaminants
regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Other provisions of P.L. 104-182 authorize water and
wastewater grants for colonies and Alaska rural and native villages, and authorize the transfer of the
Washington (D.C.) Aqueduct to a regional authority. The 1996 Amendments also authorize a $50 million
per year grant program for additional infrastructure and watershed protection projects; the conference
report lists, and directs the EPA to give priority consideration to 24 such projects.

Because of the events of 9/11, we have to prepare for an attack on our water
distribution system. This includes preparing for hurricanes, floods and terrorist actions.

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Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR). The rule specifies maximum contaminant
level goals for Giardia lamblia, viruses and Legionella, and promulgated filtration and
disinfection requirements for public water systems using surface water sources or by
ground water sources under the direct influence of surface water. The regulations also
specify water quality, treatment and watershed protection criteria under which filtration
may be avoided.

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 Giardia

Cryptosporium

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National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
2
1 MCL
Inorganic MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
4 or TT
Chemicals (mg/L) 4 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)
Antimony 0.006 0.006 Increase in blood cholesterol; Discharge from petroleum
decrease in blood glucose refineries; fire retardants;
ceramics; electronics; solder
Arsenic none5 0.010 Skin damage; circulatory Discharge from semiconductor
system problems; increased manufacturing; petroleum
risk of cancer refining; wood preservatives;
animal feed additives;
herbicides; erosion of natural
deposits
Asbestos 7 million 7 MFL Increased risk of developing Decay of asbestos cement in
(fiber >10 fibers per benign intestinal polyps water mains; erosion of natural
micrometers) Liter deposits
Barium 2 2 Increase in blood pressure Discharge of drilling wastes;
discharge from metal refineries;
erosion of natural deposits
Beryllium 0.004 0.004 Intestinal lesions Discharge from metal refineries
and coal-burning factories;
discharge from electrical,
aerospace, and defense
industries
Cadmium 0.005 0.005 Kidney damage Corrosion of galvanized pipes;
erosion of natural deposits;
discharge from metal refineries;
runoff from waste batteries and
paints
Chromium (total) 0.1 0.1 Some people who use water Discharge from steel and pulp
containing chromium well in mills; erosion of natural
excess of the MCL over many deposits
years could experience allergic
dermatitis
Copper 1.3 Action Short term exposure: Corrosion of household
Level=1. Gastrointestinal distress. plumbing systems; erosion of
3; TT6 Long term exposure: Liver or natural deposits; leaching from
kidney damage. Those with wood preservatives
Wilson's Disease should
consult their personal doctor if
their water systems exceed the
copper action level.
Cyanide (as free 0.2 0.2 Nerve damage or thyroid Discharge from steel/metal
cyanide) problems factories; discharge from plastic
and fertilizer factories
Fluoride 4.0 4.0 Bone disease (pain and Water additive which promotes
tenderness of the bones); strong teeth; erosion of natural
Children may get mottled deposits; discharge from
teeth. fertilizer and aluminum factories
Lead zero Action Infants and children: Delays in Corrosion of household
Level=0. physical or mental plumbing systems; erosion of
015; TT6 development. natural deposits
Adults: Kidney problems; high
blood pressure

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Inorganic Mercury 0.002 0.002 Kidney damage Erosion of natural deposits;
discharge from refineries and
factories; runoff from landfills
and cropland

Nitrate (measured 10 10 "Blue baby syndrome" in Runoff from fertilizer use;

as Nitrogen) infants under six months - life leaching from septic tanks,
threatening without immediate sewage; erosion of natural
medical attention. deposits
Symptoms: Infant looks blue
and has shortness of breath.
Nitrite (measured as 1 1 "Blue baby syndrome" in Runoff from fertilizer use;
Nitrogen) infants under six months - life leaching from septic tanks,
threatening without immediate sewage; erosion of natural
medical attention. deposits
Symptoms: Infant looks blue
and has shortness of breath.
Selenium 0.05 0.05 Hair or fingernail loss; Discharge from petroleum
numbness in fingers or toes; refineries; erosion of natural
circulatory problems deposits; discharge from mines
Thallium 0.0005 0.002 Hair loss; changes in blood; Leaching from ore-processing
kidney, intestine, or liver sites; discharge from
problems electronics, glass, and
pharmaceutical companies

2
1 MCL
Organic MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
4 or TT
Chemicals (mg/L) 4 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)
Acrylamide zero TT7 Nervous system or blood Added to water during
problems; increased risk of sewage/wastewater treatment
cancer
Alachlor zero 0.002 Eye, liver, kidney or spleen Runoff from herbicide used on
problems; anemia; increased row crops
risk of cancer
Atrazine 0.003 0.003 Cardiovascular system Runoff from herbicide used on
problems; reproductive row crops
difficulties
Benzene zero 0.005 Anemia; decrease in blood Discharge from factories;
platelets; increased risk of leaching from gas storage tanks
cancer and landfills
Benzo(a)pyrene zero 0.0002 Reproductive difficulties; Leaching from linings of water
increased risk of cancer storage tanks and distribution
lines
Carbofuran 0.04 0.04 Problems with blood or Leaching of soil fumigant used
nervous system; reproductive on rice and alfalfa
difficulties.
Carbon zero .005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from chemical plants
tetrachloride of cancer and other industrial activities
Chlordane zero 0.002 Liver or nervous system Residue of banned termiticide
problems; increased risk of
cancer
Chlorobenzene 0.1 0.1 Liver or kidney problems Discharger from chemical and
agricultural chemical factories
2,4-D 0.07 0.07 Kidney, liver, or adrenal gland Runoff from herbicide used on
problems row crops
Dalapon 0.2 0.2 Minor kidney changes Runoff from herbicide used on
rights of way
1,2-Dibromo-3- zero 0.0002 Reproductive difficulties; Runoff/leaching from soil
chloropropane increased risk of cancer fumigant used on soybeans,
(DBCP) cotton, pineapples, and
orchards

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o-Dichlorobenzene 0.6 0.6 Liver, kidney, or circulatory Discharge from industrial
system problems chemical factories
p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 0.075 Anemia; liver, kidney or spleen Discharge from industrial
damage; changes in blood chemical factories
1,2-Dichloroethane zero 0.005 Increased risk of cancer Discharge from industrial
chemical factories
1-1- 0.007 0.007 Liver problems Discharge from industrial
Dichloroethylene chemical factories
cis-1, 2- 0.07 0.07 Liver problems Discharge from industrial
Dichloroethylene chemical factories
trans-1,2- 0.1 0.1 Liver problems Discharge from industrial
Dichloroethylene chemical factories
Dichloromethane zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from pharmaceutical
of cancer and chemical factories
1-2- zero 0.005 Increased risk of cancer Discharge from industrial
Dichloropropane chemical factories
Di(2- 0.4 0.4 General toxic effects or Leaching from PVC plumbing
ethylhexyl)adipate reproductive difficulties systems; discharge from
chemical factories
Di(2- zero 0.006 Reproductive difficulties; liver Discharge from rubber and
ethylhexyl)phthalate problems; increased risk of chemical factories
cancer
Dinoseb 0.007 0.007 Reproductive difficulties Runoff from herbicide used on
soybeans and vegetables
Dioxin (2,3,7,8- zero 0.000000 Reproductive difficulties; Emissions from waste
TCDD) 03 increased risk of cancer incineration and other
combustion; discharge from
chemical factories
Diquat 0.02 0.02 Cataracts Runoff from herbicide use
Endothall 0.1 0.1 Stomach and intestinal Runoff from herbicide use
problems
Endrin 0.002 0.002 Nervous system effects Residue of banned insecticide
Epichlorohydrin zero TT7 Stomach problems; Discharge from industrial
reproductive difficulties; chemical factories; added to
increased risk of cancer water during treatment process
Ethylbenzene 0.7 0.7 Liver or kidney problems Discharge from petroleum
refineries
Ethelyne dibromide zero 0.00005 Stomach problems; Discharge from petroleum
reproductive difficulties; refineries
increased risk of cancer
Glyphosate 0.7 0.7 Kidney problems; reproductive Runoff from herbicide use
difficulties
Heptachlor zero 0.0004 Liver damage; increased risk Residue of banned termiticide
of cancer
Heptachlor epoxide zero 0.0002 Liver damage; increased risk Breakdown of hepatachlor
of cancer
Hexachlorobenzene zero 0.001 Liver or kidney problems; Discharge from metal refineries
reproductive difficulties; and agricultural chemical
increased risk of cancer factories
Hexachlorocyclopen 0.05 0.05 Kidney or stomach problems Discharge from chemical
tadiene factories
Lindane 0.0002 0.0002 Liver or kidney problems Runoff/leaching from insecticide
used on cattle, lumber, gardens
Methoxychlor 0.04 0.04 Reproductive difficulties Runoff/leaching from insecticide
used on fruits, vegetables,
alfalfa, livestock
Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.2 0.2 Slight nervous system effects Runoff/leaching from insecticide
used on apples, potatoes, and
tomatoes
Polychlorinated zero 0.0005 Skin changes; thymus gland Runoff from landfills; discharge
biphenyls (PCBs) problems; immune of waste chemicals
deficiencies; reproductive or
nervous system difficulties;
increased risk of cancer

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Pentachlorophenol zero 0.001 Liver or kidney problems; Discharge from wood
increased risk of cancer preserving factories
Picloram 0.5 0.5 Liver problems Herbicide runoff
Simazine 0.004 0.004 Problems with blood Herbicide runoff
Styrene 0.1 0.1 Liver, kidney, and circulatory Discharge from rubber and
problems plastic factories; leaching from
landfills
Tetrachloroethylene zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from factories and
of cancer dry cleaners
Toluene 1 1 Nervous system, kidney, or Discharge from petroleum
liver problems factories
Total none5 0.10 Liver, kidney or central Byproduct of drinking water
Trihalomethanes nervous system problems; disinfection
(TTHMs) increased risk of cancer
Toxaphene zero 0.003 Kidney, liver, or thyroid Runoff/leaching from insecticide
problems; increased risk of used on cotton and cattle
cancer
2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 0.05 0.05 Liver problems Residue of banned herbicide
1,2,4- 0.07 0.07 Changes in adrenal glands Discharge from textile finishing
Trichlorobenzene factories
1,1,1- 0.20 0.2 Liver, nervous system, or Discharge from metal
Trichloroethane circulatory problems degreasing sites and other
factories
1,1,2- 0.003 0.005 Liver, kidney, or immune Discharge from industrial
Trichloroethane system problems chemical factories
Trichloroethylene zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from petroleum
of cancer refineries
Vinyl chloride zero 0.002 Increased risk of cancer Leaching from PVC pipes;
discharge from plastic factories

Xylenes (total) 10 10 Nervous system damage Discharge from petroleum

factories; discharge from
chemical factories

2
1 MCL
MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
Radionuclides 4 or TT
from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L) 4
(mg/L)
Beta particles and none5 4 Increased risk of cancer Decay of natural and man-
photon emitters millirems made deposits
per year
Gross alpha particle none5 15 Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural deposits
activity picocurie
s per
Liter
(pCi/L)
Radium 226 and none5 5 pCi/L Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural deposits
Radium 228
(combined)

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 2
1 MCL
MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
Microorganisms 4 or TT
(mg/L) 4 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)
Giardia lamblia zero TT8 Giardiasis, a gastroenteric Human and animal fecal waste
disease
Heterotrophic plate N/A TT8 HPC has no health effects, but n/a
count can indicate how effective
treatment is at controlling
microorganisms.
Legionella zero TT8 Legionnaire's Disease, Found naturally in water;
commonly known as multiplies in heating systems
pneumonia
Total Coliforms zero 5.0%9 Used as an indicator that other Human and animal fecal waste
(including fecal potentially harmful bacteria
10
coliform and E. Coli) may be present
Turbidity N/A TT8 Turbidity has no health effects Soil runoff
but can interfere with
disinfection and provide a
medium for microbial growth. It
may indicate the presence of
microbes.
Viruses (enteric) zero TT8 Gastroenteric disease Human and animal fecal waste

We teach this course in both a conventional classroom setting and in a distance based
CEU course. We have taught over 20,000 students.

Bacteriological Sampling ©TLC 1/13/2011 27 TLC (928) 468-0665 Fax (928) 468-0675
Coliform Bacteria on a Petri Dish. Bottom picture, SimPlate for HPC counts. IDEXX’s
SimPlate for HPC method is used for the quantification of heterotrophic plate count (HPC) in
water. It is based on the Multiple Enzyme Technology which detects viable bacteria in water by
testing for the presence of key enzymes known to be present in these little organisms. This
technique uses enzyme substrates that produce a blue fluorescence when metabolized by
waterborne bacteria. The sample and media are added to a SimPlate Plate, incubated and then
examined for fluorescing wells. The number of wells corresponds to a Most Probable Number
(MPN) of total bacteria in the original sample. The MPN values generated by the SimPlate for
HPC method correlate with the Pour Plate method using the Total Plate Count Agar incubated
at 35oC for 48 hours as described in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 19th Edition.

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National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary
standards) are non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may
cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects
(such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking water.

The EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not
require systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt them as
enforceable standards.

Secondary Standard
Contaminant
Aluminum 0.05 to 0.2 mg/L
Chloride 250 mg/L
Color 15 (color units)
Copper 1.0 mg/L
Corrosivity noncorrosive
Fluoride 2.0 mg/L
Foaming Agents 0.5 mg/L
Iron 0.3 mg/L
Manganese 0.05 mg/L
Odor 3 threshold odor number
pH 6.5-8.5
Silver 0.10 mg/L
Sulfate 250 mg/L
Total Dissolved
500 mg/L
Solids
Zinc 5 mg/L

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Important Notes
1
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The maximum level of a contaminant in drinking
water at which no known or anticipated adverse effect on the health effect of persons would
occur, and which allows for an adequate margin of safety. MCLGs are non-enforceable public
health goals.
2
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The maximum permissible level of a contaminant in
water which is delivered to any user of a public water system. MCLs are enforceable
standards. The margins of safety in MCLGs ensure that exceeding the MCL slightly does not
pose significant risk to public health.
3
Treatment Technique - An enforceable procedure or level of technical performance which
public water systems must follow to ensure control of a contaminant.
4
Units are in milligrams per Liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted.
5
MCLGs were not established before the 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Therefore, there is no MCLG for this contaminant.
6
Lead and copper are regulated in a Treatment Technique which requires systems to take tap
water samples at sites with lead pipes or copper pipes that have lead solder and/or are served
by lead service lines. The action level, which triggers water systems into taking treatment steps
if exceeded in more than 10% of tap water samples, for copper is 1.3 mg/L, and for lead is
0.015mg/L.
7
Each water system must certify, in writing, to the state (using third-party or manufacturer's
certification) that when acrylamide and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking water systems, the
combination (or product) of dose and monomer level does not exceed the levels specified, as
follows:
 Acrylamide = 0.05% dosed at 1 mg/L (or equivalent)
 Epichlorohydrin = 0.01% dosed at 20 mg/L (or equivalent)
8
The Surface Water Treatment Rule requires systems using surface water or ground water
under the direct influence of surface water to (1) disinfect their water, and (2) filter their water or
meet criteria for avoiding filtration so that the following contaminants are controlled at the
following levels:
 Giardia lamblia: 99.9% killed/inactivated
Viruses: 99.99% killed/inactivated
 Legionella: No limit, but EPA believes that if Giardia and viruses are inactivated,
Legionella will also be controlled.
 Turbidity: At no time can turbidity (cloudiness of water) go above 5 Nephelolometric
turbidity units (NTU); systems that filter must ensure that the turbidity go no higher than
1 NTU (0.5 NTU for conventional or direct filtration) in at least 95% of the daily samples
in any month.
 HPC: NO more than 500 bacterial colonies per milliliter.
9
No more than 5.0% samples total coliform-positive in a month. (For water systems that collect
fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total coliform-
positive). Every sample that has total coliforms must be analyzed for fecal coliforms. There
cannot be any fecal coliforms.
10
Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause diarrhea,
cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms.

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New EPA Rules
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical that occurs naturally in the earth's crust. When rocks, minerals, and soil
erode, they release arsenic into water supplies. When people either drink this water or eat
animals and plants that drink it, they are exposed to arsenic. For most people in the U.S.,
eating and drinking are the most common ways that people are exposed to arsenic, although it
can also come from industrial sources. Studies have linked long-term exposure of arsenic in
drinking water to a variety of cancers in humans.

To protect human health, an EPA standard limits the

amount of arsenic in drinking water. In January 2001, the
EPA revised the standard from 50 parts per billion (ppb),
ordered that it fall to 10 ppb by 2006. After adopting
10ppb as the new standard for arsenic in drinking water,
the EPA decided to review the decision to ensure that
the final standard was based on sound science and
accurate estimates of costs and benefits. In October
2001, the EPA decided to move forward with
implementing the 10 ppb standard for arsenic in drinking water.

More information on the rulemaking process and the costs and benefits of setting the arsenic
limit in drinking water at 10 ppb can be found at www.epa.gov/safewater/arsenic.html.

ICR
The EPA has collected data required by the Information Collection Rule (ICR) to support future
regulation of microbial contaminants, disinfectants, and disinfection byproducts. The rule is
intended to provide EPA with information on chemical byproducts that form when disinfectants
used for microbial control react with chemicals already present in source water (disinfection
byproducts (DBPs)); disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens), including Cryptosporidium;
and engineering data to control these contaminants.

Drinking water microbial and disinfection byproduct information collected for the ICR is now
available in the EPA's Envirofacts Warehouse website.

Disinfection Byproduct Regulations

In December 1998, EPA established the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule
that requires public water systems to use treatment measures to reduce the formation of
disinfection byproducts and to meet the following specific standards:

Total trihalomethanes (TTHM) 80 ppb

Haloacetic acids (HAA5) 60 ppb
Bromate 10 ppb
1.0 parts per million
Chlorite
(ppm)

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Currently trihalomethanes are regulated at a maximum allowable annual average level of 100
ppb for water systems serving more than 10,000 people under the Total Trihalomethane Rule
finalized by EPA in 1979. The Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection Byproduct Rule standards
became effective for trihalomethanes and other disinfection byproducts listed above back in
December 2001 for large surface water public water systems. Those standards became
effective in December 2003 for small surface water and all ground water public water systems.

Disinfection byproducts are formed when disinfectants used in water treatment plants react
with bromide and/or natural organic matter (i.e., decaying vegetation) present in the source
water. Different disinfectants produce different types or amounts of disinfection byproducts.
Disinfection byproducts for which regulations have been established have been identified in
drinking water, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite.

Trihalomethanes (THM) are a group of four chemicals that are formed along with other
disinfection byproducts when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial
contaminants in drinking water react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in
water. The trihalomethanes are chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane,
and bromoform. EPA has published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to
regulate total trihalomethanes (TTHM) at a maximum allowable annual average level of 80
parts per billion. This new standard replaced the old standard of a maximum allowable annual
average level of 100 parts per billion back in December 2001 for large surface water public
water systems. The standard became effective for the first time back in December 2003 for
small surface water and all ground water systems.

Haloacetic Acids (HAA5) are a group of chemicals that are formed along with other
disinfection byproducts when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial
contaminants in drinking water react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in
water. The regulated haloacetic acids, known as HAA5, are: monochloroacetic acid,
dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid. EPA
has published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate HAA5 at 60
parts per billion annual average. This standard became effective for large surface water public
water systems in December 2001 and for small surface water and all ground water public
water systems in December 2003.

Bromate is a chemical that is formed when ozone, used to disinfect drinking water, reacts with
naturally occurring bromide found in source water. EPA has established the Stage 1
Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate bromate at an annual average of 10 ppb
in drinking water. This standard became effective for large public water systems in December
2001 and for small surface water and all ground public water systems in December 2003.

Chlorite is a byproduct formed when chlorine dioxide is used to disinfect water. The EPA has
published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate chlorite at a
monthly average level of 1 ppm in drinking water.

This new standard became effective for large surface water public water systems in December
2001 and for small surface water and all ground water public water systems in December
2003.

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Microbial Regulations
One of the key regulations developed and implemented by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA) to counter pathogens in drinking water is the Surface Water
Treatment Rule.

Among its provisions, the rule requires that a public water system, using surface water (or
ground water under the direct influence of surface water) as its source, have sufficient
treatment to reduce the source water concentration of Giardia and viruses by at least 99.9%
and 99.99%, respectively. The Surface Water Treatment Rule specifies treatment criteria to
assure that these performance requirements are met; they include turbidity limits, disinfectant
residual and disinfectant contact time conditions.

Disinfectant Review Statements:

Disinfectant residual: The CT values for disinfection are used to determine the disinfection
efficiency based upon time and what other parameter?

Bacteria, Virus and Intestinal parasites: What types of organisms may transmit waterborne
diseases?

Disinfection By-Products (DBPs): The products created due to the reaction of chlorine with
organic materials (e.g. leaves, soil) present in raw water during the water treatment process.
The EPA has determined that these DBPs can cause cancer.

How is the effectiveness of disinfection determined? From the results of coliform testing.

The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy, and/or remove pathogenic bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, and other parasites.

What types of source water are required by law to treat water using filtration and disinfection?
Groundwater under the direct influence of surface water, and related surface water sources.

E. Coli, Escherichia coli: A bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water
quality analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered
evidence of water contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but
do not necessarily cause disease themselves.

pH Strips

pH is on a scale from 0-14. 7 is considered neutral and acid is on the 0 to 7 side and the base
is 7-14. pH is known as the Power of Hydroxyl Ion activity.

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Common water distribution sample bottles, Radiochems, VOCs, (Volatile Organic
Compounds), TTHMs, Total Trihalomethanes), Nitrate, Nitrite.

Most of these sample bottles will come with the preservative already inside the bottle.
Some bottles will come with a separate preservative (acid) for the field preservation.
Slowly add the acid or other preservative to the water sample; not water to the acid or
preservative.

Bac-T Sample Bottle, often referred to as a Standard Sample, 100 mls.

Notice the white powder inside the bottle. That is Sodium Thiosulfate, a
de-chlorination agent. Be careful not to wash-out this chemical while
sampling. Notice the custody seal on the bottle.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally

not harmful. However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result
of a problem with the treatment system or the pipes which distribute water, and indicates
that the water may be contaminated with germs that can cause disease.

The bottle with the yellow color on the left indicates coliform bacteria is present.
If the bottle fluoresces under a black light, fecal bacteria is present.

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Common Water Quality Definitions

Units of Measurement
mg/l = Milligrams per liter. One milligram per liter equals one packet of artificial
sweetener sprinkled into 250 gallons of iced tea.
μg/l = Micrograms per liter. One microgram per liter is equal to one packet of artificial
sweetener sprinkled into an Olympic-size swimming pool.
NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units. A measurement on the cloudiness of the water.
pCi/I = Picocuries per liter. A measure of radioactivity.

Acronyms
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The highest level of a contaminant that is
allowed in drinking water.
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The level of a contaminant in drinking
water below which there is no known or expected risk to health.
Treatment Technique (TT) - A required process intended to reduce the level of a
contaminant in drinking water.
Action Level (AL) - The concentration of a contaminant that, if exceeded, triggers
treatment or other requirements which a water system must follow.

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Timeline of Existing Federal Water and State Drinking Water
Quality Regulations

National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR) Promulgated 1975-

1981 Contained 7 contaminants Targeted: Trihalomethanes, Arsenic, and Radionuclides
Established 22 drinking water standards.

Phase 1 Standards Promulgated 1987 Contained 8 contaminants Targeted: VOCs.

Phase 2 Standards Promulgated 1991 Contained 36 contaminants Targeted: VOCs,

SOCs, and IOCs.

Phase 5 Standards Promulgated 1992 Contained 23 contaminants Targeted: VOCs,

SOCs, and IOCs.

Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) Promulgated 1989 Contained 5 contaminants

Targeted: Microbiological and Turbidity.

Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection By-product (D/DBP) Rule Promulgated 1998

Contained 14 contaminants Targeted: DBPs and precursors.

Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) Promulgated 1998

Contained 2 contaminants Targeted: Microbiological and Turbidity.

Radionuclide Rule Promulgated 2000 Contained 4 contaminants Targeted:

Radionuclides.

Arsenic Rule Promulgated 2001 Contained 1 contaminant Targeted: Arsenic.

Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Promulgated 2001 Contained - Targeted:

Microbiological and Turbidity.

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Water Quality Key Words
2,4-D: A chlorinated phenoxy compound, functions as a systemic herbicide and is used to control
many types of broadleaf weeds. There are many forms or derivatives (esters, amines, salts) of
2,4-D and these vary in solubility and volatility. Unless otherwise specified, this document will
refer to the acid form of 2,4-D. This compound is used in cultivated agriculture and in pasture and
rangeland applications, forest management, home and garden situations and for the control of
aquatic vegetation. 2,4-D was a major component (about 50%) of the product Agent Orange used
extensively throughout Vietnam. However most of the problems associated with the use of Agent
Orange were associated with a contaminant (dioxin) in the 2,4,5-T component of the defoliant.
The association of 2,4-D with Agent Orange has prompted a vast amount of study on the
herbicide.

ANTIMONY: A chemical element with the symbol Sb (Latin: stibium, meaning "mark") and
atomic number 51. A metalloid, antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is
a blue-white metalloid. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in
flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, enamels, a wide variety of alloys, electronics, and rubber.

ASBESTOS: A mineral fiber that has been used commonly in a variety of building construction
materials for insulation and as a fire-retardant. EPA and CPSC have banned several asbestos
products. Manufacturers have also voluntarily limited uses of asbestos. Today, asbestos is most
commonly found in older homes, in pipe and furnace insulation materials, asbestos shingles,
millboard, textured paints and other coating materials, and floor tiles.

BARIUM: A chemical element. It has the symbol Ba, and atomic number 56. Barium is a soft
silvery metallic alkaline earth metal. It is never found in nature in its pure form due to its reactivity
with air. Its oxide is historically known as baryta but it reacts with water and carbon dioxide and is
not found as a mineral. The most common naturally occurring minerals are the very insoluble
barium sulfate, BaSO4 (barite), and barium carbonate, BaCO3 (witherite). Benitoite is a rare gem
containing barium.

BERYLLIUM: A chemical element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4. A bivalent element,
beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle alkaline earth metal. It is primarily used as
a hardening agent in alloys, most notably beryllium copper. Commercial use of beryllium metal
presents technical challenges due to the toxicity (especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing
dusts.

BROMATE: An inorganic anion, bromate is tasteless and colorless, with a low volatility. As a
moderately strong oxidant, bromate is reactive. BrO3- is a bromine-based oxoanion. A bromate is
a chemical compound that contains this ion. Examples of bromates include sodium bromate,
(NaBrO3), and potassium bromate, (KBrO3).

CADMIUM: A chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. A relatively
abundant, soft, bluish-white, transition metal, cadmium is known to cause cancer and occurs with
zinc ores. Cadmium is used largely in batteries and pigments, for example in plastic products.

CHLORITE: The chlorite ion is ClO2−. A chlorite (compound) is a compound that contains this
group, with chlorine in oxidation state +3. Chlorites are also known as salts of chlorous acid.

CHROMIUM: A chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is a steel-
gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odorless,
tasteless, and malleable.

CONTACT TIME (CT): To inactivate viruses and bacteria, the minimum disinfection contact time
measured before the first customer should be six milligrams per minute per liter (6 mg-min/L).

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This value is called “Chlorine Contact Time” or CT. To calculate CT, multiply the free chlorine
residual concentration (C) times the contact time (T). To get the required CT value of 6, adjust the
free chlorine residual concentration or the contact time.

DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS: Disinfection byproducts are chemical, organic and inorganic

substances that can form during a reaction of a disinfectant with naturally present organic matter
in the water.

DPD METHOD: Presence of free chlorine in the distribution network is indication of correct
disinfection. Chlorine in water is determined according to ISO 7393-2 by colorimetric HACH
method on the basis of DPD (N, N-diethyl - p – phenylendiamine). The photometric detection
uses the wave lengths of 490 – 555 nm. Hach elected, for most of his DPD colorimetric systems,
the wave length of 530 nm.

FORMAZIN TURBIDITY UNIT (FTU): A unit used to measure the clarity of water. The ISO refers
to the units as FNU (Formazin Nephelometric Units). The technique is the same as that for the
NTU, but the calibration uses microspheres of the polymer formazin.

HALOACETIC ACIDS: Haloacetic acids are carboxylic acids in which a halogen atom takes the
place of a hydrogen atom in acetic acid. Thus, in a monohaloacetic acid, a single halogen would
replace a hydrogen atom. For example, chloroacetic acid would have the structural formula
CH2ClCO2H. In the same manner, in dichloroacetic acid two chlorine atoms would take the place
of two hydrogen atoms (CHCl2CO2H).

HIGH-TEST HYPOCHLORITE: A composition composed mainly of calcium hypochlorite is

commonly called high test hypochlorite. High-Test Hypochlorite contains not less than 60.0% of
available chlorine.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID: It is the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl). It is a strong
acid, and the major component of gastric acid, and of wide industrial use. Hydrochloric acid must
be handled with appropriate safety precautions because it is a highly corrosive liquid.

INFORMATION COLLECTION RULE (ICR): EPA collected data required by the Information
Collection Rule (May 14, 1996) to support future regulation of microbial contaminants,
disinfectants, and disinfection byproducts. The rule was intended to provide EPA with information
on chemical byproducts that form when disinfectants used for microbial control react with
chemicals already present in source water (disinfection byproducts (DBPs)); disease-causing
microorganisms (pathogens), including Cryptosporidium; and engineering data to control these
contaminants.

IRON BACTERIA: In the management of water-supply wells, iron bacteria are bacteria that
derive the energy they need to live and multiply by oxidizing dissolved ferrous iron (or the less
frequently available manganese and aluminum). The resulting ferric oxide is insoluble, and
appears as brown gelatinous slime that will stain plumbing fixtures, and clothing or utensils
washed with the water carrying it, and may contribute to internal corrosion of the pipes and
fixtures the water flows through. They are known to grow and proliferate in waters containing as
low as 0.1mg/l of iron. However, at least 0.3 ppm of dissolved oxygen is needed to carry out
oxidation. The proliferation of iron bacteria, in some way, increases the chance of sulfur bacteria
infestation.

LETHAL CONCENTRATION 50: Also referred to as LC50, a concentration of a pollutant or

effluent at which 50 percent of the test organisms die; a common measure of acute toxicity.

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MANGANESE (IV) OXIDE: The chemical compound MnO2, commonly called manganese
dioxide. This blackish or brown solid occurs naturally as the mineral pyrolusite, which is the main
ore of manganese. It is also present in manganese nodules. The principal use for MnO2 is for
dry-cell batteries, such as the alkaline battery and the zinc-carbon battery. In 1976 this application
accounted for 500,000 tons of pyrolusite. MnO2 is also used for production of MnO4–. It is used
extensively as an oxidizing agent in organic synthesis, for example, for the oxidation of allylic
alcohols.

MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL (MCL): The maximum concentration of a chemical that is

allowed in public drinking water systems.

MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL GOAL (MCLG): The maximum level at which a contaminant
can exist in drinking water without having an adverse effect on human health.

NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNIT (NTU): The unit used to describe turbidity. Nephelometric
refers to the way the instrument, a nephelometer, measures how much light is scattered by
suspended particles in the water. The greater the scattering, the higher the turbidity. Therefore,
low NTU values indicate high water clarity, while high NTU values indicate low water clarity.

PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL or OSHA PEL): A legal limit in the United States for
exposure of an employee to a substance or physical agent. For substances it is usually
expressed in parts per million (ppm), or sometimes in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). Units
of measure for physical agents such as noise are specific to the agent. Permissible Exposure
Limits are established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

POWDERED ACTIVATED CARDON TREATMENT (PACT): A wastewater technology in which

powdered activated carbon is added to an anaerobic or aerobic treatment system. The carbon in
the biological treatment process acts as a "buffer" against the effects of toxic organics in the
wastewater.

PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million.

QUICKLIME: A calcium oxide material produced by calcining limestone to liberate carbon

dioxide, also called “calcined lime” or “pebble lime”, commonly used for pH adjustment. Chemical
formula is CaO.

RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE LIMIT (REL): An occupational exposure limit that has been
recommended by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to OSHA for
adoption as a Permissible Exposure Limit. The REL is a level that NIOSH believes would be
protective of worker safety and health over a working lifetime if used in combination with
engineering and work practice controls, exposure and medical monitoring, posting and labeling of
hazards, worker training and personal protective equipment. No REL has ever been adopted by
OSHA, but they have been used as guides by some industry and advocacy organizations.

SCADA: A remote method of monitoring pumps and equipment. 130 degrees F is the maximum
temperature that transmitting equipment is able to with stand. If the level controller may be set
with too close a tolerance 45 could be the cause of a control system that is frequently turning a
pump on and off.

TRANSIENT, NON-COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: TNCWS A water system which provides

water in a place such as a gas station or campground where people do not remain for long
periods of time. These systems do not have to test or treat their water for contaminants which
pose long-term health risks because fewer than 25 people drink the water over a long period.
They still must test their water for microbes and several chemicals. A Transient Non-community
Water System: Is not required to sample for VOC’s.

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U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: In the United States, this agency responsible
for setting drinking water standards and for ensuring their enforcement. This agency sets federal
regulations which all state and local agencies must enforce.

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs): Solvents used as degreasers or cleaning agents.

Improper disposal of VOCs can lead to contamination of natural waters. VOCs tend to evaporate
very easily. This characteristic gives VOCs very distinct chemical odors like gasoline, kerosene,
lighter fluid, or dry cleaning fluid. Some VOCs are suspected cancer-causing agents. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapor
pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere. A wide
range of carbon-based molecules, such as aldehydes, ketones, and other light hydrocarbons are
VOCs. The term often is used in a legal or regulatory context and in such cases the precise
definition is a matter of law. These definitions can be contradictory and may contain "loopholes";
e.g. exceptions, exemptions, and exclusions. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
defines a VOC as any organic compound that participates in a photoreaction; others believe this
definition is very broad and vague as organics that are not volatile in the sense that they vaporize
under normal conditions can be considered volatile by this EPA definition. The term may refer
both to well characterized organic compounds and to mixtures of variable composition.

Top photograph, HPC plate. Bottom, Bac-T or Colilert samples, the yellow
indicates coliform bacteria, if this sample fluoresces under a black light that
means that fecal or e. coli is present.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally not
harmful. However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a
result of a problem with the treatment system or the pipes which distribute water,
and indicates that the water may be contaminated with germs that can cause
disease.

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Water Sampling Terms, and Definitions
Microbes
Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally not harmful. However, the
presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result of a problem with the treatment
system or the pipes which distribute water, and indicates that the water may be contaminated
with germs that can cause disease.

Fecal Coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human or animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause short-term
effects, such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms.

Turbidity has no health effects. However, turbidity can interfere with disinfection and provide a
medium for microbial growth. Turbidity may indicate the presence of disease causing organisms.
These organisms include bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can cause symptoms such as
nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and associated headaches.

Cryptosporidium is a parasite that enters lakes and rivers through sewage and animal waste. It
causes cryptosporidiosis, a mild gastrointestinal disease. However, the disease can be severe or
fatal for people with severely weakened immune systems. The EPA and the CDC have prepared
advice for those with severely compromised immune systems who are concerned about
Cryptosporidium.

Giardia lamblia is a parasite that enters lakes and rivers through sewage and animal waste. It
causes gastrointestinal illness (e.g. diarrhea, vomiting, and cramps).

Radionuclides
Alpha emitters. Certain minerals are radioactive and may emit a form of radiation known as
alpha radiation. Some people who drink water containing alpha emitters in excess of the EPA
standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Beta/photon emitters. Certain minerals are radioactive and may emit forms of radiation known
as photons and beta radiation. Some people who drink water containing beta and photon emitters
in excess of the EPA standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Combined Radium 226/228. Some people who drink water containing radium 226 or 228 in
excess of EPA standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Radon gas can dissolve and accumulate in underground water sources, such as wells, and in the
air in your home. Breathing radon can cause lung cancer. Drinking water containing radon
presents a risk of developing cancer. Radon in air is more dangerous than radon in water.

Inorganic Contaminants
Antimony Cadmium Cyanide Nitrite
Asbestos Chromium Mercury Selenium
Barium Copper Nitrate Thallium
Beryllium

Arsenic. Some people who drink water containing arsenic in excess of the EPA standard over
many years could experience skin damage or problems with their circulatory system, and may
have an increased risk of getting cancer.

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Fluoride. Many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to promote dental health. Each
community makes its own decision about whether or not to add fluoride. The EPA has set an
enforceable drinking water standard for fluoride of 4 mg/L (some people who drink water
containing fluoride in excess of this level over many years could get bone disease, including pain
and tenderness of the bones). The EPA has also set a secondary fluoride standard of 2 mg/L to
protect against dental fluorosis. Dental fluorosis, in its moderate or severe forms, may result in a
brown staining and/or pitting of the permanent teeth. This problem occurs only in developing
teeth, before they erupt from the gums. Children under nine should not drink water that has more
than 2 mg/L of fluoride.

Lead typically leaches into water from plumbing in older buildings. Lead pipes and plumbing
fittings have been banned since August 1998. Children and pregnant women are most
susceptible to lead health risks. For advice on avoiding lead, see the EPA’s “Lead in Your
Drinking Water” fact sheet.

Synthetic Organic Contaminants, including pesticides & herbicides

2,4-D Dibromochloropropane Hexachlorobenzene
2,4,5-TP (Silvex) Dinoseb Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Acrylamide Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) Lindane
Alachlor Diquat Methoxychlor
Atrazine Endothall Oxamyl [Vydate]
Benzoapyrene Endrin PCBs [Polychlorinated biphenyls]
Carbofuran Epichlorohydrin Pentachlorophenol
Chlordane Ethylene dibromide Picloram
Dalapon Glyphosate Simazine
Di 2-ethylhexyl adipate Heptachlor Toxaphene
Di 2-ethylhexyl phthalate Heptachlor epoxide

Volatile Organic Contaminants

Benzene trans-1,2-Dicholoroethylene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Carbon Tetrachloride Dichloromethane 1,1,1,-Trichloroethane
Chlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane
o-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloropropane Trichloroethylene
p-Dichlorobenzene Ethylbenzene Toluene
1,1-Dichloroethylene Styrene Vinyl Chloride
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Xylenes

Point-of-Entry P.O.E. will usually be a designated sampling point on a water treatment or

distribution system.

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Waterborne Pathogens and Disease Section
Bacteria, viruses, and protozoan that cause disease are known as pathogens. Most pathogens
are generally associated with diseases that cause intestinal illness and affect people in a
relatively short amount of time, generally a few days to two weeks. They can cause illness
through exposure to small quantities of contaminated water or food, or from direct contact with
infected people or animals.

How Diseases are Transmitted

Pathogens that may cause waterborne outbreaks through
drinking water have one thing in common: they are spread by the
fecal-oral or feces-to-mouth route. Pathogens may get into water
and spread when infected humans or animals pass the bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa in their stool. For another person to
become infected, he or she must take that pathogen in through
the mouth. Waterborne pathogens are different from other types
of pathogens such as the viruses that cause influenza (the flu) or
the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. Influenza virus and
tuberculosis bacteria are spread by secretions that are coughed
or sneezed into the air by an infected person.
Cryptosporidium→
Human or animal wastes in watersheds, failing septic systems, failing sewage treatment plants or
cross-connections of water lines with sewage lines provide the potential for contaminating water
with pathogens. The water may not appear to be contaminated because the feces has been
broken up, dispersed, and diluted into microscopic particles. These particles, containing
pathogens, may remain in the water and be passed to humans or animals unless adequately
treated.

Only proper treatment will ensure eliminating the spread of disease. In addition to water, other
methods exist for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral route. The foodborne route is one of the
more common methods. A frequent source is a food handler who does not wash his hands after a
bowel movement and then handles food with unclean hands. The individual who eats feces-
contaminated food may become infected and ill. It is interesting to note the majority of foodborne
diseases occur in the home, not restaurants.

Day care centers are another common source for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral route.
Here, infected children in diapers may get feces on their fingers, then put their fingers in a friend’s
mouth or handle toys that other children put into their mouths. The general public and some of the
medical community usually refer to diarrhea symptoms as stomach flu.

Technically, influenza is an upper respiratory illness and rarely has diarrhea associated with it;
therefore, stomach flu is a misleading description for foodborne or waterborne illnesses, yet is
accepted by the general public. So the next time you get the stomach flu, you may want to think
twice about what you’ve digested within the past few days.

Chain of Transmission
Water is contaminated with feces. This contamination may be of human or animal origin. The
feces must contain pathogens (disease-causing bacteria, viruses or protozoa). If the human or
animal source is not infected with a pathogen, no disease will result. The pathogens must survive
in the water. This depends on the temperature of the water and the length of time the pathogens
are in the water. Some pathogens will survive for only a short time in water, others, such as
Giardia or Cryptosporidium, may survive for months.

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The pathogens in the water must enter the water system’s intake and in numbers sufficient to
infect people. The water is either not treated or inadequately treated for the pathogens present. A
susceptible person must drink the water that contains the pathogen. Illness (disease) will occur.

This chain lists the events that must occur for the transmission of disease via drinking water. By
breaking the chain at any point, the transmission of disease will
be prevented.

Bacterial Diseases Giardia→

Campylobacteriosis is the most common diarrhea illness caused
by bacteria. Symptoms include abdominal pain, malaise, fever,
nausea and vomiting, and they usually begin three to five days
after exposure. The illness is frequently over within two to five
days and usually lasts no more than 10 days.
Campylobacteriosis outbreaks have most often been associated
with food, especially chicken and unpasteurized milk, as well as
un-chlorinated water.

Types of Bacteria
These organisms are also an important cause of travelers’ diarrhea. Medical treatment generally
is not prescribed for campylobacteriosis because recovery is usually rapid. Cholera,
Legionellosis, salmonellosis, shigellosis, and yersiniosis are other bacterial diseases that can be
transmitted through water. All bacteria in water are readily killed or inactivated with chlorine or
other disinfectants.

Viral-Caused Diseases
Hepatitis A is an example of a common viral disease that may be transmitted through water. The
onset is usually abrupt with fever, malaise, loss of appetite, nausea and abdominal discomfort,
followed within a few days by jaundice. The disease varies in severity from a mild illness lasting
one to two weeks, to a severely disabling disease lasting several months (rare).

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The incubation period is 15-50 days and averages 28-30 days. Hepatitis A outbreaks have been
related to fecally contaminated water; food contaminated by infected food handlers, including
sandwiches and salads that are not cooked or are handled after cooking and raw or undercooked
mollusks harvested from contaminated waters. Aseptic meningitis, polio and viral gastroenteritis
(Norwalk agent) are other viral diseases that can be transmitted through water. Most viruses in
drinking water can be inactivated by chlorine or other disinfectants.

Protozoan Caused Diseases

Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses but still microscopic. They invade and
inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in a dormant form, with a
protective cell wall, called a cyst. The cyst can survive in the environment for long periods of time and
is extremely resistant to conventional disinfectants such as chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is
therefore critical to removing these organisms from water sources.

Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been referred to as

backpacker’s disease and beaver fever because of the many cases reported among hikers and
others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms include chronic diarrhea, abdominal
cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy stools, fatigue and weight loss. The incubation
period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of 7-10 days. Many infections are asymptomatic (no
symptoms). Giardiasis occurs worldwide. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most
often in communities receiving their drinking water from streams or rivers without adequate
disinfection or a filtration system.

Giardia lamblia
Giardia lamblia has been responsible for more community-wide outbreaks of disease in the U.S. than
any other pathogen. Drugs are available for treatment, but these are not 100% effective.

Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide, but was only
recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in humans is diarrhea, which
may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with cramping abdominal pain. General
malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea and vomiting occur less often.

Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in most cases. The incubation period
is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days. Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified
in human fecal specimens from more than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission
is fecal-oral, either by person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for
Cryptosporidium infections.

All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common: diarrhea.
They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through person-to-person or
animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission, being either foodborne or
waterborne. Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting disease, on occasion, they can cause
serious, even life threatening illness. Particularly vulnerable are persons with weak immune systems
such as those with HIV infections or cancer.

By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly constructed,

operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While water treatment cannot
achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment must clearly be to produce drinking
water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all times. For those who operate water systems with
inadequate source protection or treatment facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease
outbreak is real. For those operating systems that currently provide adequate source protection and
treatment, operating, and maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing basis is critical to
prevent disease.

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Waterborne Diseases
Name Causative organism Source of organism Disease
Viral Rotavirus (mostly in young Human feces Diarrhea
gastroenteritis children) or vomiting
Norwalk Agent Noroviruses (genus Norovirus, Human feces; also, Diarrhea and
family Caliciviridae) *1 shellfish; lives in polluted vomiting
waters
Salmonellosis Salmonella (bacterium) Animal or human feces Diarrhea or
vomiting
Gastroenteritis -- E. coli O1 57:H7 (bacterium): Human feces Symptoms vary
Escherichia coli Other E. coli organisms: with type caused
Typhoid Salmonella typhi (bacterium) Human feces, urine Inflamed intestine,
enlarged spleen,
high temperature-
sometimes fatal
Shigellosis Shigella (bacterium) Human feces Diarrhea

Cholera Vibrio choleras (bacterium) Human feces; also, Vomiting, severe

shellfish; lives in many diarrhea, rapid
coastal waters dehydration,
mineral loss-high
mortality
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Human feces; shellfish Yellowed skin,
grown in polluted waters enlarged liver,
fever, vomiting,
weight loss,
abdominal pain-
low mortality, lasts
up to four months
Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Human feces Mild diarrhea,
(protozoan) dysentery, extra
intestinal infection
Giardiasis Giardia lamblia (protozoan) Animal or human feces Diarrhea,
cramps, nausea,
and general
weakness — lasts
one week to
months
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum Animal or human feces Diarrhea, stomach
pain — lasts
(protozoan) days
to weeks
Notes:
*1 http://www.cdc.gov/

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Bacteriological Monitoring Section
Most waterborne diseases and illnesses have been related to the microbiological quality of
drinking water. The routine microbiological analysis of your water is for coliform bacteria. The
coliform bacteria group is used as an indicator organism to determine
the biological quality of your water.

The presence of an indicator or pathogenic bacteria in your drinking

water is an important health concern. Indicator bacteria signal possible
fecal contamination, and therefore, the potential presence of
pathogens. They are used to monitor for pathogens because of the
difficulties in determining the presence of specific disease-causing
microorganisms.

Indicator bacteria are usually harmless, occur in high densities in their

natural environment and are easily cultured in relatively simple
bacteriological media. Indicators in common use today for routine
monitoring of drinking water include total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and
Escherichia coli (E. coli).

Bacteria Sampling
Water samples for bacteria tests must always be
collected in a sterile container. Take the sample from
an inside faucet with the aerator removed. Sterilize by
spraying a 5% household bleach or alcohol solution or
flaming the end of the tap with disposable butane
lighter.

Run the water for five minutes to clear the water lines
and bring in fresh water. Do not touch or contaminate
the inside of the bottle or cap. Carefully open the
sample container and hold the outside of the cap. Fill
the container and replace the top. Refrigerate the
sample and transport it to the testing laboratory within
six hours (in an ice chest). Many labs will not accept
bacteria samples on Friday so check the lab's schedule. Mailing bacteria samples is not
recommended because laboratory analysis results are not as reliable. Iron bacteria forms an
obvious slime on the inside of pipes and fixtures. A water test is not needed for identification.
Check for a reddish-brown slime inside a toilet tank or where water stands for several days.

Bac-T Sample Bottle, often referred to as a Standard Sample, 100 mls, Notice the white powder
inside the bottle. That is Sodium Thiosulfate, a de-chlorination agent. Be careful not to wash-out
this chemical while sampling. Notice the custody seal on the bottle.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment

and are generally not harmful. However, the presence
of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result of
a problem with the treatment system or the pipes
which distribute water, and indicates that the water
may be contaminated with germs that can cause
disease.

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Laboratory Procedures
The laboratory may perform the total coliform analysis in one of four methods approved by the
U.S. EPA and your local environmental or health division.

Methods
The MMO-MUG test, a product marketed as Colilert, is the most common. The sample results will
be reported by the laboratories as simply coliforms present or absent. If coliforms are present, the
laboratory will analyze the sample further to determine if these are fecal coliforms or E. coli and
report their presence or absence.

Types of Water Samples

It is important to properly identify the type of sample you are collecting. Please indicate in the
space provided on the laboratory form the type
of sample.

The three (3) types of samples are:

1. Routine: Samples collected on a routine
basis to monitor for contamination. Collection
should be in accordance with an approved
sampling plan.
2. Repeat: Samples collected following a
‘coliform present’ routine sample. The number
of repeat samples to be collected is based on
the number of routine samples you normally
collect.
3. Special: Samples collected for other
reasons.
Examples would be a sample collected after repairs to the system and before it is placed
back into operation or a sample collected at a wellhead prior to a disinfection injection point.

Water Quality Review Statements

 What are disease causing organisms such as bacteria and viruses called? Pathogens

 Name the 4 broad categories of water quality. Physical, chemical, biological, radiological.

 What does a positive bacteriological sample indicate? The presence of bacteriological

contamination.

 When must source water monitoring for lead and copper be preformed? When a public
water system exceeds an action level for lead of copper.

Noncommunity and nontransient noncommunity public water systems will sample at the
same frequency as a like sized community public water system if:
1. It has more than 1,000 daily population and has ground water as a source, or
2. It serves 25 or more daily population and utilizes surface water as a source or ground water
under the direct influence of surface water as its source.

Noncommunity and nontransient, noncommunity water systems with less than 1,000 daily
population and groundwater as a source will sample on a quarterly basis.

Routine Coliform Sampling

The number of routine samples and frequency of collection for community public water systems is
shown in Table 3-1 below.

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No. of Samples per System Population
Persons served - Samples per month
up to 1,000 1
1,001-2,500 2
2,501-3,300 3
3,301 to 4,100 4
4,101 to 4,900 5
4,901 to 5,800 6
5,801 to 6,700 7
6,701 to 7,600 8
7,601 to 8,500 9
8,501 to 12,900 10
12,901 to 17,200 15
17,201 to 21,500 20
21,501 to 25,000 25
25,001 to 33,000 30
33,001 to 41,000 40
41,001 to 50,000 50
50,001 to 59,000 60 Using a black light to see fecal bacteria.
59,001 to 70,000 70
70,001 to 83,000 80
83,001 to 96,000 90
96,001 to 130,000 100
130,001 to 220,000 120
220,001 to 320,000 150
320,001 to 450,000 180
450,001 to 600,000 210
600,001 to 780,000 240

Repeat Sampling
Repeat sampling replaces the old check sampling with a more comprehensive procedure to try to
identify problem areas in the system. Whenever a routine sample is total coliform or fecal coliform
present, a set of repeat samples must be collected within 24 hours after being notified by the laboratory.
The follow-up for repeat sampling is:
1. If only one routine sample per month or quarter is required, four (4) repeat samples must be
collected.
2. For systems collecting two (2) or more
routine samples per month, three (3)
repeat samples
must be collected.
3. Repeat samples must be collected
from:
a. The original sampling location of the
coliform present sample.
b. Within five (5) service connections
upstream from the original sampling
location.
c. Within five (5) service connections
downstream from the original sampling
location.
d. Elsewhere in the distribution system or
at the wellhead, if necessary.
4. If the system has only one service connection, the repeat samples must be collected from the same
sampling location over a four-day period or on the same day.
5. All repeat samples are included in the MCL compliance calculation.

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6. If a system which normally collects fewer than five (5) routine samples per month has a coliform
present sample, it must collect five (5) routine samples the following month or quarter regardless of
whether an MCL violation occurred or if repeat sampling was coliform absent.

Positive or Coliform Present Results

What do you do when your sample is positive or coliform present?

When you are notified of a positive test result you need to contact either the Drinking Water
Program or your local county health department within 24 hours, or by the next business day after
the results are reported to you. The Drinking Water Program contracts with many of the local
health departments to provide assistance to water systems. After you have contacted an agency
for assistance, you will be instructed as to the proper repeat sampling procedures and possible
corrective measures for solving the problem. It is very important to initiate the repeat sampling
immediately as the corrective measures will be based on those results.

Some examples of typical corrective measures to coliform problems are:

1. Shock chlorination of a ground water well. The recommended dose of 5% household bleach is
2 cups per 100 gallons of water in the well. This should be done anytime the bell is opened for
repair (pump replacement, etc.). If you plan to shock the entire system, calculate the total
gallonage of storage and distribution.
2. Conduct routine distribution line flushing. Install blowoffs on all dead end lines.
3. Conduct a cross connection program to identify all connections with non-potable water
sources. Eliminate all of these connections or provide approved back flow
prevention devices.
4. Upgrade the wellhead area to meet current construction standards as set your state
environmental or health agency.
5. If you continuously chlorinate, review your operation and be sure to maintain a detectable
residual (0.2 mg/l free chlorine) at all times in the distribution system.
6. Perform routine cleaning of the storage system.
This list provides some basic operation and maintenance procedures that could help eliminate
potential bacteriological problems, check with your state drinking water section or health
department for further instructions.

Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)

State and federal laws establish standards for drinking water quality. Under normal circum-
stances when these standards are being met, the water is safe to drink with no threat to human
health. These standards are known as maximum contaminant levels (MCL). When a particular
contaminant exceeds its MCL a potential health threat may occur.

The MCLs are based on extensive research on toxicological properties of the contaminants, risk
assessments and factors, short term (acute) exposure and long term (chronic) exposure. You
conduct the monitoring to make sure your water is in compliance with the MCL. There are two
types of MCL violations for coliform bacteria. The first is for total coliform; the second is an acute
risk to health violation characterized by the confirmed presence of fecal coliform or E. coli.

Heterotrophic Plate Count HPC

Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) --- formerly known as the standard plate count, is a procedure for
estimating the number of live heterotrophic bacteria and measuring changes during water treatment
and distribution in water or in swimming pools. Colonies may arise from pairs, chains, clusters, or
single cells, all of which are included in the term "colony-forming units" (CFU).

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Method: There are three methods for standard plate count:

1. Pour Plate Method

The colonies produced are relatively small and compact, showing
fewer tendencies to encroach on each other than those produced by
surface growth. On the other hand, submerged colonies often are
slower growing and are difficult to transfer.
2. Spread Plate Method
All colonies are on the agar surface where they can be distinguished
readily from particles and bubbles. Colonies can be transferred
quickly, and colony morphology easily can be discerned and
compared to published descriptions.
3. Membrane Filter Method
This method permits testing large volumes of low-turbidity water and
is the method of choice for low-count waters.

Material Necessary for Testing:

i ) Apparatus
Glass rod
Erlenmeyer flask
Graduated Cylinder
Pipet
Petri dish
Incubator
ii ) Reagent and sample
Reagent-grade water
Nutrient agar
Sample

Procedure*
1. Boil mixture of nutrient agar and nutrient broth for 15 minutes,
and then cool for about 20 minutes.
2. Pour approximately 15 ml of medium in each Petri dish, let
medium solidify.
3. Pipette 0.1 ml of each dilution onto surface of pre-dried plate,
starting with the highest dilution.

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4. Distribute inoculum over surface of the medium using a sterile bent glass rod.
5. Incubate plates at 35oC for 48h.
6. Count all colonies on selected plates promptly after incubation; consider only plates having 30 to
300 colonies in determining the plate count.
*Duplicate samples

Computing and Reporting:

Compute bacterial count per milliliter by the following equation:
CFU/ml = colonies counted / actual volume of sample in dish a)If there is no plate with 30 to 300
colonies, and one or more plates have more than 300 colonies, use the plate(s) having a count
nearest 300 colonies.
b) If plates from all dilutions of any sample have no colony, report the count as less than 1/actual
volume of sample in dish estimated CFU/ml.
c) Avoid creating fictitious precision and accuracy when computing CFU by recording only the first
two left-hand digits.

Ciliates, a wastewater bug, it shouldn’t be in drinking water, but can be found if a

well is close to a septic tank or marsh.

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Heterotrophic Plate Count
(Spread Plate Method)
Heterotrophic organisms utilize organic compounds as their carbon source (food or substrate). In
contrast, autotrophic organisms use inorganic carbon sources. The Heterotrophic Plate Count
provides a technique to quantify the bacteriological activity of a sample. The R2A agar provides a
medium that will support a large variety of heterotrophic bacteria. After an incubation period, a
bacteriological colony count provides an estimate of the concentration of heterotrophs in the
sample of interest.

Laboratory Equipment:
100 x 15 Petri Dishes
Turntable
Glass Rods: Bend fire polished glass rod 45 degrees about
40 mm from one end. Sterilize before using.
Pipet: Glass, 1.1 mL Sterilize before using.
Quebec Colony Counter
Hand Tally Counter

Reagents:
1) R2A Agar: Dissolve and dilute 0.5 g of yeast extract, 0.5
g of proteose peptone No. 3, 0.5 g of casamino acids, 0.5 g of glucose, 0.5 g of soluble starch,
0.3 g of dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, 0.05 g of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, 0.3 g of
sodium pyruvate, 15.0 g of agar to 1 L. Adjust pH to 7.2 with dipotassium hydrogen phosphate
before adding agar. Heat to dissolve agar and sterilize at 121 C for 15 minutes.

2) Ethanol: As needed for flame sterilization.

Preparation of Spread Plates

Immediately after agar sterilization, pour 15 mL of R2A agar into sterile 100 x 15 Petri dishes; let
agar solidify. Pre-dry plates inverted so that there is a 2 to 3 g water loss overnight with the lids
on. Use pre-dried plates immediately or store up to two weeks in sealed plastic bags at 4
degrees C.

Sample Preparation
Mark each plate with sample type, dilution, date, and
any other information before sample application.
Prepare at least duplicate plates for each volume of
sample or dilution examined. Thoroughly mix all
samples by rapidly making about 25 complete up-and-
down movements.

Sample Application
Uncover pre-dried agar plate. Minimize time plate
remains uncovered. Pipet 0.1 or 0.5 mL sample onto
surface of pre-dried agar plate.

Record volume of sample used. Using a sterile

bent glass rod, distribute the sample over surface of
the medium by rotating the dish by hand on a turntable. Let the sample be absorbed completely
into the medium before incubating. Put cover back on Petri dish and invert for duration of
incubation time. Incubate at 28 degrees C for 7 days. Remove Petri dishes from incubator for
counting.

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Counting and Recording:
After incubation period, promptly count all colonies on the plates. To count, uncover plate and
place on Quebec colony counter. Use hand tally counter to maintain count. Count all colonies on
the plate, regardless of size. Compute bacterial count per milliliter by the following equation:
colonies counted
CFU mL 
actual volume of sample in dish, mL

To report counts on a plate with no colonies, report the count as less than one (<1) divided by the
sample volume put on that plate (remember to account for any dilution of that sample).

If plates of all dilutions for a sample have no colonies, report the count as less than one (<1)
divided by the largest sample volume used. Example: if 0.1 mL of a 100:1 and 10000:1 dilution of
a sample both turned up with no colonies formed, the reported result would be <1 divided by the
largest sample volume 0.001 mL (0.1 mL divided by 100). The final reported result for the sample
is <1000 CFU per mL.

Assignment:

1. Report the number of colony forming units (CFU) found on each plate.

2. Calculate the CFU per mL for each plate.

3. The aim of diluting samples is to produce a plate having 30 to 300 colonies, which plates meet
these criteria. If no sample produces a plate with a count in this range, use the plate(s) with a
count closest to 300. Based on these criteria, use your calculated results to report the CFU per
mL for each sample.

In the conclusion of your lab report, comment on your final results for each sample type as well as
the quality of your application of this analysis technique. Feel free to justify your comments using
statistical analysis. Also, comment on the general accuracy of this analytical technique and the
factors that affect its accuracy and or applicability.

Data Table for Samples

Sample ID Volume of Sample, mL Colonies Counted per plate

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Total Coliforms
This MCL is based on the presence of total
coliforms, and compliance is on a monthly or
quarterly basis, depending on your water
system type and state rule. For systems which
collect fewer than 40 samples per month, no
more than one sample per month may be
positive. In other words, the second positive
result (repeat or routine) in a month or quarter
results in an MCL violation. For systems which
collect 40 or more samples per month, no
more than five (5) percent may be Positive,
check with your state drinking water section or
health department for further instructions.

Acute Risk to Health (Fecal coliforms and

E.coli)
An acute risk to human health violation occurs if either one of the following happens:

1. A routine analysis shows total coliform present and is followed by a repeat analysis which
indicates fecal coliform or E. coli present.

2. A routine analysis shows total and fecal coliform or

E. coli present and is followed by a repeat analysis
which indicates total coliform present. An acute health
risk violation requires the water system to provide
public notice via radio and television stations in the
area. This type of contamination can pose an
immediate threat to human health and notice must be
given as soon as possible, but no later than 72 hours
after notification from your laboratory of the test
results.

Certain language may be mandatory for both these violations and is included in your state
drinking water rule.

Public Notice
A public notice is required to be issued by a water system whenever it fails to comply with an
applicable MCL or treatment technique, or fails to comply with the requirements of any scheduled
variance or permit. This will inform users when there is a problem with the system and give them
information. A public notice is also required whenever a water system fails to comply with its
monitoring and/or reporting requirements or testing procedure. Each public notice must contain
certain information, be issued properly and in a timely manner, and contain certain mandatory
language. The timing and place of posting of the public notice depends on whether an acute risk
is present to users. Check with your state drinking water section or health department for further
instructions.

The following are acute violations:

1. Violation of the MCL for nitrate.
2. Any violation of the MCL for total coliforms, when fecal coliforms or E. coli are present in the
distribution system.
3. Any outbreak of waterborne disease, as defined by the rules.

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General Contaminant Information
The sources of drinking water include rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, reservoirs, springs, and
wells. As water travels over the surface of the land or through the ground, it dissolves naturally
occurring minerals and in some cases, radioactive material, and can pick up substances resulting
from the presence of animals or human activity.

Contaminants that may be present in sources of drinking water include:

Microbial contaminants, such as viruses and bacteria, which may come from sewage
treatment plants, septic systems, agricultural livestock operations and wildlife; Inorganic
contaminants, such as salts and metals, which can be naturally occurring or result from urban
stormwater runoff, industrial or domestic wastewater discharges, oil and gas production, mining
or farming; Pesticides and herbicides, which may come from a variety of sources such as
agriculture, urban stormwater run-off and residential uses; Organic chemical contaminants,
including synthetic and volatile organic chemicals, which are by-products of industrial processes
and petroleum production, and can also come from gas stations, urban stormwater run-off and
septic systems; Radioactive contaminants, which can be naturally occurring or be the result of oil
and gas production and mining activities.

Background
Coliform bacteria and chlorine residual are the only routine sampling and monitoring requirements
for small ground water systems with chlorination. The coliform bacteriological sampling is
governed by the Total Coliform Rule (TCR) of the SDWA. Although there is presently no
requirement for chlorination of groundwater systems under the SDWA, State regulations require
chlorine residual monitoring of those systems that do chlorinate the water.

TCR The TCR requires all Public Water Systems (PWS) to monitor their distribution system for
coliform bacteria according to the written sample siting plan for that system. The sample sitting
plan identifies sampling frequency and locations throughout the distribution system that are
selected to be representative of conditions in the entire system. Coliform contamination can occur
anywhere in the system, possibly due to problems such as; low pressure conditions, line breaks,
or well contamination, and therefore routine monitoring is required. A copy of the sample siting
plan for the system should be kept on file and accessible to all who are involved in the sampling
for the water system.

Number of Monthly Samples The number of samples to be collected monthly depends on the
size of the system. The TCR specifies the minimum number of coliform samples collected but it
may be necessary to take more than the minimum number in order to provide adequate
monitoring. This is especially true if the system consists of multiple sources, pressure zones,
booster pumps, long transmission lines, or extensive distribution system piping. Since timely
detection of coliform contamination is the purpose of the sample siting plan, sample sites should
be selected to represent the varying conditions that exist in the distribution system. The sample
siting plan should be updated as changes are made in the water system, especially the
distribution system.

Sampling Procedures The sample siting plan must be followed and all operating staff must be
clear on how to follow the sampling plan. In order to properly implement the sample siting plan,
staff must be aware of how often sampling must be done, the proper procedures and sampling
containers to be used for collecting the samples, and the proper procedures for identification,
storage and transport of the samples to an approved laboratory. In addition, proper procedures
must be followed for repeat sampling whenever a routine sample result is positive for total
coliform. The following diagram outlines the requirements for responding to a positive Total
Coliform sample.

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General Questions about Coliform
Always check with your State to ensure this information is correct, for many States have
stricter laws than what is in this section.

What is the Total Coliform Rule (TCR)?

The Total Coliform Rule (TCR) requires all public water supplies to monitor for the presence of
total coliforms in the distribution system. For drinking water, total coliforms are used to monitor
the sanitary quality of the water, adequacy of water treatment, and the integrity of the distribution
system. The absence of total coliforms in the distribution system minimizes the likelihood that
fecal pathogens are present. Thus, total coliforms are used to determine the vulnerability of a
system to fecal contamination.

What is total coliform bacteria?

Total coliforms are a group of closely related bacteria that are (with few exceptions) not harmful to
humans. They are an indicator of other pathogens that can be present in water. Coliform bacteria
are present in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. They are shed from the body in the
feces. Because these organisms are shed from the body in large numbers and are relatively easy
to detect in the laboratory, they have been accepted as an indicator of contamination. All
bacteriological samples are analyzed for the coliform group; however, a positive reaction to these
coliform analyses may be from sources other than fecal. In order to differentiate between these
sources, all samples that are total coliform positive must be analyzed again to determine if fecal
coliform or E. coli are present.

What are fecal coliform and E. coli?

Fecal coliform is bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be contaminated with
human or animal wastes. E. coli is a member of the fecal coliform group. Microbes in these
wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. They may pose a
special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely compromised immune
systems. The presence of fecal coliform or E. coli in drinking water sample indicate recent
contamination and signals a greater possibility that pathogenic organisms are also in the water.

Why must a water system monitor for total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli?
Total coliforms serve as indicators of the efficiency of water treatment, of the integrity of the pipes
in the distribution system, and as a screen for the presence of fecal contamination. Usually,
coliforms are a sign that there could be a problem with the system’s treatment or distribution
system. Fecal and/or E. coli indicates that pathogenic organisms may be present that can cause
short-term health effects, such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, fatigue and jaundice.
They may pose a special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely
compromised immune systems.

Monitoring Requirements
How many coliform samples must a water system collect?
Every Public Water System (WS or PWS) must collect a given number of “routine” coliform
samples from the distribution system per month generally based on the population served.

Additional raw, finished, and distribution water samples may also be required depending on your
source of water, water treatment facilities, service area of the distribution system, and any related
sanitary survey deficiencies. After a WS or PWS sanitary survey is conducted by the official State
water or health agency inspector, the total number of coliform samples required each month is
listed on the follow-up inspection report that is mailed to the WS or PWS. If you are not sure how
many samples you are required to collect, please contact your Drinking Water Agency.

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Introduction.
If a WS or PWS has a positive coliform sample, confirmation (repeat) samples must be collected
immediately. The number of repeats will vary.

Does the number of monthly routine distribution coliform samples ever change?
Yes. Two events may change your monthly distribution monitoring requirements:
1) A change in population may cause a change in the number of samples. If a change occurs,
your official State Drinking Water Agency will notify the WS or PWS.
2) One coliform positive routine finished or routine distribution system sample result during any
month requires a minimum of FIVE routine distribution samples be collected the following month.
If your system is already required to collect a minimum of five distribution samples each month,
this does not affect you.

Do I have to collect my monthly routine coliform samples from specific locations?

Yes. Failure to do so may result in a monitoring violation. Every WS or PWS must have on file an
approved coliform sample site plan at the appropriate Drinking Water Agency. Always check
with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

What is a coliform sample site plan?

A coliform sample site plan is a list of sites by street address, lot number, or other permanent
description, that identifies all the approved locations where your routine (monthly) coliform
samples may be collected. The list of sites must be plotted on a map of your service area. Larger
water systems will divide their distribution system into specific sample areas.

Does the site plan have to be approved by the official State water or health agency?
Yes. The list of sites and the map is reviewed by the official State water or health agency Drinking
Water Agency serving your facility to insure representative sites have been selected. A site
number is then assigned to each sample location. All reporting forms must be completed using
the sample site number rather than the street address. Your approved site plan MUST be
followed each time you collect routine samples. Always check with your Agency to ensure this
rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

How can I find out the water system’s sampling locations?

A copy of the WS or PWS’s coliform site plan (and sample site numbers) is on file at your official
State water or health agency

How often and when must I collect my routine samples?

Routine compliance samples must be collected every month. Each month is a sampling period.
A WS or PWS with only a groundwater source (not under the direct influence of surface water)
that serves 4,900 persons or fewer, may collect all required samples on a single day if they are
taken from each area of the approved sample site plan. Always check with your Agency to ensure
this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Surface water supplies, supplies using groundwater under the direct influence of surface water
and groundwater supplies that serve more than 4,900 people must collect samples throughout
the month. WS or PWS that collect weekly or more frequently should continue this practice.
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

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Samples Should be Collected as Early as Possible
Samples should be collected as early each month as possible, but not before the first day of each
month. Prompt collection allows WS or PWS sufficient time for replacement sampling if samples
are discarded. Reasons for discarding samples include: failure to record date or time of collection,
sample(s) more than 30 hours old upon arrival at the certified laboratory, and sample(s) broken or
frozen in transit. If the sample(s) and/or any necessary replacement samples are not collected
within the monthly monitoring period, the WS or PWS will be in violation of their monitoring
requirements and must make public notice. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is
correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Collecting Samples
How do I choose a proper sample faucet?
Since coliform samples must be representative of the water quality in the distribution system, it is
important to select proper sampling locations. Visit the site before selecting it for your coliform
sample site plan. See if a smooth-nosed cold-water faucet is available that will allow the collector
to run the faucet at a constant flushing rate for 30 to 60 seconds without flooding the sink. You
may choose to install a smooth nosed faucet at your designated sample locations.

The sampling faucet should be conveniently located and readily accessible to the collector. Avoid
faucets that are connected to private water treatment equipment such as water softeners or
filters. Faucets that are subject to exterior contamination because they are too close to a sink
bottom or to the ground must be avoided. It is difficult to place a bottle beneath a low faucet
without touching the interior of the bottle’s neck against the outside of the faucet. Threaded
faucets that might harbor bacteria around the threads should not be used. Leaking faucets that
allow water to flow around the stem and over the outside of the faucet should be avoided. If an
even stream of water cannot be sustained, a more suitable tap should be found. Failure to follow
these precautions could result in a contaminated sample.

Keep in mind that in the event of a positive coliform sample, two (or three) additional distribution
sites meeting the above criteria, one within five (5) service connections upstream and one within
five (5) service connections downstream, will be needed for the collection of repeat samples.
These additional sites should be included in your coliform sample site plan. You may wish to
install dedicated sampling faucets or sampling stations to assure access and satisfactory
sampling conditions at all times. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for
this rule is different in some States.

How should a coliform sample be collected?

Use great care when collecting coliform samples. Only bottles received from the certified
laboratory should be used to collect samples. It is extremely important that the sample collector
uses only the approved sampling locations and follow proper sampling techniques.

Contamination from the sampling faucet can easily occur if extreme caution is not used. Should
an incident occur during sample collection that may result in contamination, the sample should be
discarded and a new bottle requested. It is assumed that all samples submitted for testing
are properly collected. Sample error will not be accepted as an excuse to avoid repeat
sampling.

Generally, the following protocol should be followed:

1. Sample bottles should be examined when received. If for any reason (loose caps, caps off,
etc.) the sterility of the bottle is in question, the bottles should not be used.
2. Open an approved sampling faucet so that a smooth flow of water at moderate pressure is
obtained. Be sure that there is no splashing. Allow the water to flow for sufficient time to clear the
service line. Depending on time of year and water source you may notice a water temperature
change when the line has been cleared.

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3. If your WS or PWS is chlorinated, check for residual chlorine. These results MUST be
included on the reporting form. Indicate whether the residual measured is free (F) or total (T)
chlorine.
4. The bottle cap should not be removed until you are ready to collect the sample. Do not lay the
bottle cap down or put it in a pocket. Hold the bottle in one hand and the cap in the other, keeping
the bottle cap right side up (threads down) and taking care not to touch the inside of the cap.
Avoid touching the inside of the sterile bottle(s) with your fingers or the faucet nose.
5. Once you start filling the bottles do not adjust the stream flow. Do not allow splashing drops of
water from the ground or sink to enter the bottle. Fill the bottle to the 100 ml mark on the side of
the bottle. Cap the bottle immediately. Then turn off the faucet.

Can I use any container to collect the sample?

No. You must use sterile 100 ml plastic (or glass) bottles obtained from a certified laboratory.
These bottles contain a small amount of sodium thiosulfate to neutralize the residual chlorine in
the sample. The sodium thiosulfate may appear as a tablet or as a white residue in the bottle. Do
NOT rinse this material out of the bottle.

Do we need to use any special reporting forms when submitting samples to the
laboratory?
Yes. These forms can be obtained by calling your certified laboratory. The reporting forms
should be included with the bottles. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct,
for this rule is different in some States.

How do I complete the reporting/collection form?

For the most part, the form is self-explanatory. A few reminders:
1. Always use your official State water or health agency assigned sample site numbers (not
sample address). If a site number does not exist for a location, please add it to your site plan by
calling your official Drinking Water Agency. Simply record the address if it’s a “one-time”
sample location.
2. Be-sure you include all “Contact Person” information including telephone number and cellular
number. This information is very important in case there is a positive sample.
3. Clearly mark sample purpose.
4. If the WS or PWS is chlorinated, you must include the chlorine residual on the form. Failure to
do so will result in a violation.

After I collect the sample, how long does it have to reach the laboratory?
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States. In order for the laboratory to analyze the sample(s), it must be received within 24 or 30
hours of collection. If not, a replacement must be collected. It is strongly recommended that the
monthly routine samples be collected within the first few days of each month. This will allow
ample time for the collection of replacement sample(s) if they are required.

What days of the week should I collect my samples?

It is preferred that routine samples be collected and shipped to the laboratory on Mondays or
Tuesdays. If routine samples are hand delivered to the laboratory, they should be delivered no
later than Thursday. However, emergency or repeat samples may be submitted at any time. If
you anticipate the samples will arrive on a weekend or holiday, you should contact your certified
laboratory and make the necessary arrangements. It is recommended that you call your certified
laboratory for a contact person, business hours, and any special delivery instructions. Always
check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

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Do all coliform samples collected during the month count towards meeting our
compliance monitoring requirements?
No. Special purpose samples, such as those taken to lift a boil order, or new construction
samples to determine whether disinfection practices are sufficient following pipe placement,
replacement or repair, will not be used to determine compliance with the Maximum Contaminant
Level (MCL) or towards the routine number of samples required each month.

Routine raw and/or finished water entry point samples do not count towards meeting the total
number of distribution samples required each month. However, finished water entry point
samples will be used to determine compliance with the MCL. Thus, if you have a positive finished
water entry point sample, you must follow-up with the collection of repeat samples.

Our water system is chlorine exempt. Are there any special monitoring requirements?
Yes. In past years, some very small systems have been granted an exemption from chlorination
by State water or health agencies. New exemptions are no longer granted. Official State water or
health agency may still honors past chlorine exemptions, but recognizes that the water lacks the
protection of the residual chlorine.

Consequently, it is especially important that the bacterial quality of the water be monitored at
frequent intervals. One of the conditions of the exemption is that samples be collected and
analyzed at twice the frequency required of a chlorinated WS or PWS (two times a month).
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

Interpretation of Results
How do I know if the sample is satisfactory?
The laboratory will determine if any bacteria are present in your sample(s). If no bacteria are
present the sample is considered satisfactory with a (S) recorded on the reporting form.

If bacteria are detected in the sample, the laboratory will record the number of colonies (if using
the membrane filter technique) and analyze the sample to see if the bacteria are coliform. If the
bacteria are determined to be coliform the laboratory will use the designation of “P” (positive).If no
coliform is detected, the designation will be given as “N” (negative). Any sample with a non-
coliform bacteria count of 200 colonies or less is considered a satisfactory (S) sample.

If any coliform bacteria are found, the sample is positive and requires collection of repeat samples
as described in – Repeat Samples / Follow-up to Coliform Positive Samples. Additional tests
are performed on the original total coliform positive sample to determine if fecal coliform or E. coli
is present. This result is also recorded on the reporting form with a P or N.

A sample analyzed by the membrane filter technique is deemed invalid (I) in the following
scenarios:
1. Samples are negative for coliform but exhibit confluent growth. Confluent growth is continuous
bacterial growth covering all or part of a membrane filter.
2. Samples are negative for coliform but bacteria colonies are too numerous to count (reported as
G- or TNTC by the laboratory). Submission of replacement sample(s) is required. When using the
multiple fermentation tube procedure or the presence-absence procedure, if the media is turbid
with no production of gas or acid, the sample also is invalidated with replacement sample(s)
required.

How long must I keep coliform results and other related paperwork?
5 years. Records of total coliform analyses must be kept for no less than five (5) years. The
actual laboratory reports may be kept or the data may be transferred to tabular summaries. Local
procedures may contain requirements concerning the retention of records. The most stringent
requirement should be followed. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for
this rule is different in some States.

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Laboratory Related Questions
Can we have our coliform samples analyzed anywhere?
No. A laboratory certified by your State Drinking Water Agency or Health Department must
analyze samples. A sample analyzed at a laboratory that is not certified cannot be used for
compliance.

What laboratory methods are used for analyzing coliform samples?

WS or PWS must conduct total coliform analyses in accordance with one of the analytical
methods in the following table:

Organism Methodology
Total Coliforms Total Coliform Fermentation Technique
Total Coliform Membrane Filter Technique
Presence-Absence (P-A) Coliform Test
ONPG-MUG Test (Colilert)
Colisure Test
E*Colite® Test
m-ColiBlue24® Test
Readycult coliform 100 Presence/Absence
Colitag® Test

Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

Do we need to use any special reporting forms when submitting samples to the
laboratory?
Yes. These forms can be obtained by calling your certified laboratory. The reporting forms
should be included with the bottles.

Is the water system or the laboratory responsible for getting results to the State water or
health agency?
The water system. Regardless of whether a State of private laboratory is used, the WS or PWS is
ultimately held accountable. It is very important that the WS or PWS is in frequent contact with
the laboratory to confirm: the samples reach the laboratory, the status of results (positive vs.
negative), and the results are sent to the official State water or health agency in a timely manner
(within 10 days of the sampling period).

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Repeat Samples / Follow-up to Coliform Positive Samples
How am I notified of positive coliform samples?
If a routine or replacement sample is total coliform positive, the certified laboratory and the
Drinking Water Agency will try to contact the WS or PWS by telephone using the contact name
and number provided on the reporting form. All Water Systems should keep a small number of
extra coliform bottles/reporting forms in case of required repeat sampling. If for some unforeseen
reason, the WS or PWS does not have extra coliform bottles on hand, the laboratory will
overnight coliform bottles to the facility. However, this is not a preferred situation. Remember,
responsibility for timely sampling ultimately falls on the WS or PWS. Therefore, waiting for bottles
to arrive in the mail incurs risk on the WS or PWS. Obviously, to receive “repeat” sample bottles
in the mail is an indication that there is a positive sample and immediate action is needed.

What is a repeat sample?

Any sample that is analyzed as a follow-up to an initial positive result is referred to as “repeat”
sample. After a routine coliform sample is found to be total coliform positive, repeat samples are
required to confirm the initial positive result(s), to determine if the contamination is ongoing, and
to evaluate the extent of the contamination within the distribution system.

How many repeat samples must I collect?

The number of repeats samples is dependent on the number of routine samples collected for the
month. Three repeat samples are required for each distribution sample that is coliform positive;
however, if the WS or PWS sends in only one routine distribution sample per month, four repeat
samples are required for each sample that is coliform positive. Always check with your Agency to
ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Where must repeat samples be collected?

If three repeat samples are required, one repeat sample must be collected from a tap within five
(5) service connections upstream from the original sample, another repeat sample must be
collected within five (5) service connections downstream from the original sampling site, and the
last must be collected at the original site.
If four repeat samples are required, one repeat sample must be collected from a tap within five
(5) service connections upstream from the original sample, another repeat sample must be
collected within five (5) service connections downstream from the original sampling site, another
must be collected at the original site, and the fourth may be collected anywhere within the
distribution system (this may aid in identifying the possible source of contamination).

All repeat samples (or sample set) must be collected on the same day. Exceptions to this rule are
WS or PWS with a single service connection. In this case the official State water or health agency
may allow the WS or PWS to collect the repeat samples over a four-day period or to collect a
single sample of at least 400 ml (300 ml if the system collects more than one sample per month).
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

Where should the repeat samples be collected if the positive sample was collected at the
end of the distribution system?
The WS or PWS is still required to collect three (or four when applicable) repeat samples. If the
original sampling site is at the end of the distribution system (or one tap away from the end) the
State Drinking Water agency may waive the requirement to collect one of the repeat samples
downstream. An additional sample will be required upstream or from the same building. Always
check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

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How many repeats are required if a finished water entry point sample or raw well sample is
positive?
One. Only one repeat sample should be collected from the positive finished water entry point
location or raw positive location. Raw or finished entry point samples (or raw/entry point repeat
samples) are not used when determining compliance. Prior to August 2007, a routine coliform
positive finished water (entry point) sample required three or four repeats. This has changed.
Only one repeat is now required and it is to be collected from the same entry point location as the
positive (downstream repeat samples are no longer required). Always check with your Agency to
ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

How much time do I have to collect repeat sample(s)?

24 Hours. If a routine or replacement sample is total coliform positive, the WS or PWS must
collect a set of repeat samples within 24 hours of being notified of the positive result. Again, all
WS or PWS should keep a small number of extra coliform bottles/reporting forms in case
of required repeat sampling. If the WS or PWS is waiting for bottles to be shipped from the
laboratory, repeat samples must be collected on the day of bottle receipt.

All repeat samples (or sample set) must be collected on the same day. Exceptions to this rule are
WS or PWS with a single service connection. In this case the official State water or health agency
may allow the WS or PWS to collect the repeat samples over a four-day period or to collect a
single sample of at least 400 ml (300 ml if the system collects more than one sample per month).
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

When does the repeat sample collection “start clock” begin?

The 24-hour clock starts when the laboratory (or State) notifies the water system of the
initial positive coliform result. You have 24 hours from the time of notification to collect
your repeat samples and return them to a laboratory for analysis. If you fail to meet this
window, a violation will be issued, provided that no extension had been granted.

If the WS or PWS cannot be reached via phone, the official State water or health agency has
defined “notified” as the date that the laboratory initiates shipment of repeat sample bottles. The
laboratory records this date on the coliform reporting form. The repeat samples must be collected
on the on the day that the bottles are received at the WS or PWS. Always check with your
Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

What if I cannot meet the 24-hour repeat collection requirement?

your official State water or health agency acknowledges that some circumstances may arise,
totally beyond the control of the WS or PWS, which prevent repeat samples from being collected
within the 24-hour period. Therefore, extensions may be granted by your Drinking Water
Agency. A valid reason for the extension must be provided. Extensions cannot be granted after
the fact. Therefore, requests for extensions MUST be made prior to or at the same time the
repeat samples are being collected. Extensions will always specify exactly how much time the
WS or PWS has to collect and return the repeat samples. Failure to obtain the extension or failure
to meet the terms of the extension will result in a monitoring violation. Please remember that an
extension on the 24-hour repeat collection requirement is NOT a waiver for actually collecting the
repeat samples. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is
different in some States.

What happens if I am notified on a Friday of positive routine results (or receive repeat
bottles on a Friday or Holiday)?
The 24-hour collection requirement must still be met. You should contact your certified
laboratory to arrange a time on Saturday to collect the repeat samples and drive them to the
laboratory. If this is not possible, the WS or PWS must request an extension the first business
day following the weekend or holiday. Please call the official State water or health agency at at
the earliest possible time to request an extension on the 24-hour requirement.

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It is strongly recommended that all routine coliform samples be collected and mailed on
a Monday or Tuesday to avoid this situation.

What happens if any of the repeats are positive or invalid?

If one or more repeat samples in the set are total coliform positive or invalid, the whole repeat
monitoring process must start over. A new “set” of three or four (if only one routine sample is
collected per month) repeats must be collected within 24 hours of being notified of the positive or
invalid repeat.

If a repeat sample location is positive and is not from the same location as the original positive
sample (and/or the original site is negative), the next repeat collection should be based on the
original positive site location and NOT the positive repeat location. Every consecutive set of
repeat samples must be collected at the same locations as the 1st set of repeat samples.

The WS or PWS must repeat this process until either total coliform are not detected in one
complete “set” of repeat samples or the WS or PWS determines that the total coliform Maximum
Contaminant Level(MCL) has been exceeded and notifies your official State water or health
agency. It is highly recommended that sampling be repeated until a “set” is satisfactory. Always
check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Does one (or more) positive routine or repeat sample change the following month’s
monitoring requirements?
Yes. If you collect less than 5 routine distribution samples per month and have at least one
positive routine, repeat or replacement sample, 5 routine distribution samples MUST be collected
the following month. The samples can be collected from other approved coliform sites or from
other locations in the distribution system. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is
correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Who is responsible for notifying the official State water or health agency if results are
positive?
The WS or PWS is responsible for notifying your official State water or health agency when a total
coliform positive sample is found and for having the appropriate repeat samples analyzed. In
most cases, an agreement has been made between the certified laboratory and the WS or PWS
that the laboratory will notify the State Agency; however, even in this case, the WS or PWS is
held accountable for this notification requirement.

Invalidating Sample Results

Can a sample result be invalidated?
A coliform positive can be invalidated when there is a significant reason to believe the test results
are not accurate or not representative of the water quality. These samples are not used in
compliance calculations and a replacement must be collected within the same monitoring period
(same month) at the same location to avoid a possible monitoring violation.

There are three conditions in which a total coliform positive sample result may be invalidated:
1. The laboratory establishes that an error in its analytical procedure caused the total coliform
positive result.
2. The State water or health agency, on the basis of the results of repeat samples collected
determines that the total coliform positive sample resulted from a domestic or other non-
distribution system-plumbing problem.
3. The State water or health agency determines that there are substantial grounds to believe that
a total coliform positive result is due to a circumstance or condition that does not reflect water
quality in the distribution system.

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The laboratory will invalidate the results if they are unable to obtain a true result according to the
test method used to analyze the sample. If a laboratory invalidates a routine sample due to
interference, the WS or PWS must collect another sample from the same location as the original
sample within 24 hours of being notified of the interference problem.

How can I have a positive coliform result invalidated?

Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States. The invalidation process involves 3 steps:
1. All repeat samples must have been collected in accordance with the repeat sampling
requirements.
2. As soon as you feel a sample should be invalidated, the Drinking Water Agency should be
contacted by telephone and the situation discussed. If the Drinking Water Agency verbally agrees
that the sample is not representative of the water quality, they will direct you as to what certain
steps need to be taken (e.g., proof, additional samples, etc.). Ultimately, the Drinking Water
Agency will recommend to the Compliance or Regulatory division whether or not a sample should
be invalidated. Failure to get the Drinking Water Agency’s concurrence will result in your request
being rejected by the Compliance or Regulatory division.
3. A formal written requested must be mailed to the Drinking Water Agency and Compliance or
Regulatory division within four weeks of the original routine sample collection date. The written
documentation must state the specific cause of the total coliform positive sample and what action
the supplier has taken, or will take, to correct this problem. The official State water or health
agency will provide a written notification to the WS or PWS as to whether or not the request for
invalidation was granted.

The State water or health agency will not invalidate a total coliform positive sample solely
on the grounds that all repeat samples are total coliform negative.

How soon do I have to initiate the invalidation process?

At the time of receiving notice of positive results, the WS or PWS should immediately begin an
investigation and collect repeat samples. At that time, any reason to question validity of a result
should be acted on promptly while the situation is fresh at hand.

If a sample is invalidated by the State water or health agency or the certified laboratory
does it still count towards meeting the monthly monitoring requirements?
No. You MUST collect another routine sample to replace any invalidated routine sample. To
confirm the sample purpose look at the reporting form. Remember that all routine samples are
marked with a sample purpose of “Routine” on the reporting form. The replacement sample(s)
MUST be collected within the same monitoring period (same month). Repeat samples cannot be
used to meet this requirement. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for
this rule is different in some States.

My repeat sample is invalid. Now what?

If one or more repeat samples in a set are invalid, the whole repeat monitoring process must
begin over starting with the collection of a new “set” (3 or 4) of repeat samples within 24 hours.
Every consecutive set of repeat samples should be collected at the same locations as the 1st set
of repeats.

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Compliance, Violations, and Follow-up Actions
What is an MCL?
Maximum Contaminant Level. State and federal regulations set maximum contaminant levels
(MCLs) on contaminants that have been determined to cause possible health effects. When
MCLs are exceeded, the WS or PWS must accomplish all the required actions that generally
include public notice within a specified time period. There are two types of coliform MCL
violations, monthly and acute.

What is a MONTHLY coliform MCL exceedance and how is it determined?

A monthly coliform MCL violation occurs when a WS or PWS exceeds the number of allowed
coliform positive samples. The number allowed depends on the number of routine distribution
samples collected during the monthly sample period.

What is an ACUTE coliform MCL exceedance and how is it determined?

Acute MCLs are extremely serious and require immediate action. Coliform sample results have
indicated an immediate threat to the WS or PWS and serious health effects can result. Therefore,
water customers must be notified without delay. All samples that are total coliform positive must
be examined for fecal coliform or E. coli. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is
correct, for this rule is different in some States.

What is a monitoring violation and how can I avoid one?

A monitoring violation occurs when the coliform monitoring requirements for a month are not met.
All WS or PWS are required to submit samples for bacteriological analysis during each calendar
month. Do NOT sample before the beginning of the month.

The WS or PWS must meet several criteria to avoid a monitoring violation:

1. At a minimum, collect the required number of distribution samples each month. The number of
distribution samples required is based on population served. It is crucial that every WS or PWS
operator know the coliform monitoring requirements for his or her WS or PWS.

2. Sampling locations used must be in accordance with the approved written coliform sample site
plan. All sampling areas must be represented during each monthly sampling period.

3. All replacement and repeat samples must be returned promptly to the laboratory for analysis.
These samples will be included in determining compliance.

4. Repeat samples and replacement samples for invalid (negative coliform growth) samples must
be collected within 24 hours of notification. If these samples cannot be collected within 24 hours,
you must contact the official State water or health agency for an extension. The time extension
will be given on a case-by-case basis and will always specify exactly how much time the WS or
PWS has to collect and return the repeat samples. Failure to obtain the extension or failure to
meet the terms of the extension will result in a monitoring violation.

5. If a private certified laboratory analyzes samples, it is the responsibility of the WS or PWS to

make sure that copies of the reports are sent to the official State water or health agency within 10
days of the end of the sampling period (month).

6. Collect at least five coliform distribution system samples the month following a coliform positive
finished or distribution system sample.

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How are repeat samples used in determining compliance?
Repeat samples are not counted towards determining monthly distribution monitoring compliance.
However, failure to collect repeats within 24-hours (following notification of a positive routine
sample) will result in a monitoring violation (and possible MCL violation) unless the WS or PWS
obtained a waiver from the 24-hour collection requirement. In addition, if a WS or PWS fails to
collect any of the repeat samples for a positive routine sample, the missing repeats will be
“assumed” positive and included when totaling the number of positive samples for the month. In
most cases, this will result in an MCL violation and require public notification.

Do I need to notify the water customers of a violation?

Yes. Each violation and situation requiring notice has been assigned to one of three categories,
or tiers, based on the risk of adverse health effects. Public notice is required for any of the
following:

Tier 1 Violations or other Situations

Tier 1 violations or problems may result in an immediate adverse health problem for some
consumers. Violation of the MCL for total coliform, when fecal coliform or E. coli are present in
the water distribution system, or failure to test for fecal coliform or E. coli when any repeat
sample tests positive for coliform.

Tier 2 Violations
All violations of the MCL, MRDL, and treatment technique requirements except where Tier 1
notice is required Violations of the monitoring requirements when required by the official State
water or health agency (see Tier 3).

Tier 3 Violations or other Situations

Monitoring violations, except where Tier 1 or Tier 2 notice is required as determined by your
official State water or health agency.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Below describes some common errors that may result in a violation.
1. WS or PWS does not collect the correct number of repeat samples following a routine positive
sample.
2. Failure of small WS or PWS (that serve a population 4,100 or less) to collect a minimum of 5
routine distribution coliform samples the month following a coliform positive sample.
3. Marking the wrong sample purpose box on the reporting form. Most often, this occurs when
collecting a repeat (due to positive sample) sample and marking it as an invalid replacement or
replacement (due to invalid, TNTC, or broken) sample and vice versa.
4. Failure to use sample site numbers.
5. Failure to report the chlorine residual (if chlorine/chloramines is added) on the reporting form.
6. Failure to monitor early in the month. Waiting until the end of the month to collect the routine
samples does not allow enough time for follow-up actions if required.

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Chain of Custody Procedures
Because a sample is physical evidence, chain of custody procedures are used to maintain and
document sample possession from the time the sample is collected until it is introduced as
evidence. Chain of custody requirements will vary from agency to agency.

However, these procedures are similar and the chain of custody outlined in this manual is only a
guideline. Consult your project manager for specific requirements.

If you have physical possession of a sample, have it in view, or have physically secured it to
prevent tampering then it is defined as being in “custody." A chain of custody record, therefore,
begins when the sample containers are obtained from the laboratory. From this point on, a chain
of custody record will accompany the sample containers.

Handle the samples as little as possible in the field. Each custody sample requires a chain of
custody record and may require a seal. If you do not seal individual samples, then seal the
containers in which the samples are shipped.

When the samples transfer possession, both parties involved in the transfer must sign, date and
note the time on the chain of custody record. If a shipper refuses to sign the chain-of-custody you
must seal the samples and chain of custody documents inside a box or cooler with bottle seals or
evidence tape. The recipient will then attach the shipping invoices showing the transfer dates and
times to the custody sheets. If the samples are split and sent to more than one laboratory,
prepare a separate chain of custody record for each sample. If the samples are delivered to after-
hours night drop-off boxes, the custody record should note such a transfer and be locked with the
sealed samples inside sealed boxes.

Using alcohol to disinfect a special sample tap before obtaining a sample.

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 Chain of Custody Example.

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Carefully follow these steps when collecting a coliform sample:
1. Select the sampling site, which must be a faucet from which water is commonly taken for
consumer use or a dedicated site in the distribution system.
a. The sampling point should be a non-swivel faucet.
b. If it is a faucet with an aerator, remove the aerator, screen and gasket and flush thoroughly.
c. If an outside faucet is used, disconnect any hoses or other attachments and flush the line
thoroughly.
d. It should be a faucet that does not leak around the packing or valve mechanism.
Leaking faucets can promote bacterial growth.
e. Do not use fire hydrants or drinking fountains as sampling points.
f. Do not dip sample bottles in reservoirs, spring boxes or storage tanks in order to collect a
sample. If you have any questions about proper sampling sites, please contact your laboratory,
environmental or health department or the state drinking water section.

2. Use only sample bottles provided by the laboratory specifically for bacteriological
sampling. These bottles are sterile and should not be rinsed before sampling. A chemical,
usually sodium thiosulfate, is placed in the bottle by the lab and is used for chlorine deactivation.
Do not remove it.
3. Don’t open the sample bottle until the moment you are going to fill it.
4. Flush the line thoroughly. Run water through the faucet for three to five minutes before opening
the bottle and collecting the sample.
5. Uncap the sample bottle, being careful not to touch the inside of the bottle with your fingers or
other objects. Do not set the lid down while taking the sample.
6. Reduce the water flow to a slow steady stream. Continue flushing for at least 1-2 minutes, then
gently fill the sample bottle to the fill mark. At least 100 ml. of water is necessary for analysis.
Leave an air space in the top of the bottle. Do not overfill.
7. Replace the cap immediately, making sure it is tight and does not leak.
8. Label the laboratory form. Complete the following
information:
a. Your Public Water System (PWS) ID number.
b. Your water system name, address, city and phone
number.
c. Collection date and time.
d. Type of sample: Routine, Repeat, and Special.
Refer to previous discussion of definitions.
e. Name of person collecting sample and sample
location.
f. Free chlorine residual if your system is chlorinated.
The residual should be measured at the time of
sample collection.
g. Complete the section for the return address where
the report is to be sent.
9. Package the sample for delivery to the laboratory.
Be sure to include the lab form. The sample should be kept cool if at all possible.
10. Mail or deliver the sample to the lab immediately. Samples over 30 hours old will not be
analyzed by the laboratory. If the sample is too old or leaks in transit, the lab will notify you and
you must collect another.

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Sampling Plan Example
A written sampling plan must be developed by the water system. These plans will be reviewed by
the Health Department or State Drinking Water agency during routine field visits for sanitary
surveys or technical assistance visits. This plan should include:

1. The location of routine sampling sites on a system distribution map. You will need to locate
more routine sampling sites than the number of samples required per month or quarter. A
minimum of three sites is advised and the sites should be rotated on a regular basis.
2. Map the location of repeat sampling sites for the routine sampling sites. Remember that repeat
samples must be collected within five (5) connections upstream and downstream from the routine
sample sites.
3. Establish a sampling frequency of the routine sites.
4. Sampling technique, establish a minimum flushing time and requirements for free chlorine
residuals at the sites (if you chlorinate continuously).

The sampling sites should be representative of the distribution network and pressure zones. If
someone else, e.g., the lab, collects samples for you, you should provide them with a copy of
your sampling plan and make sure they have access to all sample sites.

This fellow is taking a sample from a stream to check the water quality.

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Collection of Surface Water Samples
Representative samples may be collected from rivers, streams and lakes if certain rules are
followed:
1. Watch out for flash floods! If a flooding event is likely and samples must be obtained,
always go in two-person teams for safety. Look for an easy route of escape.

2. Select a sampling location at or near a gauging station, so that stream discharge can be
related to water-quality loading. If no gauging station exists, then measure the flow rate at
the time of sampling, using the streamflow method described below.

3. Locate a straight and uniform channel for sampling.

4. Unless specified in the sampling plan, avoid sampling locations next to confluences or
point sources of contamination.

5. Use bridges or boats for deep rivers and lakes where wading is dangerous or impractical.

6. Do not collect samples along a bank, as they may not be representative of the surface
water body as a whole.

7. Use appropriate gloves when collecting the sample.

Streamflow Measurement
Before collecting water quality samples, record the stream's flow rate at the selected station. The
flow rate measurement is important for estimating contaminant loading and other impacts.

The first step in streamflow measurement is selecting a cross-section. Select a straight reach
where the stream bed is uniform and relatively free of boulders and aquatic growth. Be certain
that the flow is uniform and free of eddies, slack water and excessive turbulence.

After the cross-section has been selected, determine the width of the stream by stringing a
measuring tape from bank-to-bank at right angles to the direction of flow. Next, determine the
spacing of the verticals. Space the verticals so that no partial section has more than 5 per cent of
the total discharge within it.

At the first vertical, face upstream and lower the velocity meter to the channel bottom, record its
depth, then raise the meter to 0.8 and 0.2 of the distance from the stream surface, measure the
water velocities at each level, and average them. Move to the next vertical and repeat the
procedure until you reach the opposite bank. Once the velocity, depth and distance of the cross-
section have been determined, the mid-section method can be used for determining discharge.
Calculate the discharge in each increment by multiplying the averaged velocity in each increment
by the increment width and averaged depth.

(Note that the first and last stations are located at the edge of the waterway and have a depth and
velocity of zero.) Add up the discharges for each increment to calculate total stream discharge.
Record the flow in liters (or cubic feet) per second in your field book.

Composite Sampling
Composite sampling is intended to produce a water quality sample representative of the total
stream discharge at the sampling station. If your sampling plan calls for composite sampling, use
an automatic type sampler.

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 Common water sample bottles for distribution systems.

Radiochems, VOCs, (Volatile Organic Compounds), TTHMs, Total Trihalomethanes),

Nitrate, Nitrite.

Most of these sample bottles will come with the preservative already inside the bottle.

Some bottles will come with a separate preservative (acid) for the field preservation.

Slowly add the acid or other preservative to the water sample; not water to the acid or
preservative.

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Chemical Monitoring
The final federal rules regarding Phase II and V contaminants were promulgated by the U.S. EPA
in 1992 and initial monitoring began in January 1993. This group of contaminants consists of
Inorganic Chemicals (IOC), Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC) and Synthetic Organic Chemicals
(SOC) and the rule applies to all community and non-transient non-community public water
systems.

The monitoring schedule for these contaminants is phased in by water system population size
according to a “standardized monitoring framework” established by the U.S. EPA. This
standardized monitoring framework establishes nine-year compliance cycles consisting of three
3-year compliance periods. The first compliance cycle began in January 1993 and ended
December 31, 2001, with subsequent compliance cycles following the nine-year timeframe. The
three-year compliance period of each cycle is the standard monitoring period for the water
system.

Turbidity Monitoring
Monitoring for turbidity is applicable to all public water systems using surface water sources or
ground water sources under the direct influence of surface water in whole or part. Check with
your state drinking water section or health department for further instructions.

The maximum contaminant level for turbidity for systems that provide filtration treatment:
1. Conventional or direct filtration: less than or equal to 0.5 NTU in at least 95% of the
measurements taken each month. Conventional filtration treatment plants should be able to
achieve a level of 0.1 NTU with proper chemical addition and operation.
2. Slow sand filtration, cartridge and alternative filtration: less than or equal to 1 NTU in at least
95% of the measurements taken each month. The turbidity levels must not exceed 5 NTU at any
turbidity measurements must be performed on representative samples of the filtered water every
four (4) hours that the system serves water to the public. A water system may substitute
continuous turbidity monitoring for grab sample monitoring if it validates the continuous
measurement for accuracy on a regular basis using a protocol approved by the Health or Drinking
Water Agency, such as confirmation by a bench top turbidimeter. For systems using slow sand
filtration, cartridge, or alternative filtration treatment the Health or Drinking Water Agency may
reduce the sampling frequency to once per day if it determines that less frequent monitoring is
sufficient to indicate effective filtration performance.

Inorganic Chemical Monitoring

All systems must monitor for
inorganics. The monitoring for
these contaminants is also
complex with reductions, waivers
and detections affecting the
sampling frequency. Please refer to
the monitoring schedules provided
by your state health or drinking
water sections for assistance in
determining individual
requirements. All transient non-
community water systems are
required to complete a one-time
inorganic chemical analysis. The
sample is to be collected at entry
points (POE) to the distribution system representative of each source after any application of
treatment.

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Nitrates
Nitrate is an inorganic chemical that occurs naturally in some groundwater but most often is
introduced into ground and surface waters by man. The most common sources are from fertilizers
and treated sewage or septic systems. At high levels (over 10 mg/l) it can cause the “blue baby”
syndrome in young infants, which can lead to serious illness and even death. It is regarded as an
“acute health risk” because it can quickly cause illness.

Every water system must test for Nitrate at least yearly. Systems that use ground water only
must test yearly. Systems that use surface water and those that mix surface and ground water
must test every quarter. A surface water system may go to yearly testing if community and
nontransient noncommunity water must do quarterly monitoring whenever they exceed 5 mg/l in a
test. After 4 quarters of testing and the results show that the nitrate level is not going up, they
may go back to yearly testing.

Radiological Contaminants
All community water systems shall monitor for gross alpha activity every four years for each
source. Depending on your state rules, compliance will be based on the annual composite of 4
consecutive quarters or the average of the analyses of 4 quarterly samples. If the average annual
concentration is less than one half the MCL, an analysis of a single sample may be substituted for
the quarterly sampling procedure.

Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM)

All community water systems serving a population of 10,000 or more and which add a disinfectant
in any part of the drinking water treatment process shall monitor for total trihalomethanes (TTHM).
The MCL is 0.1 mg/l and consists of a calculation of the running average of quarterly analyses of
the sum of the concentrations of bromodichloromethane, di-bromochloromethane, bromoform and
chloroform.

Lead and Copper Rule

The Lead and Copper Rule was promulgated by the U.S. EPA on June 7, 1991, with monitoring
to begin in January 1992 for larger water systems. This rule applies to all community and
nontransient, noncommunity water systems and establishes action levels for these two
contaminants at the consumer’s tap. Action levels of 0.015 mg/l for lead and 1.3 mg/l for copper
have been established.

This rule establishes maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) for lead and copper, treatment
technique requirements for optimal corrosion control, source water treatment, public education
and lead service line replacement. Whenever an action level is exceeded, the corrosion control
treatment requirement is triggered. This is determined by the concentration measured in the 90th
percentile highest sample from the samples collected at consumers’ taps. Sample results are
assembled in ascending order (lowest to highest) with the result at the 90th percentile being the
action level for the system. For example, if a water system collected 20 samples, the result of the
18th highest sample would be the action level for the system.

The rule also includes the best available technology (BAT) for complying with the treatment
technique requirements, mandatory health effects language for public notification of violations
and analytical methods and laboratory performance requirements.

Initial monitoring began in January 1992 for systems with a population of 50,000 or more, in July
1992 for medium-sized systems (3,300 to 50,000 population) and in July 1993 for small-sized
systems (less than 3,300 population),

One-liter tap water samples are to be collected at high-risk locations by either water system
personnel or residents. Generally, high-risk locations are homes with lead-based solder installed
after 1982 or with lead pipes or service lines. If not enough of these locations exist in the water
system, the rule provides specific guidelines for selecting other sample sites.

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The water must be allowed to stand motionless in the plumbing pipes for at least six (6) hours
and collected from a cold water tap in the kitchen or bathroom. It is a first draw sample, which
means the line is not to be flushed prior to sample collection. The number of sampling sites is
determined by the population of the system and sample collection consists of two, six-month
monitoring periods; check with your state rule or drinking water section for more information.

Sampling Sites by Population

System size - No. of sites - No. of sites
(no. of persons served) (standard monitoring) (reduced monitoring)
>100,000 100 50
10,001-100,000 60 30
3,301 to 10,000 40 20
501 to 3,300 20 10
101 to 500 10 5
< 100 5 5

If a system meets the lead and copper action levels or maintains optimal corrosion control
treatment for two consecutive six-month monitoring periods, then reduced monitoring is allowed
and sampling frequency drops to once per year. After three consecutive years of reduced
monitoring, sample frequency drops to once every three years. In addition to lead and copper
testing, all large water systems and those medium- and small-sized systems that exceed the lead
or copper action levels will be required to monitor for the following water quality parameters: pH,
alkalinity, calcium, conductivity, orthophosphate, silica and water temperature.

These parameters are used to identify optimal corrosion control treatment and determine
compliance with the rule once treatment is installed. The sampling locations for monitoring water
quality parameters are at entry points and representative taps throughout the distribution system.

Coliform sampling sites can be used for distribution system sampling. The number of sites
required for monitoring water quality during each six-month period is shown below.

Number of Water Quality Parameters per Population

System size # of sites for water (no. of persons served) quality parameters
>100,000 25
10,001-100,000 10
3,301 to 10,000 3
501 to 3,300 2
101 to 500 1
<100 1

Water systems which maintain water quality parameters reflecting optimal corrosion control for
two consecutive six-month monitoring periods qualify for reduced monitoring. After three
consecutive years, the monitoring frequency can drop to once per year.

All large water systems must demonstrate that their water is minimally corrosive or install
corrosion control treatment regardless of lead and copper sampling results.

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QA/QC Measures
In addition to standard samples, the field technicians collect equipment blanks (EB), field cleaned
equipment blanks (FB), split samples (SS), and field duplicate samples (FD).

Overall care must be taken in regards to equipment handling, container handling/storage,

decontamination, and record keeping. Sample collection equipment and non-preserved sample
containers must be rinsed three times with sample water before the actual sample is taken.
Exceptions to this are any pre-preserved container or bac-t type samples.

If protective gloves are used, they shall be clean, new and disposable. These should be changed
upon arrival at a new sampling point. Highly contaminated samples shall never be placed in the
same ice chest as environmental samples. It is good practice to enclose highly contaminated
samples in a plastic bag before placing them in ice chests. The same is true for wastewater and
drinking water samples.

Ice chests or shipping containers with samples suspected of being highly contaminated shall be
lined with new, clean, plastic bags. If possible, one member of the field team should take all the
notes, fill out labels, etc., while the other member does all of the sampling.

Preservation of Samples
Proper sample preservation is the responsibility of the sampling team, not the lab providing
sample containers. The best reference for preservatives is Standard Methods or your local
laboratory.

It is the responsibility of the field team to assure that all

samples are appropriately preserved.

Follow the preservative solution preparation instructions.

Always use strong safety precautions diluting the acid.

Put a new label on the dispensing bottle with the current

date.

Slowly add the acid or other preservative to the water

sample; not water to the acid or preservative.

Wait 3-4 hours for the preservative to cool most samples down to 4 degrees Celsius.

Most preservatives have a shelf life of one year from the preparation date.

When samples are analyzed for TKN, TP, NH4 and NOx 1 mL of 50% Trace Metal grade sulfuric
acid is added to the each discrete auto sampler bottles/bags in the field lab before sampling
collection. The preservative maintains the sample at 1.5<pH<2 after collection. To meet
maximum holding time for these preserved samples (28 days), pull and ship samples every 14
days.

Narrow range pH paper (test strips) can be used to test an aliquot of the preserved sample.

Place the pH paper into the container and compare the color with the manufacturer's color chart.

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Water Disinfectant Terminology
Many water suppliers add a disinfectant to drinking water to kill germs such as giardia and
e coli. Especially after heavy rainstorms, your water system may add more disinfectant to
guarantee that these germs are killed.

Chlorine. Some people who use drinking water containing chlorine well in excess of the EPA
standard could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose. Some people who drink water
containing chlorine well in excess of the EPA standard could experience stomach discomfort.

Chloramine. Some people who use drinking water containing chloramines well in excess of the
EPA standard could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose. Some people who drink
water containing chloramines well in excess of the EPA standard could experience stomach
discomfort or anemia.

Chlorine Dioxide. Some infants and young children who drink water containing chlorine dioxide
in excess of the EPA standard could experience nervous system effects. Similar effects may
occur in fetuses of pregnant women who drink water containing chlorine dioxide in excess of the
EPA standard. Some people may experience anemia.

Disinfection Byproducts
Disinfection byproducts form when disinfectants added to drinking water to kill germs
react with naturally-occurring organic matter in water.

Total Trihalomethanes. Some people who drink water containing trihalomethanes in excess of
the EPA standard over many years may experience problems with their liver, kidneys, or central
nervous systems, and may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Haloacetic Acids. Some people who drink water containing haloacetic acids in excess of the
EPA standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Bromate. Some people who drink water containing bromate in excess of the EPA standard over
many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Chlorite. Some infants and young children who drink water containing chlorite in excess of EPA
standard could experience nervous system effects. Similar effects may occur in fetuses of
pregnant women who drink water containing chlorite in excess of the EPA's standard. Some
people may experience anemia.

MTBE is a fuel additive, commonly used in the United States to reduce carbon monoxide and
ozone levels caused by auto emissions. Due to its widespread use, reports of MTBE detections in
the nation's ground and surface water supplies are increasing. The Office of Water and other
EPA offices are working with a panel of leading experts to focus on issues posed by the
continued use of MTBE and other oxygenates in gasoline. The EPA is currently studying the
implications of setting a drinking water standard for MTBE.

Health advisories provide additional information on certain contaminants. Health advisories are
guidance values based on health effects other than cancer. These values are set for different
durations of exposure (e.g., one-day, ten-day, longer-term, and lifetime).

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Modern water quality or sampling truck set-up. Various tools, rope, hammers are
nice to have but not always necessary. I like that this sampler wears a reflective
vest, I think he is safety conscience, I like the gloves too.

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Examples of Water
Sampling Letters and Forms
January 13, 2015

Wyatt Curtiss
1718 West Van Buren Street
Sunflower, AZ 85007
Dear Mr. Curtiss:
The City of Sunflower initially responded to your water quality concerns on May
19, 2015. We found insufficient chlorine in the drinking water at your business.
We proceeded to flush and redirect the water in your area.
We resampled your area on two additional dates:

May 28, 2011 July 25, 2011

Address Chlorine CFU Chlorine CFU
(mg/L) (mg/L)
310 N. 17th Professor O.3 780 0.8 <1
1708 W. Van Buren St. 0.2 305 0.6 8

Currently our results indicate good conditions in your area. According to our
testing method, a CFU (Colony Forming Units) count of bacteria below 500 is
considered adequately disinfected (passing). Other evidence of good water
quality is the absence of Total Coliform and the Escherichia coli bacteria. This is
indicated by the "-" (negative) results in the "Total Coliform" and the "E. Coli"
columns of the Bacteriological Analysis Form.
Quality control is documented on the bottom of the Bacteriological Analysis
Form. The results are normal and indicate that the incubator was kept at the
correct temperature and that we were looking for the correct organisms.
All tests indicate that the drinking water being provided is safe. Should you have
any questions regarding drinking water quality in the City of Sunflower, please
contact me at 474-8888. Our office hours are 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday
through Friday.
Sincerely,

Bill Fields
Water Quality Inspector

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<DATE>

<NAME>
<ADDRESS>

Dear <NAME>:

Thank you for collecting drinking water samples from your home for the City of
Sunflower’s Lead and Copper monitoring program. You will be receiving the test
results soon -- if you haven’t received them already.

Our tests show there is essentially no lead or copper in water coming to you from
our water treatment plants. But we also need to know if our drinking water
leaches lead or copper from your household plumbing. The only way we can
learn this information is to analyze samples from inside your home.

Thanks again for your help. With the information we gain we can do an even
better job of making sure your tap water meets all federal and state health and
safety regulations.

Sincerely,

Chris Mitchell
Mayor

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June 11, 2019

Mr. Doc Curtiss

1008 East Northern Avenue
Sunflower, Arizona 85020

Dear Mr. Curtiss:

The City of Sunflower responded to your water quality concerns on 11/27/19.

We collected a bacteriological sample and checked the chlorine level at your
home. The results are recorded on our worksheet, the Bacteriological Analysis
Form, and are attached to this letter.

Our results indicate excellent conditions with 10 Colony Forming Units (CFU) per
site. According to our testing method, a CFU count below 500 is considered
adequately disinfected (passing). Other evidence of good water quality is the
absence of Total Coliform and the Escherichia Coli bacteria. This is indicated by
the "-" (negative) results in the Total Coliform and the E. Coli columns of the
Bacteriological Analysis Form.

Quality control is documented on the bottom of the Bacteriological Analysis

Form. The results are normal and indicate that the incubator was kept at the
correct temperature and that we were looking for the correct organisms.

The chlorine level was checked at the same sampling site. The chlorine level
was adequate with a reading of 0.7 mg/L.

All tests indicate that the drinking water being provided is safe. Should you have
any questions, please contact me at 232-9508. Our office hours are 8:00 a.m. to
5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday.

Sincerely,

Bill Fields
Water Quality Inspector

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Facts About Water Taste and Odor Customer Letter Example

Musty or earthy odors are something common to water systems that use surface water
(rivers, streams and lakes) as a source of their drinking water. These odors are natural
and are usually the result of algae growth. The growth is most common when air and
water temperatures begin to drop in the fall as a result of changes in the weather. A
certain temperature range makes algae grow more quickly in the surface water. The
odor may occur intermittently through January.

Some people find the odor objectionable and/or a nuisance, but it represents no health
hazard. The odor affects only the aesthetic quality of the water.

The Water Services Department treats water at treatment plants to ensure it meets all
health and safety standards. We add chlorine to the water to protect against harmful
organisms. The department regularly tests the drinking water for about 150 different
compounds.

If you experience a musty odor in the water you drink, try the following:

 First, fill a water bottle and leave it uncapped on the counter for 30 to 60 minutes.
 Then, refrigerate the water for a few hours.
 If there still is some odor, try running the tap for 15 to 30 seconds before filling
the water jug.
 Finally, inexpensive carbon filters can be added at the faucet to help eliminate
the odors. However, remember to follow directions concerning maintenance
such as cleaning or replacing the filter.

During seasonal changes, our water often contains 10-15 parts per trillion of the natural
compound that creates the musty odor. Some people can detect the odor when there is
as little as five parts per trillion in the water. For purposes of comparison, five parts per
trillion is comparable to five seconds in 32,000 years.

Remember, the odor is seasonal and is not a health hazard. It usually occurs in the fall
and disappears sometime during the winter.

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Troubleshooting Table for Sampling Monitoring
Problem
1. Positive Total Coliform.
2. Chlorine taste and odor.
3. Inability to maintain an adequately free chlorine
residual at the furthest points of the distribution
system or at dead end lines.

Possible Cause
1A. Improper sampling technique.
1B. Contamination entering distribution system.
1C. Inadequate chlorine residual at the sampling
site.
1D. Growth of biofilm in the distribution system.
2A. High total chlorine residual and low free
residual.
3A. Inadequate chlorine dose at treatment plant.
3B. Problems with chlorine feed equipment.
3C. Ineffective distribution system flushing
program.
3D. Growth of biofilm in the distribution system.

Possible Solution
1A/ Check distribution system for low pressure conditions, possibly due to line breaks or
excessive flows that may result in a backflow problem.
1B. Insure that all staff are properly trained in sampling and transport procedures as described in
the TCR.
1C. Check the operation of the chlorination feed system. Refer to issues described in the sections
on pumps and hypochlorination systems. Insure that residual test is being performed properly.
1D. Thoroughly flush effected areas of the distribution system. Superchlorination may be
necessary in severe cases.
2A. The free residual should be at least 85% of the total residual. Increase the chlorine dose rate
to get past the breakpoint in order to destroy some of the combined residual that causes taste
and odor problems. Additional system flushing may also be required.
3A. Increase chlorine feed rate at point of application.
3B. Check operation of chlorination equipment.
3C. Review distribution system flushing program and implement improvements to address areas
of inadequate chlorine residual.
3D. Increase flushing in area of biofilm problem.

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 The jar test is an attempt to duplicate water treatment plant conditions.

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History of the Periodic Table:
Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table when he first listed the elements in order of atomic
mass in 1869. He found that the elements with similar properties occur in a periodic
manner. Mendeleev was able to arrange the elements in a table form where similar elements
are found in the same column.

How is the Periodic Table Organized?

The periodic table is organized with eight principal vertical columns called groups and seven
horizontal rows called periods. (The groups are numbered I to VIII from left to right, and the
periods are numbered 1 to 7 from top to bottom.)

All the metals are grouped together on the left side of the periodic table, and all the nonmetals
are grouped together on the right side of the periodic table. Semimetals are found in between
the metals and nonmetals.

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What are the eight groups of the Periodic Table?

 Group I: Alkali Metals - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

known as alkali metals
most reactive of the metals
react with all nonmetals except the noble gases
contain typical physical properties of metals (ex. shiny solids and good conductors
of heat and electricity)
softer than most familiar metals; can be cut with a knife
 Group II: Alkaline Earth Metals-Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
known as alkaline earth metals
react with nonmetals, but more slowly than the Group I metals
solids at room temperature
have typical metallic properties
harder than the Group I metals
higher melting points than the Group I metals
 Group III: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl
boron is a semimetal; all the others are metals
 Group IV: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
carbon is a nonmetal; silicon and germanium are semimetals; tin and lead are
metals
 Group V: N, P, As, Sb, Bi
nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals; arsenic and antimony are semimetals;
bismuth is a metal
 Group VI: O, S, Se, Te, Po
oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals; tellurium and polonium are
semimetals
 Group VII: Halogens-F, Cl, Br, I, At
very reactive nonmetals
 Group VIII: Noble Gases-He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
very unreactive

How do the properties of metals and nonmetals differ?

Properties of Metals
Solids at room temperature, Conduct heat very well
Have electrical conductivities that increase with decreasing temperature
Have a high flexibility and a shiny metallic luster
Are malleable-can be beaten out into sheets or foils
Are ductile-can be pulled into thin wires without breaking
Emit electrons when they are exposed to radiation of sufficiently high energy or when They are
heated (known as photoelectric effect and thermionic effect)
Properties of Nonmetals
May be gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature, poor conductors of heat
Are insulators-very poor conductors of electricity
Do not have a high reflectivity or a shiny metallic appearance
In solid form generally brittle and fracture easily under stress
Do not exhibit photoelectric or thermionic effects

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The pH Scale

pH: A measure of the acidity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the
mid-point or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the scale with 0 as the
point of greatest acid activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of the
scale with 14 as the point of greatest basic activity.

pH = (Power of Hydroxyl Ion Activity).

The acidity of a water sample is measured on a pH scale. This scale ranges from 0
(maximum acidity) to 14 (maximum alkalinity). The middle of the scale, 7, represents the
neutral point. The acidity increases from neutral toward 0.

Because the scale is logarithmic, a difference of one pH unit represents a tenfold

change. For example, the acidity of a sample with a pH of 5 is ten times greater than that
of a sample with a pH of 6. A difference of 2 units, from 6 to 4, would mean that the
acidity is one hundred times greater, and so on.

Normal rain has a pH of 5.6 – slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in
the earth's atmosphere by the rain.

89
Here is a party that will never stop…
Never keep food or drinks in your sample refrigerator. I know all of you have
done this in the past and I know you’ve seen someone work without gloves, but
you need to be strong and remind personnel that you had enough of tasting all
the nastiness. If you are new to this industry, don’t fret, you will get a free taste
very soon, one way or another. My advice, ask for the hepatitis injections and
prepare for a case of the runs that will last for about 1-2 days, after this, you
should be good to go. All of us have suffered through this ordeal.

What are the symptoms of viral gastroenteritis?

The main symptoms of viral gastroenteritis are watery diarrhea and vomiting. The
affected person may also have headache, fever, and abdominal cramps
("stomach ache"). In general, the symptoms begin 1 to 2 days following infection
with a virus that causes gastroenteritis and may last for 1 to 10 days, depending
on which virus causes the illness.

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Microorganism Appendix

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This section will give a close-up and short explanation of the major
microorganisms found in water and in wastewater.

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Protozoa

Protozoa are around 10–50 micrometer, but can grow up to 1 mm and can easily be
seen under a microscope. Protozoa exist throughout aqueous environments and soil.
Protozoa occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators, they prey upon unicellular or
filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi.

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Protozoa play a role both as herbivores and as consumers in the decomposer link of the
food chain. Protozoa also play a vital role in controlling bacteria populations and
biomass. As components of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food
source for microinvertebrates. Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of
bacterial and algal production to successive trophic levels is important. Protozoa such as
the malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.), trypanosomes and leishmania are also
important as parasites and symbionts of multicellular animals.

Most protozoa exist in 5 stages of life which are in the form of trophozoites and cysts. As
cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures
and harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for
a period of time. Being a cyst enables parasitic species to survive outside of the host,
and allows their transmission from one host to another. When protozoa are in the form of
trophozoites (Greek, tropho=to nourish), they actively feed and grow. The process by
which the protozoa takes its cyst form is called encystation, while the process of
transforming back into trophozoite is called excystation.

Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce
sexually, some asexually, and some both (e.g. Coccidia). An individual protozoan is
hermaphroditic.

Classification
Protozoa were commonly grouped in the kingdom of Protista together with the plant-like
algae and fungus-like water molds and slime molds. In the 21st-century systematics,
protozoans, along with ciliates, mastigophorans, and apicomplexans, are arranged as
animal-like protists. However, protozoans are neither Animalia nor Metazoa (with the
possible exception of the enigmatic, moldy Myxozoa).

Sub-groups
Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of their means of locomotion,
although this is no longer believed to represent genuine relationships:
* Flagellates (e.g. Giardia lambia)
* Amoeboids (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica)
* Sporozoans (e.g. Plasmodium knowlesi)
* Apicomplexa
* Myxozoa
* Microsporidia
* Ciliates (e.g. Balantidium coli)

There are many ways that infectious diseases can spread. Pathogens usually have
specific routes by which they are transmitted, and these routes may depend on the type
of cells and tissue that a particular agent targets. For example, because cold viruses
infect the respiratory tract, they are dispersed into the air via coughing and sneezing.

Once in the air, the viruses can infect another person who is unlucky enough to inhale
air containing the virus particles.

Agents vary greatly in their stability in the environment. Some viruses may survive for
only a few minutes outside of a host, while some spore-forming bacteria are extremely
durable and may survive in a dormant state for a decade or more.

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Protozoa Section

The diverse assemblage of organisms that carry out all of their life functions within the
confines of a single, complex eukaryotic cell are called protozoa.

Paramecium, Euglena, and Amoeba are well-known examples of these major groups of
organisms. Some protozoa are more closely related to animals, others to plants, and still
others are relatively unique. Although it is not appropriate to group them together into a
single taxonomic category, the research tools used to study any unicellular organism are
usually the same, and the field of protozoology has been created to carry out this
research. The unicellular photosynthetic protozoa are sometimes also called algae and
are addressed elsewhere. This report considers the status of our knowledge of
heterotrophic protozoa (protozoa that cannot produce their own food).

Free-living Protozoa
Protozoans are found in all moist habitats within the United States, but we know little
about their specific geographic distribution. Because of their small size, production of
resistant cysts, and ease of distribution from one place to another, many species appear
to be cosmopolitan and may be collected in similar microhabitats worldwide (Cairns and
Ruthven 1972). Other species may have relatively narrow limits to their distribution.

Marine ciliates inhabit interstices of sediment and beach sands, surfaces, deep sea and
cold Antarctic environments, planktonic habitats, and the algal mats and detritus of
estuaries and wetlands.

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Amoeba proteus, pseudopods slowly engulf the small desmid Staurastrum.

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Amoebas
Amoebas (Phylum Rhizopoda) are unicellular protists that are able to change their
shape constantly. Each species has its own distinct repertoire of shapes.

How does an amoeba locomote?

Amoebas locomote by way of cytoplasmic movement. (cytoplasm is the cell content
around the nucleus of the cell) The amoeba forms pseudopods (false feet) with which
they 'flow' over a surface. The cytoplasma not only flows, it also changes from a fluid into
a solid state.

These pseudopods are also used to capture prey, they simply engulf the food. They can
detect the kind of prey and use different 'engulfing tactics'.

The image from the last page shows several cell organelles. Left from the center we can
see aspherical water expelling vesicle and just right of it, the single nucleus of this
species can be seen. Other species may have many nuclei. The cell is full of brown food
vacuoles and also contains small crystals.

Protozoa Information
Our actual knowledge of salinity, temperature, and oxygen requirements of marine
protozoa is poor (although some groups, such as the foraminifera, are better studied
than others), and even the broadest outlines of their biogeographic ranges are usually a
mystery. In general, freshwater protozoan communities are similar to marine
communities except the specialized interstitial fauna of the sand is largely missing. In
freshwater habitats, the foraminifera and radiolaria common in marine environments are
absent or low in numbers while testate amoebae exist in greater numbers. Relative
abundance of species in the marine versus freshwater habitat is unknown.

Soil-dwelling protozoa have been documented from almost every type of soil and in
every kind of environment, from the peat-rich soil of bogs to the dry sands of deserts. In
general, protozoa are found in greatest abundance near the soil surface, especially in
the upper 15 cm (6 in), but occasional isolates can be obtained at depths of a meter
(yard) or more.

Protozoa do not constitute a major part of soil biomass, but in some highly productive
regions such as forest litter, the protozoa are a significant food source for the
microinvertebrates, with a biomass that may reach 20 g/m2 of soil surface area there.

Environmental Quality Indicators

Polluted waters often have a rich and characteristic protozoan fauna. The relative
abundance and diversity of protozoa are used as indicators of organic and toxic pollution
(Cairns et al. 1972; Foissner 1987; Niederlehner et al. 1990; Curds 1992). Bick (1972),
for example, provided a guide to ciliates that are useful as indicators of environmental
quality of European freshwater systems, along with their ecological distribution with
respect to parameters such as amount of organic material and oxygen levels.

Foissner (1988) clarified the taxonomy of European ciliates as part of a system for
classifying the state of aquatic habitats according to their faunas.

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Symbiotic Protozoa
Parasites
Protozoa are infamous for their role in causing disease, and parasitic species are among
the best-known protozoa. Nevertheless, our knowledge has large gaps, especially of
normally free-living protozoa that may become pathogenic in immunocompromised
individuals. For example, microsporidia comprise a unique group of obligate, intracellular
parasitic protozoa. Microsporidia are amazingly diverse organisms with more than 700
species and 80 genera that are capable of infecting a variety of plant, animal, and even
other protist hosts.

They are found worldwide and have the ability to thrive in many ecological conditions.
Until the past few years, their ubiquity did not cause a threat to human health, and few
systematists worked to describe and classify the species. Since 1985, however,
physicians have documented an unusual rise in worldwide infections in AIDS patients
caused by four different genera of microsporidia (Encephalitozoon, Nosema,
Pleistophora, and Enterocytozoon). According to the Centers for Disease Control in the
United States, difficulties in identifying microsporidian species are impeding diagnosis
and effective treatment of AIDS patients.

Protozoan Reservoirs of Disease

The presence of bacteria in the cytoplasm of protozoa is well known, whereas that of
viruses is less frequently reported. Most of these reports simply record the presence of
bacteria or viruses and assume some sort of symbiotic relationship between them and
the protozoa. Recently, however, certain human pathogens were shown to not only
survive but also to multiply in the cytoplasm of free-living, nonpathogenic protozoa.
Indeed, it is now believed that protozoa are the natural habitat for certain pathogenic
bacteria. To date, the main focus of attention has been on the bacterium Legionella
pneumophila, the causative organism of Legionnaires' disease; these bacteria live and
reproduce in the cytoplasm of some free-living amoebae (Curds 1992). More on this
subject in the following pages.

Symbionts
Some protozoa are harmless or even beneficial symbionts. A bewildering array of
ciliates, for example, inhabit the rumen and reticulum of ruminates and the cecum and
colon of equids. Little is known about the relationship of the ciliates to their host, but a
few may aid the animal in digesting cellulose.

Data on Protozoa
While our knowledge of recent and fossil foraminifera in the U.S. coastal waterways is
systematically growing, other free-living protozoa are poorly known. There are some
regional guides and, while some are excellent, many are limited in scope, vague on
specifics, or difficult to use. Largely because of these problems, most ecologists who
include protozoa in their studies of aquatic habitats do not identify them, even if they do
count and measure them for biomass estimates (Taylor and Sanders 1991).

Parasitic protozoa of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife are better known although
no attempt has been made to compile this information into a single source. Large gaps
in our knowledge exist, especially for haemogregarines, microsporidians, and
myxosporidians (see Kreier and Baker 1987).

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Museum Specimens
For many plant and animal taxa, museums represent a massive information resource.
This is not true for protozoa. In the United States, only the National Natural History
Museum (Smithsonian Institution) has a reference collection preserved on microscope
slides, but it does not have a protozoologist curator and cannot provide species'
identification or verification services. The American Type Culture Collection has some
protozoa in culture, but its collection includes relatively few kinds of protozoa.

Ecological Role of Protozoa

Although protozoa are frequently overlooked, they play an important role in many
communities where they occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators upon unicellular
or filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi, protozoa play a role both as herbivores
and as consumers in the decomposer link of the food chain. As components of the
micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food source for microinvertebrates.
Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of bacterial and algal production to
successive trophic levels is important.

Factors Affecting Growth and Distribution

Most free-living protozoa reproduce by cell division (exchange of genetic material is a
separate process and is not involved in reproduction in protozoa). The relative
importance for population growth of biotic versus chemical-physical components of the
environment is difficult to ascertain from the existing survey data. Protozoa are found
living actively in nutrient-poor to organically rich waters and in fresh water varying
between 0°C (32°F) and 50°C (122°F). Nonetheless, it appears that rates of population
growth increase when food is not constrained and temperature is increased (Lee and
Fenchel 1972; Fenchel 1974; Montagnes et al. 1988).

Comparisons of oxygen consumption in various taxonomic groups show wide variation

(Laybourn and Finlay 1976), with some aerobic forms able to function at extremely low
oxygen tensions and to thereby avoid competition and predation.

Many parasitic and a few free-living species are obligatory anaerobes (grow without
atmospheric oxygen). Of the free-living forms, the best known are the plagiopylid ciliates
that live in the anaerobic sulfide-rich sediments of marine wetlands (Fenchel et al. 1977).
The importance of plagiopylids in recycling nutrients to aerobic zones of wetlands is
potentially great.

Because of the small size of protozoa, their short generation time, and (for some
species) ease of maintaining them in the laboratory, ecologists have used protozoan
populations and communities to investigate competition and predation.

The result has been an extensive literature on a few species studied primarily under
laboratory conditions. Few studies have been extended to natural habitats with the result
that we know relatively little about most protozoa and their roles in natural communities.
Intraspecific competition for common resources often results in cannibalism, sometimes
with dramatic changes in morphology of the cannibals (Giese 1973). Field studies of
interspecific competition are few and most evidence for such species interactions is
indirect (Cairns and Yongue 1977).

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Contractile Vacuoles
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In
multicellular organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most
of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its
osmotic pressure. Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called
flagella when long and cilia when short. These are variously involved in movement,
feeding, and sensation. These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are
supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body, also called a
kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two
singlets. Flagella also may have hairs or mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes,
and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.

Centrioles
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They
generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids that give rise to various
microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and
are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained
from the parent and the other derived from it. Centrioles may also be associated in the
formation of a spindle during nuclear division. Some protists have various other
microtubule-supported organelles. These include the radiolaria and heliozoa, which
produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the haptophytes, which have
a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

Figure 1. A diagram of Paramecium sp. with major organelles indicated.

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 Contractile Vacuoles
Figure 2. The contractile vacuole when full (top) and after contraction (bottom).

Paramecium
Members of the genus Paramecium are single-celled, freshwater organisms in the
kingdom Protista. They exist in an environment in which the osmotic concentration in
their external environment is much lower than that in their cytoplasm. More specifically,
the habitat in which they live is hypotonic to their cytoplasm. As a result of this,
Paramecium is subjected to a continuous influx of water, as water diffuses inward to a
region of higher osmotic concentration.

If Paramecium is to maintain homeostasis, water must be continually pumped out of the

cell (against the osmotic gradient) at the same rate at which it moves in. This process,
known as osmoregulation, is carried out by two organelles in Paramecium known as
contractile vacuoles (Figures 1 and 2).

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Here is a wastewater Inspector is utilizing the auto sampler’s manual to help
adjust the time and adjust for the correct flow for a composite sample. You can
see that she is pouring off the pickle jar. This inspector is also the course author.

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Protozoan Diseases
Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses, but still microscopic. They
invade and inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in a
dormant form, with a protective cell wall called a “cyst.” The cyst can survive in the
environment for long periods of time and be extremely resistant to conventional
disinfectants such as chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is therefore critical to
removing these organisms from water sources.

Giardiasis
Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been referred
to as “backpacker’s disease” and “beaver fever” because of the many cases reported
among hikers and others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms include
chronic diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy stools,
fatigue and weight loss. The incubation period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of
7-10 days. Many infections are asymptomatic (no symptoms). Giardiasis occurs
worldwide. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most often in communities
receiving their drinking water from streams or rivers without adequate disinfection or a
filtration system. The organism, Giardia lamblia, has been responsible for more
community-wide outbreaks of disease in the U.S. than any other pathogen. Drugs are
available for treatment but are not 100% effective.

Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide, but
was only recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in humans
is diarrhea, which may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with cramping
abdominal pain. General malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea, and vomiting occur less
often. Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in most cases.
The incubation period is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days.
Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified in human fecal specimens from more
than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission is fecal-oral, either by
person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for
Cryptosporidium infections.

All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common:
diarrhea. They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through
person-to-person or animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission,
being either foodborne or waterborne. Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting
disease, on occasion, they can cause serious, even life threatening illness. Particularly
vulnerable are persons with weak immune systems such as those with HIV infections or
cancer. By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly
constructed, operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While
water treatment cannot achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment
must clearly be to produce drinking water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all
times. For those who operate water systems with inadequate source protection or
treatment facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease outbreak is real. For those
operating systems that currently provide adequate source protection and treatment,
operating and maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing basis is critical to
prevent disease.

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Giardia Lamblia

Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a

flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine,
causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive
disc, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream,
nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the
lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen
of the small intestine, and are anaerobes.

Giardia infection can occur through ingestion of dormant cysts in contaminated water, or
by the fecal-oral route (through poor hygiene practices). The Giardia cyst can survive for
weeks to months in cold water and therefore can be present in contaminated wells and
water systems, and even clean-looking mountain streams, as well as city reservoirs, as
the Giardia cysts are resistant to conventional water treatment methods, such as
chlorination and ozonolysis. Zoonotic transmission is also possible, and therefore
Giardia infection is a concern for people camping in the wilderness or swimming in
contaminated streams or lakes, especially the artificial lakes formed by beaver dams
(hence the popular name for giardiasis, "Beaver Fever"). As well as water-borne
sources, fecal-oral transmission can also occur, for example in day care centers, where
children may have poorer hygiene practices.

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Those who work with children are also at risk of being infected, as are family members
of infected individuals. Not all Giardia infections are symptomatic, so some people can
unknowingly serve as carriers of the parasite.

The life cycle begins with a non-infective cyst being excreted with feces of an infected
individual. Once out in the environment, the cyst becomes infective. A distinguishing
characteristic of the cyst is 4 nuclei and a retracted cytoplasm. Once ingested by a host,
the trophozoite emerges to an active state of feeding and motility. After the feeding
stage, the trophozoite undergoes asexual replication through longitudinal binary fission.
The resulting trophozoites and cysts then pass through the digestive system in the
feces. While the trophozoites may be found in the feces, only the cysts are capable of
surviving outside of the host.

Distinguishing features of the trophozoites are large karyosomes and lack of peripheral
chromatin, giving the two nuclei a halo appearance. Cysts are distinguished by a
retracted cytoplasm. This protozoa lacks mitochondria, although the discovery of the
presence of mitochodrial remnant organelles in one recent study "indicate that Giardia is
not primitively amitochondrial and that it has retained a functional organelle derived from
the original mitochondrial endosymbiont"

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Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidium is a protozoan pathogen of the Phylum Apicomplexa and causes a

diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis. Other apicomplexan pathogens include the
malaria parasite Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis.
Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector, Cryptosporidium does not
utilize an insect vector and is capable of completing its life cycle within a single host,
resulting in cyst stages which are excreted in feces and are capable of transmission to a
new host.

A number of species of Cryptosporidium infect mammals. In humans, the main causes of

disease are C. parvum and C. hominis (previously C. parvum genotype 1). C. canis, C.
felis, C. meleagridis, and C. muris can also cause disease in humans. In recent years,
cryptosporidiosis has plagued many commercial Leopard gecko breeders. Several
species of the Cryptosporidium family (C. serpentes and others) are involved, and
outside of geckos it has been found in monitor lizards, iguanas, tortoises as well as
several snake species.

Cryptosporidiosis is typically an acute short-term infection but can become severe and
non-resolving in children and immunocompromised individuals. The parasite is
transmitted by environmentally hardy cysts (oocysts) that, once ingested, excyst in the
small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue.

The genome of Cryptosporidium parvum was sequenced in 2004 and was found to be
unusual amongst Eukaryotes in that the mitochondria seem not to contain DNA. A
closely-related species, C. hominis, also has its genome sequence available.
CryptoDB.org is a NIH-funded database that provides access to the Cryptosporidium
genomics data sets.

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When C. parvum was first identified as a human pathogen, diagnosis was made by a
biopsy of intestinal tissue (Keusch, et al., 1995). However, this method of testing can
give false negatives due the "patchy" nature of the intestinal parasitic infection (Flanigan
and Soave, 1993). Staining methods were then developed to detect and identify the
oocysts directly from stool samples. The modified acid-fast stain is traditionally used to
most reliably and specifically detect the presence of cryptosporidial oocysts.

There have been six major outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis in the United States as a result
of contamination of drinking water (Juranek, 1995). One major outbreak in Milwaukee in
1993 affected over 400,000 persons. Outbreaks such as these usually result from
drinking water taken from surface water sources such as lakes and rivers (Juranek,
1995). Swimming pools and water park wave pools have also been associated with
outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. Also, untreated groundwater or well water public drinking
water supplies can be sources of contamination.

The highly environmentally resistant cyst of C. parvum allows the pathogen to survive
various drinking water filtrations and chemical treatments such as chlorination. Although
municipal drinking water utilities may meet federal standards for safety and quality of
drinking water, complete protection from cryptosporidial infection is not guaranteed. In
fact, all waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have occurred in communities where
the local utilities met all state and federal drinking water standards (Juranek, 1995).

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Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica, another water-borne pathogen, can cause diarrhea or a more

serious invasive liver abscess. When in contact with human cells, these amoebae are
cytotoxic. There is a rapid influx of calcium into the contacted cell, it quickly stops all
membrane movement save for some surface blebbing. Internal organization is disrupted,
organelles lyse, and the cell dies. The ameba may eat the dead cell or just absorb
nutrients released from the cell.

On average, about one in 10 people who are infected with E. histolytica becomes sick
from the infection. The symptoms often are quite mild and can include loose stools,
stomach pain, and stomach cramping. Amebic dysentery is a severe form of amebiasis
associated with stomach pain, bloody stools, and fever. Rarely, E. histolytica invades the
liver and forms an abscess. Even less commonly, it spreads to other parts of the body,
such as the lungs or brain.

Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Amoebozoa
Class: Archamoebae
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: E. histolytica

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 Mitochondria

The bacterial cell is surrounded by a lipid membrane, or cell membrane, which encloses
the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients, proteins and other
essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell. As they are prokaryotes, bacteria
do not tend to have membrane-bound organelles in their cytoplasm and thus contain few
large intracellular structures. They consequently lack a nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells, such as the Golgi
apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.

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Paramecia
Paramecia are a group of unicellular ciliate protozoa formerly known as slipper
animalcules from their slipper shape. They are commonly studied as a representative of
the ciliate group. Simple cilia cover the body which allows the cell to move with a
synchronous motion (like a caterpilla). There is also a deep oral groove containing
inconspicuous compound oral cilia (as found in other peniculids) that is used to draw
food inside. They generally feed upon bacteria and other small cells. Osmoregulation is
carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles, which actively expel water absorbed by
osmosis from their surroundings. Paramecia are widespread in freshwater
environments, and are especially common in scums. Paramecia are attracted by acidic
conditions. Certain single-celled eukaryotes, such as Paramecium, are examples for
exceptions to the universality of the genetic code (translation systems where a few
codons differ from the standard ones).

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Amoeba
Amoeba (sometimes amœba or ameba, plural amoebae) is a genus of protozoa that
moves by means of pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular
organism. The word amoeba or ameba is variously used to refer to it and its close
relatives, now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using
pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids.

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Vorticella
Vorticella is a genus of protozoa, with over 100 known species. They are stalked
inverted bell-shaped ciliates, placed among the peritrichs. Each cell has a separate stalk
anchored onto the substrate, which contains a contracile fibril called a myoneme. When
stimulated this shortens, causing the stalk to coil like a spring. Reproduction is by
budding, where the cell undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the
stalk. Vorticella mainly lives in freshwater ponds and streams - generally anywhere
protists are plentiful. Other genera such as Carchesium resemble Vorticella but are
branched or colonial.

Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Ciliophora
Class: Oligohymenophorea
Subclass: Peritrichia
Order: Sessilida
Family: Vorticellidae
Genus: Vorticella

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Rotifer
The rotifers make up a phylum of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate
animals. They were first described by John Harris in 1696 (Hudson and Gosse, 1886).
Leeuwenhoek is mistakenly given credit for being the first to describe rotifers but Harris
had produced sketches in 1703. Most rotifers are around 0.1-0.5 mm long, and are
common in freshwater throughout the world with a few saltwater species. Rotifers may
be free swimming and truly planktonic, others move by inch worming along the
substrate, whilst some are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts. About 25
species are colonial (e.g. Sinantherina semibullata), either sessile or planktonic.

Rotifers get their name (derived from Greek and meaning "wheel-bearer"; they have also
been called wheel animalcules) from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated
tufts around the mouth that in motion resemble a wheel. These create a current that
sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called
the mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia also
pull the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-living forms have pairs of
posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding. Rotifers have bilateral symmetry and
a variety of different shapes. There is a well-developed cuticle which may be thick and
rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape;
such rotifers are respectively called loricate and illoricate.

Like many other microscopic animals, adult rotifers frequently exhibit eutely - they have
a fixed number of cells within a species, usually on the order of one thousand. Males in
the class Monogononta may be either present or absent depending on the species and
environmental conditions. In the absence of males, reproduction is by parthenogenesis
and results in clonal offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. Individuals of
some species form two distinct types of parthenogenetic eggs; one type develops into a
normal parthenogenetic female, while the other occurs in response to a changed
environment and develops into a degenerate male that lacks a digestive system, but
does have a complete male reproductive system that is used to inseminate females
thereby producing fertilized 'resting eggs'. Resting eggs develop into zygotes that are
able to survive extreme environmental conditions such as may occur during winter or
when the pond dries up. These eggs resume development and produce a new female
generation when conditions improve again. The life span of monogonont females varies
from a couple of days to about three weeks.

Bdelloid rotifers are unable to produce resting eggs, but many can survive prolonged
periods of adverse conditions after desiccation. This facility is termed anhydrobiosis, and
organisms with these capabilities are termed anhydrobionts. Under drought conditions,
bdelloid rotifers contract into an inert form and lose almost all body water; when
rehydrated, however, they resume activity within a few hours. Bdelloids can survive the
dry state for prolonged periods, with the longest well-documented dormancy being nine
years. While in other anhydrobionts, such as the brine shrimp, this desiccation tolerance
is thought to be linked to the production of trehalose, a non-reducing disaccharide
(sugar), bdelloids apparently lack the ability to synthesize trehalose. Bdelloid rotifer
genomes contain two or more divergent copies of each gene. Four copies of hsp82 are,
for example, found. Each is different and found on a different chromosome, excluding
the possibility of homozygous sexual reproduction.

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Waterborne Diseases
Name Causative organism Source of organism Disease
Viral Rotavirus (mostly in young Human feces Diarrhea
gastroenteritis children) or vomiting
Norwalk Agent Noroviruses (genus Norovirus, Human feces; also, Diarrhea and
family Caliciviridae) *1 shellfish; lives in polluted vomiting
waters
Salmonellosis Salmonella (bacterium) Animal or human feces Diarrhea or
vomiting
Gastroenteritis -- E. coli O1 57:H7 (bacterium): Human feces Symptoms vary
Escherichia coli Other E. coli organisms: with type caused
Typhoid Salmonella typhi (bacterium) Human feces, urine Inflamed intestine,
enlarged spleen,
high temperature-
sometimes fatal
Shigellosis Shigella (bacterium) Human feces Diarrhea

Cholera Vibrio choleras (bacterium) Human feces; also, Vomiting, severe

shellfish; lives in many diarrhea, rapid
coastal waters dehydration,
mineral loss-high
mortality
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Human feces; shellfish Yellowed skin,
grown in polluted waters enlarged liver,
fever, vomiting,
weight loss,
abdominal pain-
low mortality, lasts
up to four months
Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Human feces Mild diarrhea,
(protozoan) dysentery, extra
intestinal infection
Giardiasis Giardia lamblia (protozoan) Animal or human feces Diarrhea,
cramps, nausea,
and general
weakness — lasts
one week to
months
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum Animal or human feces Diarrhea, stomach
pain — lasts
(protozoan) days
to weeks
Notes:
*1 http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/norovirus.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5009a1.htm

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Bacteria Section

Peritrichous Bacteria

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Microbiologists broadly classify bacteria according to their shape: spherical, rod-shaped,
and spiral-shaped. Pleomorphic bacteria can assume a variety of shapes. Bacteria may
be further classified according to whether they require oxygen (aerobic or anaerobic)
and how they react to a test with Gram’s stain. Bacteria in which alcohol washes away
Gram’s stain are called gram-negative, while bacteria in which alcohol causes the
bacteria’s walls to absorb the stain are called gram-positive.

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Shigella dysenteriae

Shigella dysenteriae is a species of the rod-shaped bacterial genus Shigella. Shigella

can cause shigellosis (bacillary dysentery). Shigellae are Gram-negative, non-spore-
forming, facultatively anaerobic, non-motile bacteria.

S. dysenteriae, spread by contaminated water and food, causes the most severe
dysentery because of its potent and deadly Shiga toxin, but other species may also be
dysentery agents. Shigella infection is typically via ingestion (fecal–oral contamination);
depending on age and condition of the host as few as ten bacterial cells can be enough
to cause an infection. Shigella causes dysentery that result in the destruction of the
epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa in the cecum and rectum. Some strains produce
enterotoxin and Shiga toxin, similar to the verotoxin of E. coli O157:H7. Both Shiga toxin
and verotoxin are associated with causing hemolytic uremic syndrome.

Shigella invades the host through epithelial cells of the large intestine. Using a Type III
secretion system acting as a biological syringe, the bacterium injects IpaD protein into
cell, triggering bacterial invasion and the subsequent lysis of vacuolar membranes using
IpaB and IpaC proteins. It utilizes a mechanism for its motility by which its IcsA protein
triggers actin polymerization in the host cell (via N-WASP recruitment of Arp2/3
complexes) in a "rocket" propulsion fashion for cell-to-cell spread.

The most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps,
and straining to have a bowel movement. The stool may contain blood, mucus, or pus
(e.g. dysentery). In rare cases, young children may have seizures. Symptoms can take
as long as a week to show up, but most often begin two to four days after ingestion.
Symptoms usually last for several days, but can last for weeks. Shigella is implicated as
one of the pathogenic causes of reactive arthritis worldwide.

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 Bacteria Types

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Type Characteristics
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; highly tolerant of acidic
Acetic acid
conditions; generate organic acids
Rod-shaped or filamentous, gram-positive, aerobic; common in soils;
Actinomycete essential to growth of many plants; source of much of original antibiotic
production in pharmaceutical industry
Spherical, sometimes in clusters or strings, gram-positive, aerobic and
anaerobic; resistant to drying and high-salt conditions; Staphylococcus
Coccoid
species common on human skin, certain strains associated with toxic
shock syndrome
Rod-shaped, form club or V shapes, gram-positive, aerobic; found in
Coryneform wide variety of habitats, particularly soils; highly resistant to drying;
include Arthrobacter, among most common forms of life on earth
Usually rod-shaped, can be gram-positive or gram-negative; have
Endospore- highly adaptable, heat-resistant spores that can go dormant for long
forming periods, possibly thousands of years; include Clostridium (anaerobic)
and Bacillus (aerobic)
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic but can live in certain anaerobic
Enteric conditions; produce nitrite from nitrate, acids from glucose; include
Escherichia coli, Salmonella (over 1000 types), and Shigella
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, mostly aerobic; glide on secreted slimy
Gliding
substances; form colonies, frequently with complex fruiting structures
Gram-positive, anaerobic; produce lactic acid through fermentation;
Lactic acid include Lactobacillus, essential in dairy product formation, and
Streptococcus, common in humans
Pleomorphic, spherical or rod-shaped, frequently branching, no gram
Mycobacterium stain, aerobic; commonly form yellow pigments; include Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, cause of tuberculosis
Spherical, commonly forming branching chains, no gram stain, aerobic
but can live in certain anaerobic conditions; without cell walls yet
Mycoplasma
structurally resistant to lysis; among smallest of bacteria; named for
superficial resemblance to fungal hyphae (myco- means 'fungus')
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; convert atmospheric nitrogen gas
Nitrogen-fixing
to ammonium in soil; include Azotobacter, a common genus
Rod-shaped, pleomorphic, gram-positive, anaerobic; ferment lactic
Propionic acid acid; fermentation produces holes in Swiss cheese from the production
of carbon dioxide
Rod-shaped (straight or curved) with polar flagella, gram-negative,
Pseudomonad
aerobic; can use up to 100 different compounds for carbon and energy
Spherical or rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; cause Rocky
Rickettsia Mountain spotted fever and typhus; closely related to Agrobacterium, a
common gall-causing plant bacterium
Filamentous, gram-negative, aerobic; 'swarmer' (colonizing) cells form
Sheathed and break out of a sheath; sometimes coated with metals from
environment

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 Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; include Bdellovibrio, predatory
Spirillum
on other bacteria
Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, mostly anaerobic; common in moist
environments, from mammalian gums to coastal mudflats; complex
Spirochete
internal structures convey rapid movement; include
Treponemapallidum, cause of syphilis
Sulfate- and
Commonly rod-shaped, mostly gram-negative, anaerobic; include
Sulfur-
Desulfovibrio, ecologically important in marshes
reducing
Sulfur- and Commonly rod-shaped, frequently with polar flagella, gram-negative,
iron-oxidizing mostly anaerobic; most live in neutral (nonacidic) environment
Rod- or comma-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; commonly with a
Vibrio single flagellum; include Vibrio cholerae, cause of cholera, and
luminescent forms symbiotic with deep-water fishes and squids

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Salmonella

Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium. It is found in many turtles and other reptiles.

In clinical laboratories, it is usually isolated on MacConkey agar, XLD agar, XLT agar,
DCA agar, or Önöz agar. Because they cause intestinal infections and are greatly
outnumbered by the bacteria normally found in the healthy bowel, primary isolation
requires the use of a selective medium, so use of a relatively non-selective medium such
as CLED agar is not often practiced. Numbers of salmonella may be so low in clinical
samples that stools are routinely also subjected to "enrichment culture", where a small
volume of stool is incubated in a selective broth medium, such as selenite broth or
Rappaport Vassiliadis soya peptone broth, overnight. These media are inhibitory to the
growth of the microbes normally found in the healthy human bowel, while allowing
salmonellae to become enriched in numbers. Salmonellae may then be recovered by
inoculating the enrichment broth on one or more of the primary selective media. On
blood agar, they form moist colonies about 2 to 3 mm in diameter.

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When the cells are grown for a prolonged time at a range of 25—28°C, some strains
produce a biofilm, which is a matrix of complex carbohydrates, cellulose and proteins.
The ability to produce biofilm (a.k.a. "rugose", "lacy", or "wrinkled") can be an indicator of
dimorphism, which is the ability of a single genome to produce multiple phenotypes in
response to environmental conditions. Salmonellae usually do not ferment lactose; most
of them produce hydrogen sulfide which, in media containing ferric ammonium citrate,
reacts to form a black spot in the centre of the creamy colonies.

Classification
Salmonella taxonomy is complicated. As of December 7, 2005, there are two species
within the genus: S. bongori
(previously subspecies V) and
S. enterica (formerly called
S. choleraesuis), which is divided
into six subspecies:
* I—enterica
* II—salamae
* IIIa—arizonae
* IIIb—diarizonae
* IV—houtenae
* V—obsolete (now designated
S. bongori)
* VI—indica

There are also numerous (over

2500) serovars within both species,
which are found in a disparate
variety of environments and which
are associated with many different
diseases. The vast majority of
human isolates (>99.5%) are
subspecies S. enterica. For the
sake of simplicity, the CDC
recommends that Salmonella
species be referred to only by their
genus and serovar, e.g.

Salmonella Typhi instead of the

more technically correct
designation, Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi.

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Escherichia Coli Section
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Fecal coliform bacteria are microscopic organisms that live in the intestines of warm-
blooded animals. They also live in the waste material, or feces, excreted from the
intestinal tract. When fecal coliform bacteria are present in high numbers in a water
sample, it means that the water has received fecal matter from one source or another.
Although not necessarily agents of disease, fecal coliform bacteria may indicate the
presence of disease-carrying organisms, which live in the same environment as the fecal
coliform bacteria.

Reasons for Natural Variation

Unlike the other conventional water quality parameters, fecal coliform bacteria are living
organisms. They do not simply mix with the water and float straight downstream. Instead
they multiply quickly when conditions are favorable for growth, or die in large numbers
when conditions are not. Because bacterial concentrations are dependent on specific
conditions for growth, and these conditions change quickly, fecal coliform bacteria
counts are not easy to predict. For example, although winter rains may wash more fecal
matter from urban areas into a stream, cool water temperatures may cause a major die-
off. Exposure to sunlight (with its ultraviolet disinfection properties) may have the same
effect, even in the warmer water of summertime.

Expected Impact of Pollution

The primary sources of fecal coliform bacteria
to fresh water are wastewater treatment plant
discharges, failing septic systems, and animal
waste. Bacteria levels do not necessarily
decrease as a watershed develops from rural to
urban. Instead, urbanization usually generates
new sources of bacteria. Farm animal manure
and septic systems are replaced by domestic
pets and leaking sanitary sewers. In fact,
stormwater runoff in urbanized areas has been
found to be surprisingly high in fecal coliform
bacteria concentrations.

The presence of old, disintegrating storm and

sanitary sewers, misplaced sewer pipes, and
good breeding conditions are common
explanations for the high levels measured.

Coliform Standards (in colonies/100ml )

Drinking water..................................................................1FC
Total body contact (swimming).............................................200FC
Partial body contact (boating)..............................................1000FC
Threatened sewage effluent ................................not to exceed 200 FC

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*Total coliform (TC) includes bacteria from cold-blooded animals and various soil
organisms. According to recent literature, total coliform counts are normally about 10
times higher than fecal coliform (FC) counts.

Indicator Connection Varies

General coliforms, E. Coli, and Enterococcus bacteria are the "indicator" organisms
generally measured to assess microbiological quality of water. However, these aren't
generally what get people sick. Other bacteria, viruses, and parasites are what we are
actually worried about.

Because it is so much more expensive and tedious to do so, actual pathogens are
virtually never tested for. Over the course of a professional lifetime pouring over indicator
tests, in a context where all standards are based on indicators, water workers tend to
forget that the indicators are not the things we actually care about.

What are these indicators? More information in the Laboratory section.

 General coliforms indicate that the water has come in contact with plant or
animal life. General coliforms are universally present, including in pristine spring
water. They are of little concern at low levels, except to indicate the effectiveness
of disinfection. Chlorinated water and water from perfectly sealed tube wells is
the only water I've tested which had zero general coliforms. At very high levels
they indicate there is what amounts to a lot of compost in the water, which could
easily include pathogens (Ten thousand general coliform bacteria will get you a
beach closure, compared to two or four hundred fecal coliforms, or fifty
enterococcus).
 Fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, indicate that there are mammal or bird feces
in the water.
 Enterococcus bacteria also indicate that there are feces from warm blooded
animals in the water. Enterococcus are a type of fecal streptococci. They are
another valuable indicator for determining the amount of fecal contamination of
water.
According to studies conducted by the EPA, enterococci have a greater
correlation with swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness in both marine and
fresh waters than other bacterial indicator organisms, and are less likely to "die
off" in saltwater.

The more closely related the animal, the more likely pathogens excreted with their feces
can infect us. Human feces are the biggest concern, because anything which infects one
human could infect another. There isn't currently a quantitative method for measuring
specifically human fecal bacteria (expensive genetic studies can give a
presence/absence result). Ingesting a human stranger's feces via contaminated water
supply is a classic means for infections to spread rapidly. The more pathogens an
individual carries, the more hazardous their feces. Ingesting feces from someone who is
not carrying any pathogens may gross you out, but it can't infect you. Infection rates are
around 5% in the US, and approach 100% in areas with poor hygiene and contaminated
water supplies. Keep in the back of your mind that the ratio of indicators to actual
pathogens is not fixed. It will always be different, sometimes very different. Whenever
you are trying to form a mental map of reality based on water tests, you should include in
the application of your water intuition an adjustment factor for your best guess of the
ratio between indicators and actual pathogens.

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Membrane Filter Total Coliform Technique
The membrane filter total Coliform technique is used at Medina County for drinking water
quality testing. The following is a summary of this test. A sampling procedure sheet is
given to all sample takers by Medina County.

The samples are taken in sterile 100 mL containers. These containers, when used for
chlorinated water samples, have a sodium thiosulfate pill or solution to dechlorinate the
sample.

The sample is placed in cold storage after proper sample taking procedures are
followed. (See sample
procedures below)

The samples are taken to the

laboratory with a chain of
custody to assure no
tampering of samples can
occur.

These samples are logged in

at the laboratory.

No longer than 30 hours can

lapse between the time of
sampling and time of test
incubation. (8 hours for
heterotrophic, nonpotable 6
hours, others not longer than
24 hours)

All equipment is sterilized by oven and autoclave.

Glassware in oven at 170oC + 10oC with foil (or other suitable wrap) loosely fitting and
secured immediately after sterilization.

Filtration units in autoclave at 121oC for 30

minutes.

Use sterile petri dishes, grid, and pads

bought from a reliable company – certified,
quality assured - test for satisfactory known
positive amounts.

Incubators – 35oC + .5oC (60% relative

humidity)
M-endo medium is prepared and heated to
near boiling removed from heat cooled to
45oC pH adjusted to 7.2 + .2 and
immediately dispensed 8ml to plates. Keep
refrigerated and discard after 2 weeks.

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Plates can be stored in a dated box with expiration date and discarded if not used. No
denatured alcohol should be used. Everclear or 95% proof alcohol or absolute methyl
may be used for sterilizing forceps by flame.

Procedure:
Counters are alcohol wiped.
Bench sheets are filled out.
Samples are removed from refrigeration.
Sterile wrapped utensils are placed on counters.
Filtration units are placed onto sterile membrane filters by aseptic technique using sterile
forceps.
Sterile petri dishes are labeled.
The samples closures are clipped.
The sample is shaken 25 times 1 foot in length within 7 seconds.
100 mL is filtered and rinsed with sterile distilled water 3 times.
The membrane filter is aseptically removed from filter holder.
A sterile padded petri dish is used and the membrane filter is rolled onto the pad making
sure no air bubbles form.
The sterile labeled lid is placed on the petri dish.
2 blanks and a known is run with each series of samples.
The samples are placed in the 35oC + .5oC incubator stacked no higher than 3 for 22 –
24 hours (Humidity can be maintained by saturated paper towels placed under
containers holding petri dishes.)
After 22- 24 hours view the petri dishes under a 10 –15 power magnification with cool
white fluorescent light.
Count all colonies that appear pink to dark red with a metallic surface sheen – the sheen
may vary in size from a pin head to complete coverage.
Report as Total Coliform per 100 mL.
If no colonies are present report as <1 coliform/100mL.

Anything greater than 1 is over the limit for drinking water for 2 samples taken 24 hours
apart. Further investigation may be necessary – follow Standard Methods accordingly.

Photograph and Credits to Mary McPherson

AranTM Aqua Analytical Laboratory Director.

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Escherichia coli EPEC
Two types of pathogenic Escherichia coli, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and
enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), cause diarrheal disease by disrupting the intestinal
environment through the intimate attachment of the bacteria to the intestinal epithelium.

E. coli O157:H7
E. coli O157:H7 (bacterium) found in human feces. Symptoms vary with type caused
gastroenteritis.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an emerging cause of foodborne illness. An estimated

73,000 cases of infection and 61 deaths occur in the United States each year. Infection
often leads to bloody diarrhea, and occasionally to kidney failure. Most illnesses have
been associated with eating undercooked, contaminated ground beef. Person-to-person
contact in families and child care centers is also an important mode of transmission.
Infection can also occur after drinking raw milk and after swimming in or drinking
sewage-contaminated water.

Consumers can prevent E. coli O157:H7 infection by thoroughly cooking ground beef,
avoiding unpasteurized milk, and washing hands carefully. Because the organism lives
in the intestines of healthy cattle, preventive measures on cattle farms and during meat
processing are being investigated.

What is Escherichia coli O157:H7?

E. coli O157:H7 is one of hundreds of strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli. Although
most strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals, this
strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness.

E. coli O157:H7 was first recognized as a cause of illness in 1982 during an outbreak of
severe bloody diarrhea; the outbreak was traced to contaminated hamburgers. Since then,
most infections have come from eating undercooked ground beef.

The combination of letters and numbers in the name of the bacterium refers to the specific
markers found on its surface and distinguishes it from other types of E. coli.

Currently, there are four recognized classes of enterovirulent E. coli (collectively referred to
as the EEC group) that cause gastroenteritis in humans. Among these is the
enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) strain designated E. coli O157:H7. E. coli is a normal inhabitant
of the intestines of all animals, including humans. When aerobic culture methods are used,
E. coli is the dominant species found in feces.

Normally E. coli serves a useful function in the body by suppressing the growth of harmful
bacterial species and by synthesizing appreciable amounts of vitamins. A minority of E. coli
strains are capable of causing human illness by several different mechanisms. E. coli
serotype O157:H7 is a rare variety of E. coli that produces large quantities of one or more
related, potent toxins that cause severe damage to the lining of the intestine. These toxins
[verotoxin (VT), shiga-like toxin] are closely related or identical to the toxin produced by
Shigella dysenteriae.

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How does E. coli or other fecal coliforms get in the water?
E. coli comes from human and animal wastes. During rainfalls, snow melts, or other types of
precipitation, E. coli may be washed into creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or groundwater. When
these waters are used as sources of drinking water and the water is not treated or
inadequately treated, E. coli may end up in drinking water.

How is water treated to protect me from E. coli?

The water can be treated using chlorine, ultra-violet light, or ozone, all of which act to kill or
inactivate E. coli. Systems using surface water sources are required to disinfect to ensure that
all bacterial contamination such as E. coli. is inactivated. Systems using ground water sources
are not required to disinfect, although many of them do.

How does the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulate E. coli?

According to EPA regulations, a system that operates at least 60 days per year, and serves 25
people or more or has 15 or more service connections, is regulated as a public water system
under the Safe Drinking Water Act. If a system is not a public water system as defined by
EPA regulations, it is not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, although it may be
regulated by state or local authorities.

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the EPA requires public water systems to monitor for
coliform bacteria. Systems analyze first for total coliform, because this test is faster to produce
results. Any time that a sample is positive for total coliform, the same sample must be
analyzed for either fecal coliform or E. coli. Both are indicators of contamination with animal
waste or human sewage.

The largest public water systems (serving millions of people) must take at least 480 samples
per month. Smaller systems must take at least five samples a month unless the state has
conducted a sanitary survey – a survey in which a state inspector examines system
components and ensures they will protect public health – at the system within the last five
years.

Systems serving 25 to 1,000 people typically take one sample per month. Some states reduce
this frequency to quarterly for ground water systems if a recent sanitary survey shows that the
system is free of sanitary defects. Some types of systems can qualify for annual monitoring.
Systems using surface water, rather than ground water, are required to take extra steps to
protect against bacterial contamination because surface water sources are more vulnerable to
such contamination. At a minimum, all systems using surface waters must
disinfect. Disinfection will kill E. coli O157:H7.

What can I do to protect myself from E. coli O157:H7 in drinking water?

Approximately 89 percent of Americans are receiving water from community water systems
that meet all health-based standards. Your public water system is required to notify you if, for
any reason, your drinking water is not safe. If you wish to take extra precautions, you can boil
your water for one minute at a rolling boil, longer at higher altitudes. To find out more
information about your water, see the Consumer Confidence Report from your local water
supplier or contact your local water supplier directly. You can also obtain information about
your local water system on the EPA's website at www.epa.gov/safewater/dwinfo.htm.

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Positive Tests
If you draw water from a private well, you can contact your state health department to obtain
information on how to have your well tested for total coliforms, and E. coli contamination. If
your well tests positive for E. coli, there are several steps that you should take: (1) begin
boiling all water intended for consumption, (2) disinfect the well according to procedures
recommended by your local health department, and (3) monitor your water quality to make
certain that the problem does not recur. If the contamination is a recurring problem, you
should investigate the feasibility of drilling a new well or install a point-of-entry disinfection unit,
which can use chlorine, ultraviolet light, or ozone.

How is E. coli O157:H7 spread?

The organism can be found on a small number of cattle farms and can live in the intestines of
healthy cattle. Meat can become contaminated during slaughter, and organisms can be
thoroughly mixed into beef when it is ground. Bacteria present on a cow's udders or on
equipment may get into raw milk. Eating meat, especially ground beef that has not been
cooked sufficiently to kill E. coli O157:H7 can cause infection. Contaminated meat looks and
smells normal. Although the number of organisms required to cause disease is not known, it is
suspected to be very small.

Among other known sources of infection are consumption of sprouts, lettuce, salami,
unpasteurized milk and juice, and swimming in or drinking sewage-contaminated water.
Bacteria in diarrheal stools of infected persons can be passed from one person to another if
hygiene or hand washing habits are inadequate. This is particularly likely among toddlers who
are not toilet trained. Family members and playmates of these children are at high risk of
becoming infected. Young children typically shed the organism in their feces for a week or two
after their illness resolves. Older children rarely carry the organism without symptoms.

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What illness does E. coli O157:H7 cause?
E. coli O157:H7 infection often causes severe bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps;
sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea or no symptoms. Usually little or no fever
is present, and the illness resolves in 5 to 10 days. Hemorrhagic colitis is the name of the
acute disease caused by E. coli O157:H7.

In some persons, particularly children under 5 years of age and the elderly, the infection can
also cause a complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome, in which the red blood cells are
destroyed and the kidneys fail. About 2%-7% of infections lead to this complication. In the
United States, hemolytic uremic syndrome is the principal cause of acute kidney failure in
children, and most cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome are caused by E. coli O157:H7.

How is E. coli O157:H7 infection diagnosed?

Infection with E. coli O157:H7 is diagnosed by detecting the bacterium in the stool. Most
laboratories that culture stool do not test for E. coli O157:H7, so it is important to request that
the stool specimen be tested on sorbitol-MacConkey (SMAC) agar for this organism. All
persons who suddenly have diarrhea with blood should get their stool tested for E. coli
O157:H7.

How is the illness treated?

Most persons recover without antibiotics or other specific treatment in 5-10 days. There is no
evidence that antibiotics improve the course of disease, and it is thought that treatment with
some antibiotics may precipitate kidney complications. Antidiarrheal agents, such as
loperamide (Imodium), should also be avoided. Hemolytic uremic syndrome is a life-
threatening condition usually treated in an intensive care unit. Blood transfusions and kidney
dialysis are often required. With intensive care, the death rate for hemolytic uremic syndrome
is 3%-5%.

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Legionnaires' Disease Legionella Section

Introduction Genus: Legionella Species: pneumophila

The first discovery of bacteria from genus Legionella came in 1976 when an outbreak of
pneumonia at an American Legion convention led to 29 deaths. The causative agent, what
would come to be known as Legionella pneumophila, was isolated and given its own genus.
The organisms classified in this genus are Gram-negative bacteria that are considered
intracellular parasites. The disease has two distinct
forms:
 Legionnaires' disease, the more severe form of
infection which includes pneumonia, and
 Pontiac fever, a milder illness.

What have been the water sources for

Legionnaires' disease?
The major source is water distribution systems of large
buildings, including hotels and hospitals. Cooling
towers have long been thought to be a major source for
Legionella, but new data suggest that this is an overemphasized mode of transmission. Other
sources include mist machines, humidifiers, whirlpool spas, and hot springs. Air conditioners
are not a source for Legionnaires' disease. They were suspected to be the source in the
original American Legion outbreak in a Philadelphia hotel,
but new data now suggests that the water in the hotel was
the actual culprit.

Legionnaire’s disease is caused most commonly by the

inhalation of small droplets of water or fine aerosol
containing Legionella bacteria. Legionella bacteria are
naturally found in environmental water sources such as
rivers, lakes and ponds and may colonize man-made water
systems that include air conditioning systems, humidifiers,
cooling tower waters, hot water systems, spas and pools.

How do people contract Legionella?

The most popular theory is that the organism is aerosolized
in water and people inhale the droplets containing Legionella. However, new evidence
suggests that another way of contracting Legionella is more common. "Aspiration" is the most
common way that bacteria enter into the lungs to cause pneumonia. Aspiration means
choking such that secretions in the mouth get past the choking reflexes and instead of going
into the esophagus and stomach, mistakenly, enter the lung. The protective mechanisms to
prevent aspiration is defective in patients who smoke or have lung disease. Aspiration now
appears to be the most common mode of transmission.

Legionella may multiply to high numbers in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, air
washers, humidifiers, hot water heaters, spas, fountains, and plumbing fixtures. Within one
month, Legionella can multiply, in warm water-containing systems, from less than 10 per
milliliter to over 1,000 per milliliter of water. Once high numbers of Legionella have been found,
a relatively simple procedure for disinfecting water systems with chlorine and detergent is
available. This procedure is not part of a routine maintenance program because equipment
may become corroded.

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Property owners have been sued for the spread of Legionella, resulting in expensive
settlements. Regular monitoring with a battery of DFA monoclonal antibodies for several
serogroups and species of Legionella morphologically intact bacteria provides a means for
exercising 'reasonable care' to deter potential litigation.

Currently, there are no United States government regulations concerning permissible numbers
of legionella in water systems and there are no federal or state certification programs for
laboratories that perform legionella testing of environmental samples.

Epifluorescence Microscopy DFA Method

The epifluorescence microscopy DFA method that most labs use was published in the British
Journal, Water Research 19:839-848, 1985 "Disinfection of circulating water systems by
ultraviolet light and halogenation", R. Gilpin, et al. so we can count viable-but-nonculturable
(VBNC) legionella.

Most labs will provide a quantitative epifluorescence microscopic analysis of your cooling
tower and potable water samples for 14 serogroups of Legionella pneumophila and 15 other
Legionella species (listed below).

Legionella anisa Legionella bozemanii sg 1 & 2

Legionella dumoffi Legionella feeleii sg 1 & 2
Legionella gormanii Legionella hackeliae sg 1 & 2
Legionella jordanis Legionella longbeachae sg 1& 2
Legionella maceachernii Legionella micdadei
Legionella oakridgensis Legionella parisiensis
Legionella pneumophila sg 1-14 Legionella sainthelensi
Legionella santicrucis Legionella wadsworthii

Heterotrophic bacterial CFU are often inversely proportional to numbers of Legionella in

cooling tower samples, in our experience. Routine biocide treatments will not eradicate
Legionella bacteria in the environment, only in laboratory studies.

Culture methods are good during outbreaks for bio-typing; but culture methods lack sensitivity
for routine, quantitative monitoring. Many factors will inhibit growth or identification of legionella
on BCYE with or without antimicrobial agents, heat or acid treatment.

Culture methods will not identify non-culturable legionella that can still cause outbreaks (non-
culturable, viable legionella have been reported in several peer-reviewed journals). Only DFA
tests performed by trained laboratory personnel can identify these legionella. Direct
fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests using a battery of monoclonal antibodies provide more useful
routine monitoring information than culture methods. Legionella species of bacteria cause
Legionnaire's disease. They are gram negative (but stain poorly), strictly aerobic rods.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration recommend routine maintenance of water-containing equipment. Most State
health departments recommend monthly testing for Legionella as part of a routine
maintenance program.

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Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek phagein, 'to eat') is any one of a number of viruses
that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form, phage.

Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. The
genetic material can be ssRNA (single stranded RNA), dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA between 5
and 500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are
much smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20 and 200 nm in size.

Phages are estimated to be the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are ubiquitous and can be found in all reservoirs populated by bacterial hosts, such as
soil or the intestine of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other
viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats
at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.

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Release of Virions
Phages may be released via cell lysis or by host cell secretion. In the case of the T4 phage, in
just over twenty minutes after injection upwards of three hundred phages will be released via
lysis within a certain timescale. This is achieved by an enzyme called endolysin which attacks
and breaks down the peptidoglycan. In contrast, "lysogenic" phages do not kill the host but
rather become long-term parasites and make the host cell continually secrete more new virus
particles. The new virions bud off the plasma membrane, taking a portion of it with them to
become enveloped viruses possessing a viral envelope. All released virions are capable of
infecting a new bacterium.

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Viruses
Viruses are acellular microorganisms. They are made up of only genetic material and a protein
coat. Viruses depend on the energy and metabolic machinery of the host cell to reproduce. A
virus is an infectious agent found in virtually all life forms, including humans, animals, plants,
fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist of genetic material—either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or
ribonucleic acid (RNA)—surrounded by a protective coating of protein, called a capsid, with or
without an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria
and hence are too small to be seen by light microscopy.

Viruses vary in size from the largest poxviruses of about 450 nanometers (about 0.000014 in)
in length to the smallest polioviruses of about 30 nanometers (about 0.000001 in). Viruses are
not considered free-living, since they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell; they have
evolved to transmit their genetic information from one cell to another for the purpose of
replication. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they infect, causing disease in infected
organisms. A few viruses stimulate cells to grow uncontrollably and produce cancers. Although
many infectious diseases, such as the common cold, are caused by viruses, there are no
cures for these illnesses. The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the large
number of variant viruses that can cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to
disable a virus without disabling healthy cells. However, the development of antiviral agents is
a major focus of current research, and the study of viruses has led to many discoveries
important to human health.

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Virions
Individual viruses, or virus particles, also called virions, contain genetic material, or genomes,
in one of several forms. Unlike cellular organisms, in which the genes always are made up of
DNA, viral genes may consist of either DNA or RNA. Like cell DNA, almost all viral DNA is
double-stranded, and it can have either a circular or a linear arrangement. Almost all viral RNA
is single-stranded; it is usually linear, and it may be either segmented (with different genes on
different RNA molecules) or non-segmented (with all genes on a single piece of RNA).

Capsids
The viral protective shell, or capsid, can be either helical (spiral-shaped) or icosahedral
(having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are composed of repeating units of one or a few different
proteins. These units are called protomers or capsomers. The proteins that make up the virus
particle are called structural proteins. Viruses also carry genes for making proteins that are
never incorporated into the virus particle and are found only in infected cells. These viral
proteins are called nonstructural proteins; they include factors required for the replication of
the viral genome and the production of the virus particle.

Capsids and the genetic material (DNA or RNA) they contain are together referred to as
nucleocapsids. Some virus particles consist only of nucleocapsids, while others contain
additional structures.

Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses are enclosed in a lipid envelope acquired when
the virus buds through host-cell membranes. Inserted into this envelope are glycoproteins that
the viral genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus particles to susceptible
host cells.

Bacteriophages
The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their hosts. Some
bacteriophages resemble an insect with an icosahedral head attached to a tubular sheath.
From the base of the sheath extend several long tail fibers that help the virus attach to the
bacterium and inject its DNA to be replicated, direct capsid production, and virus particle
assembly inside the cell.

Viroids and Prions

Viroids and prions are smaller than viruses, but they are similarly associated with disease.
Viroids are plant pathogens that consist only of a circular, independently replicating RNA
molecule. The single-stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to form a rod-like structure. The
only known mammalian pathogen that resembles plant viroids is the deltavirus (hepatitis D),
which requires hepatitis B virus proteins to package its RNA into virus particles. Co-infection
with hepatitis B and D can produce more severe disease than can infection with hepatitis B
alone. Prions are mutated forms of a normal protein found on the surface of certain animal
cells.

Virus Classification
Viruses are classified according to their type of genetic material, their strategy of replication,
and their structure. The International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses (ICNV),
established in 1966, devised a scheme to group viruses into families, subfamilies, genera, and
species. The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more than 4000 viruses into 71 virus
families. Hundreds of other viruses remain unclassified because of the lack of sufficient
information.

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Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a

phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria"
comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: kyanós = blue). They are a significant component
of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in many areas of the ocean,
but are also found on land.

Cyanobacteria include unicellular and colonial species. Colonies may form filaments, sheets or
even hollow balls. Some filamentous colonies show the ability to differentiate into several
different cell types: vegetative cells, the normal, photosynthetic cells that are formed under
favorable growing conditions; akinetes, the climate-resistant spores that may form when
environmental conditions become harsh; and thick-walled heterocysts, which contain the
enzyme nitrogenase, vital for nitrogen fixation. Heterocysts may also form under the
appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) wherever nitrogen is necessary. Heterocyst-
forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen gas, which
cannot be used by plants, into ammonia (NH3), nitrites (NO2) or nitrates (NO3), which can be
absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids.

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The rice paddies of Asia, which produce about 75% of the world's rice, could not do so were it
not for healthy populations of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in the rice paddy fertilizer too.

Many cyanobacteria also form motile filaments, called hormogonia, that travel away from the
main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. The cells in a hormogonium are often
thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain may be
tapered. In order to break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often must tear apart
a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium.

Each individual cell of a cyanobacterium typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall. They differ
from other gram-negative bacteria in that the quorum sensing molecules autoinducer-2[4] and
acyl-homoserine lactones are absent. They lack flagella, but hormogonia and some unicellular
species may move about by gliding along surfaces. In water columns some cyanobacteria float
by forming gas vesicles, like in archaea.

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Euglena
Euglenas are common protists, of the class Euglenoidea of the phylum Euglenophyta.
Currently, over 1000 species of Euglena have been described. Marin et al. (2003) revised the
genus so, and including several species without chloroplasts, formerly classified as Astasia
and Khawkinea. Euglena sometimes can be considered to have both plant and animal
features.

Euglena gracilis has a long hair-like thing that stretches from its body. You need a very
powerful microscope to see it. This is called a flagellum, and the euglena uses it to swim. It
also has a red eyespot. Euglena gracilis uses its eyespot to locate light. Without light, it cannot
use its chloroplasts to make itself food. In order for Euglena gracilis to make more Euglena
gracilis it will complete a process called mitosis. That means it can split itself in half and
become two Euglena gracilis. It can only do this if it is well-fed and if the temperature is right.
Euglena gracilis can reproduce better in warm temperatures.

Euglena gracilis, and other euglena, are harmless to people, but they are often signs that
water is polluted, since they do well where there is a lot of green algae to eat. Green algae
does well where there is a lot of nitrogen (comes from waste) in the water. If you don't clean
your swimming pool, leaves and twigs get in the water and turn into waste. Then algae and
euglena show up.

KINGDOM: Protist, PHYLUM: Euglenophyta, CLASS: Euglenophyceae, ORDER:

Euglenales, FAMILY: Euglenidae, GENUS: Euglena, SPECIES: Euglena gracilis

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Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that
forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of eubacteria. The sugar component
consists of alternating residues of β-(1,4) linked N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic
acid residues. Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide chain of three to five amino
acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand forming the
3D mesh-like layer.

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Hepatitis

There are five types of hepatitis -- A through E -- all of which cause inflammation of the liver.
Type D affects only those who also have hepatitis B, and hepatitis E is extremely rare in the
United States.
 Type A hepatitis is contracted through anal-oral contact, by coming in contact with the
feces of someone with hepatitis A, or by eating or drinking hepatitis A contaminated
food or water.
 Type B hepatitis can be contracted from infected blood, seminal fluid, vaginal
secretions, or contaminated drug needles, including tattoo or body-piercing equipment.
It can also be spread from a mother to her newborn.
 Type C hepatitis is not easily spread through sex. You're more likely to get it through
contact with infected blood, contaminated razors, needles, tattoo and body-piercing
equipment, or manicure or pedicure tools that haven't been properly sanitized, and a
mother can pass it to her baby during delivery.
 Type D hepatitis can be passed through contact with infected blood, contaminated
needles, or by sexual contact with an HIV-infected person.
 Type E hepatitis is most likely to be transmitted in feces, through oral contact, or in
water that's been contaminated.

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Common Water Treatment and Distribution Chemicals
Chemical Name Common Name Chemical Formula
Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3
Aluminum sulfate Alum, liquid AL2(SO4)3 . 14(H2O)
Ammonia NH3
Ammonium NH4
Bentonitic clay Bentonite
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2
Calcium carbonate Limestone CaCO3
Calcium chloride CaCl2
Calcium Hypochlorite HTH Ca(OCl)2 . 4H2O
Calcium hydroxide Slaked Lime Ca(OH)2
Calcium oxide Unslaked (Quicklime) CaO
Calcium sulfate Gypsum CaSO4
Carbon Activated Carbon C
Carbon dioxide CO2
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Chlorine gas Cl2
Chlorine Dioxide ClO2
Copper sulfate Blue vitriol CuSO4 . 5H2O
Dichloramine NHCl2
Ferric chloride Iron chloride FeCl3
Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Ferric sulfate Iron sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Ferrous bicarbonate Fe(HCO3)2
Ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Ferrous sulfate Copperas FeSO4.7H20
Hydrofluorsilicic acid H2SiF6
Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid HCl
Hydrogen sulfide H2S
Hypochlorus acid HOCL
Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
Magnesium chloride MgCl2
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Magnesium dioxide MgO2
Manganous bicarbonate Mn(HCO3)2
Manganous sulfate MnSO4
Monochloramine NH2Cl
Potassium bicarbonate KHCO3
Potassium permanganate KMnO4

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Chemical Name Common Name Chemical Formula
Sodium carbonate Soda ash Na2CO3
Sodium chloride Salt NaCl
Sodium chlorite NaClO2
Sodium fluoride NaF
Sodium fluorsilicate Na2SiF6
Sodium hydroxide Lye NaOH
Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl
Sodium Metaphosphate Hexametaphosphate NaPO3
Sodium phosphate Disodium phosphate Na3PO4
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4
Sulfuric acid H2SO4

Fluoride. Many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to promote dental health.
Each community makes its own decision about whether or not to add fluoride. The EPA has
set an enforceable drinking water standard for fluoride of 4 mg/L (some people who drink
water containing fluoride in excess of this level over many years could develop bone disease,
including pain and tenderness of the bones). The EPA has also set a secondary fluoride
standard of 2 mg/L to protect against dental fluorosis.

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Math Conversion Factors and Practical Exercise
1 PSI = 2.31 Feet of Water LENGTH
1 Foot of Water = .433 PSI 12 Inches = 1 Foot
1.13 Feet of Water = 1 Inch of Mercury 3 Feet = 1 Yard
454 Grams = 1 Pound 5280 Feet = 1 Mile
2.54 CM =Inch
1 Gallon of Water = 8.34 Pounds AREA
1 mg/L = 1 PPM 144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
17.1 mg/L = 1 Grain/Gallon 43,560 Square Feet =1 Acre
1% = 10,000 mg/L VOLUME
694 Gallons per Minute = MGD 1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
1.55 Cubic Feet per Second = 1 MGD 3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
60 Seconds = 1 Minute 231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
1440 Minutes = 1 Day 7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of water
.746 kW = 1 Horsepower 62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of water

Dimensions
SQUARE: Area (sq.ft.) = Length X Width
Volume (cu.ft.) = Length (ft) X Width (ft) X Height (ft)

CIRCLE: Area (sq.ft.) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft)

CYLINDER: Volume (Cu. ft) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft) X Depth (ft)

PIPE VOLUME: .785 X Diameter 2 X Length = ? To obtain gallons multiply by 7.48

SPHERE: (3.14) (Diameter)3 Circumference = 3.14 X Diameter

(6)

General Conversions
Flowrate
Multiply —> to get
to get <— Divide
cc/min 1 mL/min
cfm (ft3/min) 28.31 L/min
3
cfm (ft /min) 1.699 m3/hr
cfh (ft3/hr) 472 mL/min
3
cfh (ft /hr) 0.125 GPM
GPH 63.1 mL/min
GPH 0.134 cfh
GPM 0.227 m3/hr
GPM 3.785 L/min
oz/min 29.57 mL/min

POUNDS PER DAY= Concentration (mg/L) X Flow (MG) X 8.34

AKA Solids Applied Formula = Flow X Dose X 8.34 Professor Rusty’s Favorite Math Formula
Please memorize

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PERCENT EFFICIENCY = In – Out X 100
In
0
TEMPERATURE: F = (0C X 9/5) + 32 9/5 =1.8
0
C = (0F - 32) X 5/9 5/9 = .555

CONCENTRATION: Conc. (A) X Volume (A) = Conc. (B) X Volume (B)

FLOW RATE (Q): Q = A X V (Quantity = Area X Velocity)

FLOW RATE (gpm): Flow Rate (gpm) = 2.83 (Diameter, in)2 (Distance, in)
Height, in
% SLOPE = Rise (feet) X 100
Run (feet)

ACTUAL LEAKAGE = Leak Rate (GPD)

Length (mi.) X Diameter (in)

VELOCITY = Distance (ft)

Time (Sec)

N = Manning’s Coefficient of Roughness

R = Hydraulic Radius (ft.)
S = Slope of Sewer (ft/ft.)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Cross Sectional Area of Flow (ft)

Wetted pipe Perimeter (ft)

WATER HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960

BRAKE HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Efficiency

MOTOR HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Eff. X Motor Eff.

MEAN OR AVERAGE = Sum of the Values

Number of Values

TOTAL HEAD (ft) = Suction Lift (ft) X Discharge Head (ft)

SURFACE LOADING RATE = Flow Rate (gpm)

(gal/min/sq.ft) Surface Area (sq. ft)

MIXTURE = (Volume 1, gal) (Strength 1, %) + (Volume 2, gal) (Strength 2,%)

STRENGTH (%) (Volume 1, gal) + (Volume 2, gal)

INJURY FREQUENCY RATE = (Number of Injuries) 1,000,000

Number of hours worked per year

DETENTION TIME (hrs) = Volume of Basin (gals) X 24 hrs

Flow (GPD)

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SLOPE = Rise (ft) SLOPE (%) = Rise (ft) X 100
Run (ft) Run (ft)

POPULATION EQUIVALENT (PE):

1 PE = .17 Pounds of BOD per Day
1 PE = .20 Pounds of Solids per Day
1 PE = 100 Gallons per Day

LEAKAGE (GPD/inch) = Leakage of Water per Day (GPD)

Sewer Diameter (inch)

CHLORINE DEMAND (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) – Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Q = Allowable time for decrease in pressure from 3.5 PSU to 2.5 PSI
q = As below

Q = (0.022) (d12L1)/Q q = [ 0.085] [(d12L1)/(d1L1)]

q

Q = 2.0 cfm air loss

 = .0030 cfm air loss per square foot of internal pipe surface
 = Pipe diameter (inches)
L = Pipe Length (feet)

V = 1.486 R 2/3 S 1/2


V = Velocity (ft./sec.)
 = Pipe Roughness
R = Hydraulic Radius (ft)
S= Slope (ft/ft)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Flow Area (ft. 2)

Wetted Perimeter (ft.)

WIDTH OF TRENCH (ft) = Base (ft) + (2 Sides) X Depth (ft 2)

Slope

If you are poor at math, don’t be embarrassed come to a TLC review class.

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Bacteriological Sampling ©TLC 1/13/2011 150 TLC (928) 468-0665 Fax (928) 468-0675
Glossary
ABANDONED WELL: Wells that have been or need to be sealed by an approved method.

ABSENCE OF OXYGEN: The complete absence of oxygen in water described as Anaerobic.

ACCURACY: How closely an instrument measures the true or actual value.

ACID AND BASE ARE MIXED: When an acid and a base are mixed, an explosive reaction occurs and
decomposition products are created under certain conditions.

ACID: Slowly add the acid to water while stirring. An operator should not mix acid and water or acid to a
strong base.

ACID RAIN: A result of airborne pollutants.

ACTIVATED CHARCOAL (GAC or PAC): Granular Activated Charcoal or Powered Activated

Charcoal. Used for taste and odor removal. A treatment technique that is not included in the grading of
a water facility.

ACTIVATED CARBON FILTRATION: Can remove organic chemicals that produce off-taste and odor.
These compounds are not dangerous to health but can make the water unpleasant to drink. Carbon
filtration comes in several forms, from small filters that attach to sink faucets to large tanks that contain
removable cartridges. Activated carbon filters require regular maintenance or they can become a health
hazard.

ADSORPTION: Not to be confused with absorption. Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or
liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a film of molecules or
atoms (the adsorbate). It is different from absorption, in which a substance diffuses into a liquid or solid
to form a solution. The term sorption encompasses both processes, while desorption is the reverse
process. Adsorption is present in many natural physical, biological, and chemical systems, and is widely
used in industrial applications such as activated charcoal, synthetic resins, and water purification.

ADSORPTION CLARIFIERS: The concept of the adsorption clarifier package plant was developed in
the early 1980s. This technology uses an up-flow clarifier with low-density plastic bead media, usually
held in place by a screen. This adsorption media is designed to enhance the sedimentation/clarification
process by combining flocculation and sedimentation into one step. In this step, turbidity is reduced by
adsorption of the coagulated and flocculated solids onto the adsorption media and onto the solids
already adsorbed onto the media. Air scouring cleans adsorption clarifiers followed by water flushing.
Cleaning of this type of clarifier is initiated more often than filter backwashing because the clarifier
removes more solids. As with the tube-settler type of package plant, the sedimentation/ clarification
process is followed by mixed-media filtration and disinfection to complete the water treatment.

AIR GAP SEPARATION: A physical separation space that is present between the discharge vessel
and the receiving vessel; for an example, a kitchen faucet.

AIR HAMMER: A pneumatic cylindrical hammering device containing a piston used on air rotary rigs.
The air hammer’s heavy piston moves up and down by the introduction of compressed air creating a
hammering action on the bit.

AIR HOOD: The most suitable protection when working with a chemical that produces dangerous
fumes.

AIR ENTRAINMENT: The dissolution or inclusion of air bubbles into water.

AIRLIFT: The lifting of water and/or cuttings to the surface by the injection of high pressure bursts of
air. Airlift occurs continuously when drilling with air rotary and can be used for well development with a
surging technique.

AIR PUMPING: Continuous airlifting to remove water from the well.

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AIR ROTARY: A method of rotary well drilling that utilizes compressed air as the primary drilling fluid.

AGGLOMERATION: A jumbled cluster or mass of varied parts. The act or process of agglomerating.

ALKALINITY: Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the

equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate. Alkalinity is closely related to the acid neutralizing
capacity (ANC) of a solution and ANC is often incorrectly used to refer to alkalinity. However, the acid
neutralizing capacity refers to the combination of the solution and solids present (e.g., suspended
matter, or aquifer solids), and the contribution of solids can dominate the ANC (see carbonate minerals
below).

ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS: Disinfectants - other than chlorination (halogens) - used to treat

water, e.g. ozone, ultraviolet radiation, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine. There is limited experience and
scientific knowledge about the by-products and risks associated with the use of alternatives.

ALGAE: Microscopic plants that are free-living and usually live in water. They occur as single cells
floating in water, or as multicellular plants like seaweed or strands of algae that attach to rocks.

ALPHA AND BETA RADIOACTIVITY: Represent two common forms of radioactive decay. Radioactive
elements have atomic nuclei so heavy that the nucleus will break apart, or disintegrate spontaneously.
When decay occurs, high-energy particles are released. These high-energy particles are called
radioactivity. Although radioactivity from refined radioactive elements can be dangerous, it is rare to find
dangerous levels of radioactivity in natural waters. An alpha particle is a doubly-charged helium nucleus
comprised of two protons, two neutrons, and no electrons. A beta particle is a high-speed electron.
Alpha particles do not penetrate matter easily, and are stopped by a piece of paper. Beta particles are
much more penetrating and can pass through a millimeter of lead.

ALUMINUM SULFATE: The chemical name for Alum. The molecular formula of Alum is
Al2(SO4)3~14H2O. It is a cationic polymer.

AMOEBA: Amoeba (sometimes amœba or ameba, plural amoebae) is a genus of protozoa that moves
by means of pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. The word
amoeba or ameba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the
Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids.

AMMONIA: NH3 A chemical made with Nitrogen and Hydrogen and used with chlorine to disinfect
water. Most ammonia in water is present as the ammonium ion rather than as ammonia.

AMMONIATOR: A control device which meters gaseous ammonia directly into water under positive
pressure.

ANAEROBIC: An abnormal condition in which color and odor problems are most likely to occur.

ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS: When anaerobic conditions exist in either the metalimnion or hypolimnion
of a stratified lake or reservoir, water quality problems may make the water unappealing for domestic
use without costly water treatment procedures. Most of these problems are associated with Reduction
in the stratified waters.

ANEROID: Using no fluid, as in aneroid barometer.

ASEPTIC: Free from the living germs of disease, fermentation, or putrefaction.

ANNULAR SPACE: The space between the borehole wall and either drill piping or casing within a well.

ANNULUS: See Annular Space.

AMMONIA: A chemical made with Nitrogen and Hydrogen and used with chlorine to disinfect water.

AQUICLUDE: A layer or layers of soils or formations which water cannot pass through (ex - solid
bedrock or very stiff clay). The opposite of aquifer.

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AQUIFER: A saturated layer or layers of soils or formations which water can pass through and be
provided in usable quantities to supply wells or springs (ex – saturated semi consolidated sediment or
saturated fractured bedrock.) An underground geologic formation capable of storing significant amounts
of water.

AQUIFER PARAMETERS: Referring to such attributes as specific capacity, aquifer storage,

transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, gradient, and water levels. Refers to all of the components of
Darcy’s Law and related parameters.

ARTESIAN AQUIFER: A confined aquifer in which the pressure head results in a water elevation
higher than the land surface.

ARTESIAN WELL: A well constructed within an artesian aquifer. When an artesian well is opened it
will flow naturally.

As: The chemical symbol of Arsenic.

AS NITROGEN: An expression that tells how the concentration of a chemical is expressed

mathematically. The chemical formula for the nitrate ion is NO3 , with a mass of 62. The concentration
of nitrate can be expressed either in terms of the nitrate ion or in terms of the principal element,
nitrogen. The mass of the nitrogen atom is 14. The ratio of the nitrate ion mass to the nitrogen atom
mass is 4.43. Thus a concentration of 10 mg/L nitrate expressed as nitrogen would be equivalent to a
concentration of 44.3 mg/L nitrate expressed as nitrate ion. When dealing with nitrate numbers it is very
important to know how numeric values are expressed.

ASYNCHRONOUS: Not occurring at the same time.

AUGER RIG: A drilling rig, which drives a rotating spiral flange to drill into the earth.

ATOM: The general definition of an ion is an atom with a positive or negative charge. Electron is the
name of a negatively charged atomic particle.

BACKFLOW PREVENTION: To stop or prevent the occurrence of, the unnatural act of reversing the
normal direction of the flow of liquid, gases, or solid substances back in to the public potable (drinking)
water supply. See Cross-connection control.

BACKFLOW: To reverse the natural and normal directional flow of a liquid, gases, or solid substances
back in to the public potable (drinking) water supply. This is normally an undesirable effect.

BACKSIPHONAGE: A liquid substance that is carried over a higher point. It is the method by which the
liquid substance may be forced by excess pressure over or into a higher point.

BACTERIA: Small, one-celled animals too small to be seen by the naked eye. Bacteria are found
everywhere, including on and in the human body. Humans would be unable to live without the bacteria
that inhabit the intestines and assist in digesting food. Only a small percentage of bacteria cause
disease in normal, healthy humans. Other bacteria can cause infections if they get into a cut or wound.
Bacteria are the principal concern in evaluating the microbiological quality of drinking water, because
some of the bacteria-caused diseases that can be transmitted by drinking water are potentially life-
threatening.

BACTERIOPHAGE: Any of a group of viruses that infect specific bacteria, usually causing their
disintegration or dissolution. A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek phagein, 'to eat') is any one of
a number of viruses that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form, phage.
Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. The genetic
material can be ssRNA (single stranded RNA), dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA between 5 and 500 kilo base
pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are much smaller than the bacteria
they destroy - usually between 20 and 200 nm in size.

BAILER: A device used to withdrawal water or sediment from a well utilizing a check valve type
mechanism.

BARITE: Processed barium sulfate, often used to increase drilling fluid densities in mud rotary.

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BATTERY: A source of direct current (DC) may be used for standby lighting in a water treatment
facility. The electrical current used in a DC system may come from a battery.

BENTONITE: High quality clay composed primarily of montmorillonite. Used to thicken drilling mud in
mud rotary drilling and used to form seals in well construction or abandonment.

BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE (BAT): A level of technology

based on the best existing control and treatment measures that are economically achievable within the
given industrial category or subcategory.

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs): Schedules of activities, prohibitions of practices,

maintenance procedures, and other management practices to prevent or reduce the pollution of waters
of the U.S. BMPs also include treatment requirements, operating procedures and practices to control
plant site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge or waste disposal, or drainage from raw material storage.

BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE (BPT): A level of

technology represented by the average of the best existing wastewater treatment performance levels
within an industrial category or subcategory.

BEST PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT (BPJ): The method used by a permit writer to develop
technology-based limitations on a case-by-case basis using all reasonably available and relevant data.

BIT: The primary cutting edge of a drill string.

BLANK CASING: A section of well casing that is solid.

BLOWDOWN: The discharge of water with high concentrations of accumulated solids from boilers to
prevent plugging of the boiler tubes and/or steam lines. In cooling towers, blowdown is discharged to
reduce the concentration of dissolved salts in the recirculating cooling water.

BOREHOLE DEVIATION: A boreholes’ orientation deviates from vertical while drilling.

BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS: A surveying technique of utilizing specialized tools to measure various

physical parameters of the aquifer, formation, and well.

BOREHOLE: The hole that is formed when drilling into the earth.

BOULDER: An individual rock or solid mass of rock larger than 10 inches in diameter.

BREAK POINT CHLORINATION: The process of chlorinating the water with significant quantities of
chlorine to oxidize all contaminants and organic wastes and leave all remaining chlorine as free
chlorine.

BRIDGING: The tendency of sediment, filter, or seal media to create an obstruction if installed in too
small an annulus or to rapidly. Also can occur within filter packs requiring development.

BROMINE: Chemical disinfectant (HALOGEN) that kills bacteria and algae. This chemical disinfectant
has been used only on a very limited scale for water treatment because of its handling difficulties. This
chemical causes skin burns on contact, and a residual is difficult to obtain.

BUCKET AUGER: A single cylindrical type of auger flight consisting of offset cutting blades at the
bottom. A bucket auger rig rotates the bucket and its blades cut into the earth and fill the bucket with
cuttings, which are dumped on the surface as needed.

BUFFER: Chemical that resists pH change, e.g. sodium bicarbonate

BUTTON BIT: A bit that is constructed with raised (typically carbide) buttons that strengthen the bit and
aid in crushing and grinding efficiency. A button bit may be of a roller, hammer, or percussion type.

CABLE TOOL: (Also called Percussion Drilling) A method of drilling which utilizes the consecutive
lifting and dropping of a heavy drill string via a system of cables.

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CALCIUM HARDNESS: A measure of the calcium salts dissolved in water.

Ca: The chemical symbol for calcium.

CADMIUM: A contaminant that is usually not found naturally in water or in very small amounts.

CALCIUM HARDNESS: A measure of the calcium salts dissolved in water.

CALCIUM ION: Is divalent because it has a valence of +2.

CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM AND IRON: The three elements that cause hardness in water.

CaOCl2.4H2O: The molecular formula of Calcium hypochlorite.

CAPILLARY ACTION: The occurrence of an upward movement of fluid into previously unsaturated soil
due to adhesion and surface tension which develops between the fluid and soil particles.

CAPILLARY FRINGE: The uppermost portion of an aquifer where the vadose zone ends. The
capillary action of soils permits moisture to extend upwards into the vadose zone within the capillary
fringe.

CARBON DIOXIDE GAS: The pH will decrease and alkalinity will change as measured by the Langelier
index after pumping carbon dioxide gas into water.

CARBONATE HARDNESS: Carbonate hardness is the measure of Calcium and Magnesium and other
hard ions associated with carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions contained in a solution,
usually water. It is usually expressed either as parts per million (ppm or mg/L), or in degrees (KH - from
the German "Karbonathärte"). One German degree of carbonate hardness is equivalent to about
17.8575 mg/L. Both measurements (mg/L or KH) are usually expressed "as CaCO3" – meaning the
amount of hardness expressed as if calcium carbonate was the sole source of hardness. Every
bicarbonate ion only counts for half as much carbonate hardness as a carbonate ion does. If a solution
contained 1 liter of water and 50 mg NaHCO3 (baking soda), it would have a carbonate hardness of
about 18 mg/L as CaCO3. If you had a liter of water containing 50 mg of Na2CO3, it would have a
carbonate hardness of about 29 mg/L as CaCO3.

CARBONATE, BICARBONATE AND HYDROXIDE: Chemicals that are responsible for the alkalinity of
water.

CARBONATE ROCK: Rock that is composed primarily of calcium carbonate.

CASING DRIVER: A percussion or hammering device used to force casing into the subsurface.

CASING: A column of specially designed pipe of metal or plastic material installed in wells in order to
keep a borehole open to permit serviceability of and/or construction and completion of a well within it.

CATHEAD: A specially designed auxiliary reel that normally utilizes heavy rope rather than steel cable.
Often used on cable tool or percussion drilling rigs for the operation of drive blocks.

CATHODIC PROTECTION: An operator should protect against corrosion of the anode and/or the
cathode by painting the copper cathode. Cathodic protection interrupts corrosion by supplying an
electrical current to overcome the corrosion-producing mechanism. Guards against stray current
corrosion.

CAUSTIC: NaOH (also called Sodium Hydroxide) is a strong chemical used in the treatment process to
neutralize acidity, increase alkalinity or raise the pH value.

CAUSTIC SODA: Also known as sodium hydroxide and is used to raise pH.

CAVERN: Large open spaces (>5ft.) encountered while drilling. More often associated with limestone
formations in a karst environment.

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CEILING AREA: The specific gravity of ammonia gas is 0.60. If released, this gas will accumulate first
at the ceiling area. Cl2 gas will settle on the floor.

CEMENT GROUT: Cement of fine consistency, capable of being pumped. Used to seal in and around
wells.

CENTRALIZER: Stand offs attached to well casing and screen to maintain annular space. In drilling, it
has the same meaning as stabilizer or drill collar.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE: That force when a ball is whirled on a string that pulls the ball outward. On a
centrifugal pump, it is that force which throws water from a spinning impeller.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft and enclosed in a
casing, having an inlet and a discharge connection. The rotating impeller creates pressure in the liquid
by the velocity derived from centrifugal force.

CESIUM (also Caesium): Symbol Cs- A soft, silvery-white ductile metal, liquid at room temperature,
the most electropositive and alkaline of the elements, used in photoelectric cells and to catalyze
hydrogenation of some organic compounds.

CHAIN OF CUSTODY (COC): A record of each person involved in the possession of a sample from the
person who collects the sample to the person who analyzes the sample in the laboratory.

CHAIN OF CUSTODY (COC): A record of each person involved in the possession of a sample from the
person who collects the sample to the person who analyzes the sample in the laboratory.

CHECK VALVE: Allows water to flow in only one direction.

CHELATION: A chemical process used to control scale formation in which a chelating agent "captures"
scale-causing ions and holds them in solution.

CHEMICAL FEED RATE: Chemicals are added to the water in order to improve the subsequent
treatment processes. These may include pH adjusters and coagulants. Coagulants are chemicals, such
as alum, that neutralize positive or negative charges on small particles, allowing them to stick together
and form larger particles that are more easily removed by sedimentation (settling) or filtration. A variety
of devices, such as baffles, static mixers, impellers and in-line sprays, can be used to mix the water and
distribute the chemicals evenly.

CHEMICAL OXIDIZER: KMnO4 or Potassium Permanganate is used for taste and odor control
because it is a strong oxidizer which eliminates many organic compounds.

CHEMICAL REATION RATE: In general, when the temperature decreases, the chemical reaction rate
also decreases. The opposite is true for when the temperature increases.

CHEMISORPTION: (or chemical adsorption) Is adsorption in which the forces involved are valence
forces of the same kind as those operating in the formation of chemical compounds.

CHLORAMINATION: Treating drinking water by applying chlorine before or after ammonia. This
creates a persistent disinfectant residual called chloramines.

CHLORAMINES: A group of chlorine ammonia compounds formed when chlorine combines with
organic wastes in the water. Chloramines are not effective as disinfectants and are responsible for eye
and skin irritation as well as strong chlorine odors.

CHLORINATION: The process in water treatment of adding chlorine (gas or solid hypochlorite) for
purposes of disinfection.

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CHLORINE: A chemical used to disinfect water. Chlorine is extremely reactive, and when it comes in
contact with microorganisms in water it kills them. Chlorine is added to swimming pools to keep the
water safe for swimming. Chlorine is available as solid tablets for swimming pools. Some public water
system’s drinking water treatment plants use chlorine in a gas form because of the large volumes
required. Chlorine is very effective against algae, bacteria and viruses. Protozoa are resistant to
chlorine because they have thick coats; protozoa are removed from drinking water by filtration.

CHLORINE DEMAND: Amount of chlorine required to react on various water impurities before a
residual is obtained. Also, means the amount of chlorine required to produce a free chlorine residual of
0.1 mg/l after a contact time of fifteen minutes as measured by iodmetic method of a sample at a
temperature of twenty degrees in conformance with Standard methods.

CHLORINE FEED: Chlorine may be delivered by vacuum-controlled solution feed chlorinators. The
chlorine gas is controlled, metered, introduced into a stream of injector water and then conducted as a
solution to the point of application.

CHLORINE, FREE: Chlorine available to kill bacteria or algae. The amount of chlorine available for
sanitization after the chlorine demand has been met. Also known as chlorine residual.

CIRCULATION: The continual flow of drilling fluid from injection to recovery and recirculation at the
surface.

CLEAR WELL: A large underground storage facility sometimes made of concrete. A clear well or a
plant storage reservoir is usually filled when demand is low. The final step in the conventional filtration
process, the clearwell provides temporary storage for the treated water. The two main purposes for this
storage are to have filtered water available for backwashing the filter and to provide detention time (or
contact time) for the chlorine (or other disinfectant) to kill any microorganisms that may remain in the
water.

ClO2: The molecular formula of Chlorine dioxide.

COAGULATION: The best pH range for coagulation is between 5 and 7. Mixing is an important part of
the coagulation process you want to complete the coagulation process as quickly as possible.

COBBLES: A rock smaller than a boulder but larger than a pebble. A cobble is greater than 2.5 inches
in diameter and smaller than 10 inches in diameter.

COLIFORM: Bacteria normally found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals. Coliform bacteria are
present in high numbers in animal feces. They are an indicator of potential contamination of water.
Adequate and appropriate disinfection effectively destroys coliform bacteria. Public water systems are
required to deliver safe and reliable drinking water to their customers 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
If the water supply becomes contaminated, consumers can become seriously ill. Fortunately, public
water systems take many steps to ensure that the public has safe, reliable drinking water. One of the
most important steps is to regularly test the water for coliform bacteria. Coliform bacteria are organisms
that are present in the environment and in the feces of all warm-blooded animals and humans. Coliform
bacteria will not likely cause illness. However, their presence in drinking water indicates that disease-
causing organisms (pathogens) could be in the water system. Most pathogens that can contaminate
water supplies come from the feces of humans or animals. Testing drinking water for all possible
pathogens is complex, time-consuming, and expensive. It is relatively easy and inexpensive to test for
coliform bacteria. If coliform bacteria are found in a water sample, water system operators work to find
the source of contamination and restore safe drinking water. There are three different groups of coliform
bacteria; each has a different level of risk.

COLIFORM TESTING: The effectiveness of disinfection is usually determined by Coliform bacteria

testing. A positive sample is a bad thing and indicates that you have bacteria contamination.

COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS: Because both iron and manganese react with dissolved oxygen to form
insoluble compounds, they are not found in high concentrations in waters containing dissolved oxygen
except as colloidal suspensions of the oxide.

COLORIMETRIC MEASUREMENT: A means of measuring an unknown chemical concentration in

water by measuring a sample's color intensity.

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COMMUTATOR: A device for reversing the direction of a current. (in a DC motor or generator) a
cylindrical ring or disk assembly of conducting members, individually insulated in a supporting structure
with an exposed surface for contact with current-collecting brushes and mounted on the armature shaft,
for changing the frequency or direction of the current in the armature windings.

CHRONIC: A stimulus that lingers or continues for a relatively long period of time, often one-tenth of the
life span or more. Chronic should be considered a relative term depending on the life span of an
organism. The measurement of chronic effect can be reduced growth, reduced reproduction, etc., in
addition to lethality.

COMBINED CHLORINE: The reaction product of chlorine with ammonia or other pollutants, also known
as chloramines.

COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: A water system which supplies drinking water to 25 or more of the
same people year-round in their residences.

COMPLIANCE CYCLE: A 9-calendar year time-frame during which a public water system is required to
monitor. Each compliance cycle consists of 3 compliance periods.

COMPLAINCE PERIOD: A 3-calendar year time-frame within a compliance cycle.

COMPLETION (WELL COMPLETION): Refers to the final construction of the well including the
installation of pumping equipment.

COMPOSITE SAMPLE: A water sample that is a combination of a group of samples collected at

various intervals during the day.

CONDENSATION: The process that changes water vapor to tiny droplets or ice crystals.

CONE OF DEPRESSION: That portion of the water table or potentiometric surface that experiences
drawdown from a pumped well.

CONFINED AQUIFER: An aquifer that is isolated by confining layers on both its top and bottom.
Pressures within a confined aquifer are normally greater than atmospheric pressure resulting in a
potentiometric head.

CONFINING LAYER: An extensive layer of soil or formation that resists the movement of water from
an aquifer below or above it. Confining layers isolate aquifers thereby confining them. May or may not
be an aquiclude. (ex – Clay or silt rich layer)

CONSOLIDATED: Soil, sediment, or formation that is solidified or cemented together as a unit.

CONTACT TIME, pH and LOW TURBIDITY: Factors which are important in providing good disinfection
using chlorine.

CONTACT TIME: If the water temperature decreases from 70°F (21°C) to 40°F (4°C). The operator
needs to increase the detention time to maintain good disinfection of the water.

CONTAINS THE ELEMENT CARBON: A simple definition of an organic compound.

CONTAMINANT: Any natural or man-made physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or

matter in water, which is at a level that may have an adverse effect on public health, and which is
known or anticipated to occur in public water systems.

CONTAMINATE: tr.v. con·tam·i·nated, con·tam·i·nat·ing, con·tam·i·nates

1. To make impure or unclean by contact or mixture.
2. To expose to or permeate with radioactivity.

CONTAMINATION: A degradation in the quality of groundwater in result of the it’s becoming polluted
with unnatural or previously non-existent constituents.

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CONTINUOUS SLOT SCREEN: A wire wrapped or plastic slotted screen in which the slot openings
completely encircle the inner ribs of the screen.

CONTROL TASTE AND ODOR PROBLEMS: KMnO4 Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidizer
commonly used to control taste and odor problems.

CONVENTIONAL: A standard or common procedure to a group of more complex methods. (ex –

Direct Rotary conventional vs. Reverse non-conventional)

COPPER: The chemical name for the symbol Cu.

CORROSION: The removal of metal from copper, other metal surfaces and concrete surfaces in a
destructive manner. Corrosion is caused by improperly balanced water or excessive water velocity
through piping or heat exchangers.

CORROSIVITY: The Langelier Index measures corrosivity.

COUPON: A coupon placed to measure corrosion damage in the water mains.

CROSS-CONNECTION: A physical connection between a public water system and any source of water
or other substance that may lead to contamination of the water provided by the public water system
through backflow. Might be the source of an organic substance causing taste and odor problems in a
water distribution system.

CROSS-CONTAMINATION: The mixing of two unlike qualities of water. For example, the mixing of
good water with a polluting substance like a chemical.

CUTTING HEAD (CUTTER HEAD): The bit portion of auger flighting that serves as the primary cutting
edge of the auger.

CUTTING SHOE: A hardened steel sleeve with a wedged or armored cutting edge that is installed on
well casing that is to be driven into the earth.

CUTTINGS: Crushed rock, soil, or formation material generated by the drilling action of a bit.

CRYPTOSPORIDIUM: A disease-causing parasite, resistant to chlorine disinfection. It may be found in

fecal matter or contaminated drinking water. Cryptosporidium is a protozoan pathogen of the Phylum
Apicomplexa and causes a diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis. Other apicomplexan pathogens
include the malaria parasite Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis.
Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector, Cryptosporidium does not utilize an insect
vector and is capable of completing its life cycle within a single host, resulting in cyst stages which are
excreted in feces and are capable of transmission to a new host.

CYANURIC ACID: White, crystalline, water-soluble solid, C3H3O3N3·2H2O, used chiefly in organic
synthesis. Chemical used to prevent the decomposition of chlorine by ultraviolet (UV) light.

CYANOBACTERIA: Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or

Cyanophyta, is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name
"cyanobacteria" comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: kyanós = blue). They are a significant
component of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in many areas of the ocean,
but are also found on land.

DAILY MAXIMUM LIMITATIONS: The maximum allowable discharge of pollutants during a 24 hour
period. Where daily maximum limitations are expressed in units of mass, the daily discharge is the total
mass discharged over the course of the day. Where daily maximum limitations are expressed in terms
of a concentration, the daily discharge is the arithmetic average measurement of the pollutant
concentration derived from all measurements taken that day.

DANGEROUS CHEMICALS: The most suitable protection when working with a chemical that
produces dangerous fumes is to work under an air hood or fume hood.

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DARCY’S LAW: (Q=KIA) A fundamental equation used in the groundwater sciences to determine
aquifer characteristics, where Q=Flux, K=Hydraulic Conductivity (Permeability), I = Hydraulic Gradient
(change in head), and A = Cross Sectional Area of flow.

DECIBELS: The unit of measurement for sound.

DECOMPOSE: To decay or rot.

DECOMPOSTION OF ORGANIC MATERIAL: The decomposition of organic material in water

produces taste and odors.

DEMINERALIZATION PROCESS: Mineral concentration of the feed water is the most important
consideration in the selection of a demineralization process. Acid feed is the most common method of
scale control in a membrane demineralization treatment system.

DENTAL CARIES PREVENTION IN CHILDREN: The main reason that fluoride is added to a water
supply.

DEPOLARIZATION: The removal of hydrogen from a cathode.

DESICCANT: When shutting down equipment which may be damaged by moisture, the unit may be
protected by sealing it in a tight container. This container should contain a desiccant.

DESORPTION: Desorption is a phenomenon whereby a substance is released from or through a

surface. The process is the opposite of sorption (that is, adsorption and absorption). This occurs in a
system being in the state of sorption equilibrium between bulk phase (fluid, i.e. gas or liquid solution)
and an adsorbing surface (solid or boundary separating two fluids). When the concentration (or
pressure) of substance in the bulk phase is lowered, some of the sorbed substance changes to the bulk
state. In chemistry, especially chromatography, desorption is the ability for a chemical to move with the
mobile phase. The more a chemical desorbs, the less likely it will adsorb, thus instead of sticking to the
stationary phase, the chemical moves up with the solvent front. In chemical separation processes,
stripping is also referred to as desorption as one component of a liquid stream moves by mass transfer
into a vapor phase through the liquid-vapor interface.

DEVELOPMENT: The cleaning of the well and bore once construction is complete.

DETENTION LAG: Is the period of time between the moment of change in a chlorinator control system
and the moment when the change is sensed by the chlorine residual indicator.

DETENTION LAG TIME: The minimum detention time range recommended for flocculation is 5 – 20
minutes for direct filtration and up to 30 minutes for conventional filtration.

DIATOMACEOUS EARTH: A fine silica material containing the skeletal remains of algae.

DIRECT CURRENT: A source of direct current (DC) may be used for standby lighting in a water
treatment facility. The electrical current used in a DC system may come from a battery.

DIRECT ROTARY: The conventional method of rotary drilling involving the rotation of a drill string and
standard use of drilling fluid to penetrate the earth.

DISCHARGE HEAD: See Total Dynamic Head.

DISINFECT: The application of a chemical to kill most, but not all, microorganisms that may be present.
Chlorine is added to public water drinking systems drinking water for disinfection. Depending on your
state rule, drinking water must contain a minimum of 0.2 mg/L free chlorine. Disinfection makes drinking
water safe to consume from the standpoint of killing pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria and
viruses. Disinfection does not remove all bacteria from drinking water, but the bacteria that can survive
disinfection with chlorine are not pathogenic bacteria that can cause disease in normal healthy humans.

DISINFECTION: The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy, and/or remove pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, and other parasites.

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DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPs): The products created due to the reaction of chlorine with
organic materials (e.g. leaves, soil) present in raw water during the water treatment process. The EPA
has determined that these DBPs can cause cancer. Chlorine is added to drinking water to kill or
inactivate harmful organisms that cause various diseases. This process is called
disinfection. However, chlorine is a very active substance and it reacts with naturally occurring
substances to form compounds known as disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The most common DBPs
formed when chlorine is used are trihalomethanes (THMs), and haloacetic acids (HAAs).

DISSOLVED OXYGEN: Can be added to zones within a lake or reservoir that would normally become
anaerobic during periods of thermal stratification.

DISSOLUTION : The chemical and physical process of dissolving rock. Typically, limestone or
carbonate rocks can be dissolved via the percolation or movement of groundwater that, in its infancy, is
slightly acidic. As time goes on, the rock may also be physically worn away by the rapid movement of
groundwater through the interconnected open spaces created by the initial chemical dissolving process.

DISTILLATION, REVERSE OSMOSIS AND FREEZING: Processes that can be used to remove
minerals from the water.

DRAG BIT: A style of drill bit used in rotary drilling when soil or formation conditions are loosely
consolidated and are comprised of fine-grained sediments.

DRAWDOWN: The change in water level from static to pumping level.

DRILL COLLAR: A section of the drill string that provides sufficient mass and diameter to maintain
vertical borehole alignment and consistent borehole diameter.

DRILL FOAM: Surfactant used in air rotary drilling and well development.

DRILL PIPE: Sections of the drill string that are connected one to another in order to achieve a desired
length while also providing a pathway for the circulation of drilling fluid.

DRILL STEM: The complete drill string or, in cable drilling, the equivalent of a drill collar.

DRILL STRING: The complete drilling assembly in rotary drilling including drill pipe, subs, collars, and
bit.

DRILLER: A specially trained individual that operates the drilling rig.

DRILLING FLUID: Fluid circulated through the borehole in rotary drilling methods used to lift cuttings to
the surface, provide borehole stability, and cool the bit. Drilling Fluid may consist of mud, water, air,
foam, or other additives.

DRILLING PERMIT: A certificate of approval to drill and construct a well often required by the state or
local regulating authority.

DRILLING PRESSURE: The pressure exerted within the borehole during drilling. The pressure
required to circulate drilling fluid to the surface.

DRIVE BLOCK: A heavy collar that attaches over the drill pipe and is dropped successively to advance
casing into the earth. Used primarily in cable tool or percussion drilling methods.

DRIVE CLAMP: A fitting that is attached to the top of a drill string or stem serving as a striking surface
for driving casing into the earth.

DRIVE UNIT: The portion of a rotary rig that provides the rotation to the drill string. (ex – top drive or
table drive unit). Also may be called the drive head.

DRIVING: The installation of a well or casing via forcing of it into the earth by repeated striking.

DRY ACID: A granular chemical used to lower pH and or total alkalinity.

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E. COLI, Escherichia coli: A bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water quality
analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered evidence of water
contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but do not necessarily cause
disease themselves.

EFFECTIVENESS OF CHLORINE: The factors which influence the effectiveness of chlorination the
most are pH, turbidity and temperature. Effectiveness of Chlorine decreases occurs during disinfection
in source water with excessive turbidity.

ELECTRON: The name of a negatively charged atomic particle.

ELEMENTARY BUSINESS PLAN: Technical Capacity, Managerial Capacity, and Financial Capacity
make up the elementary business plan. To become a new public water system, an owner shall file an
elementary business plan for review and approval by state environmental agency.

EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM: A local team that is thoroughly trained and equipped to deal with
emergencies, e.g. chlorine gas leak. In case of a chlorine gas leak, get out of the area and notify your
local emergency response team in case of a large uncontrolled chlorine leak.

ENHANCED COAGULATION: The process of joining together particles in water to help remove organic
matter.

ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA: Entamoeba histolytica, another water-borne pathogen, can cause

diarrhea or a more serious invasive liver abscess. When in contact with human cells, these amoebae
are cytotoxic. There is a rapid influx of calcium into the contacted cell, it quickly stops all membrane
movement save for some surface blebbing. Internal organization is disrupted, organelles lyse, and the
cell dies. The ameba may eat the dead cell or just absorb nutrients released from the cell.

ENTEROVIRUS: A virus whose presence may indicate contaminated water; a virus that may infect the
gastrointestinal tract of humans.

EUGLENA: Euglena are common protists, of the class Euglenoidea of the phylum Euglenophyta.
Currently, over 1000 species of Euglena have been described. Marin et al. (2003) revised the genus so
and including several species without chloroplasts, formerly classified as Astasia and Khawkinea.
Euglena sometimes can be considered to have both plant and animal features. Euglena gracilis has a
long hair-like thing that stretches from its body. You need a very powerful microscope to see it. This is
called a flagellum, and the euglena uses it to swim. It also has a red eyespot. Euglena gracilis uses its
eyespot to locate light. Without light, it cannot use its chloroplasts to make itself food.

EVOLUTION: Any process of formation or growth; development: the evolution of a language; the
evolution of the airplane. A product of such development; something evolved: The exploration of space
is the evolution of decades of research.

Biology. Change in the gene pool of a population from generation to generation by such processes as
mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift. A process of gradual, peaceful, progressive change or
development, as in social or economic structure or institutions, a motion incomplete in itself, but
combining with coordinated motions to produce a single action, as in a machine. A pattern formed by or
as if by a series of movements: the evolutions of a figure skater.

An evolving or giving off of gas, heat, etc. evolutional, adjective ev·o·lu·tion·al·ly, adverb Synonyms
1. unfolding, change, progression, metamorphosis. Antonyms 1. stasis, inactivity, changelessness.

F: The chemical symbol of Fluorine.

FAUCET WITH AN AERATOR: When collecting a water sample from a distribution system, a faucet
with an aerator should not be used as a sample location.

FAULT: A break in the earth’s crust where movement has occurred.

FAULTING: A geological process involving the breaking and displacement of rock or formation through
movements within the earth’s crust along a fault.

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FECAL COLIFORM: A group of bacteria that may indicate the presence of human or animal fecal
matter in water. Total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli are all indicators of drinking water quality. The
total coliform group is a large collection of different kinds of bacteria. Fecal coliforms are types of total
coliform that mostly exist in feces. E. coli is a sub-group of fecal coliform. When a water sample is sent
to a lab, it is tested for total coliform. If total coliform is present, the sample will also be tested for either
fecal coliform or E. coli, depending on the lab testing method.

FILTRATION: The process of passing water through materials with very small holes to strain out
particles. Most conventional water treatment plants used filters composed of gravel, sand, and
anthracite. These materials settle into a compact mass that forms very small holes. Particles are filtered
out as treated water passes through these holes. These holes are small enough to remove
microorganisms including algae, bacteria, and protozoans, but not viruses. Viruses are eliminated from
drinking water through the process of disinfection using chlorine. A series of processes that physically
removes particles from water. A water treatment step used to remove turbidity, dissolved organics,
odor, taste and color.

FILTER CLOGGING: An inability to meet demand may occur when filters are clogging.

FILTRATION METHODS: The conventional type of water treatment filtration method includes
coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. Direct filtration method is similar to conventional
except that the sedimentation step is omitted. Slow sand filtration process does not require
pretreatment, has a flow of 0.1 gallons per minute per square foot of filter surface area, and is simple to
operate and maintain. The Diatomaceous earth method uses a thin layer of fine siliceous material on a
porous plate. This type of filtration medium is only used for water with low turbidity. Sedimentation,
adsorption, and biological action treatment methods are filtration processes that involve a number of
interrelated removal mechanisms. Demineralization is primarily used to remove total dissolved solids
from industrial wastewater, municipal water, and seawater.

FINISHED WATER: Treated drinking water that meets minimum state and federal drinking water
regulations.

FLIGHTING: The spiral flanged drill pipe used in auger drilling.

FLOATING SUB: A collapsible section of drill pipe shorter than primary drill pipe. Used to provide a
cushion between the drive unit and the drill string.

FLOCCULATION: The process of bringing together destabilized or coagulated particles to form larger
masses that can be settled and/or filtered out of the water being treated. Conventional coagulation–
flocculation-sedimentation practices are essential pretreatments for many water purification systems—
especially filtration treatments. These processes agglomerate suspended solids together into larger
bodies so that physical filtration processes can more easily remove them. Particulate removal by these
methods makes later filtering processes far more effective. The process is often followed by gravity
separation (sedimentation or flotation) and is always followed by filtration. A chemical coagulant, such
as iron salts, aluminum salts, or polymers, is added to source water to facilitate bonding among
particulates. Coagulants work by creating a chemical reaction and eliminating the negative charges that
cause particles to repel each other. The coagulant-source water mixture is then slowly stirred in a
process known as flocculation. This water churning induces particles to collide and clump together into
larger and more easily removable clots, or “flocs.” The process requires chemical knowledge of source
water characteristics to ensure that an effective coagulant mix is employed. Improper coagulants make
these treatment methods ineffective. The ultimate effectiveness of coagulation/flocculation is also
determined by the efficiency of the filtering process with which it is paired.

FLOCCULANTS: Flocculants, or flocculating agents, are chemicals that promote flocculation by

causing colloids and other suspended particles in liquids to aggregate, forming a floc. Flocculants are
used in water treatment processes to improve the sedimentation or filterability of small particles. For
example, a flocculant may be used in swimming pool or drinking water filtration to aid removal of
microscopic particles which would otherwise cause the water to be cloudy and which would be difficult
or impossible to remove by filtration alone. Many flocculants are multivalent cations such as aluminum,
iron, calcium or magnesium. These positively charged molecules interact with negatively charged
particles and molecules to reduce the barriers to aggregation. In addition, many of these chemicals,
under appropriate pH and other conditions such as temperature and salinity, react with water to form

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insoluble hydroxides which, upon precipitating, link together to form long chains or meshes, physically
trapping small particles into the larger floc.

Long-chain polymer flocculants, such as modified polyacrylamides, are manufactured and sold by the
flocculant producing business. These can be supplied in dry or liquid form for use in the flocculation
process. The most common liquid polyacrylamide is supplied as an emulsion with 10-40 % actives and
the rest is a carrier fluid, surfactants and latex. Emulsion polymers require activation to invert the
emulsion and allow the electrolyte groups to be exposed.

FLOC SHEARING: Likely to happen to large floc particles when they reach the flocculation process.

FLOCCULATION BASIN: A compartmentalized basin with a reduction of speed in each compartment.

This set-up or basin will give the best overall results.

FLOOD RIM: The point of an object where the water would run over the edge of something and begin
to cause a flood.

FLOW MUST BE MEASURED: A recorder that measures flow is most likely to be located in a central
location.

FLUORIDE: High levels of fluoride may stain the teeth of humans. This is called Mottling. This chemical
must not be overfed due to a possible exposure to a high concentration of the chemical. The most
important safety considerations to know about fluoride chemicals are that all fluoride chemicals are
extremely corrosive. These are the substances most commonly used to furnish fluoride ions to water:
Sodium fluoride, Sodium silicofluoride and Hydrofluosilicic acid.

FLUORIDE FEEDING: Always review fluoride feeding system designs and specifications to determine
whether locations for monitoring readouts and dosage controls are convenient to the operation center
and easy to read and correct.

FLUX: The term flux describes the rate of water flow through a semipermeable membrane. When the
water flux decreases through a semipermeable membrane, it means that the mineral concentration of
the water is increasing.

FORMATION: A series of layers, deposits, or bodies of rock, which are geologically similar and related
in depositional environment or origin. A formation can be clearly distinguished relative to bounding
deposits or formations due to its particular characteristics and composition.

FORMATION OF TUBERCLES: This condition is of the most concern regarding corrosive water effects
on a water system. It is the creation of mounds of rust inside the water lines.

FRACTURE: A discrete break in a rock or formation.

FRACTURED AQUIFER: An aquifer within and otherwise massive block that has been made
permeable due to the concentrated presence of fractures typically resultant of faulting or concentrated
joints.

FREE CHLORINE: In disinfection, chlorine is used in the form of free chlorine or as hypochlorite ion.

FREE CHLORINE RESIDUAL: Regardless of whether pre-chloration is practiced or not, a free chlorine
residual of at least 10 mg/L should be maintained in the clear well or distribution reservoir immediately
downstream from the point of post-chlorination. The reason for chlorinating past the breakpoint is to
provide protection in case of backflow.

GATE VALVE: The most common type of valve used in isolating a small or medium sized section of a
distribution system and is the only linear valve used in water distribution. All the other valves are in the
rotary classification.

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GIARDIA LAMLIA: Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a
flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis.
The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and reproduces via binary
fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-
intestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb
their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are anaerobes.

GIARDIASAS, HEPATITIS OR TYHOID: Diseases that may be transmitted through the contamination
of a water supply but not AIDS.

GIS – GRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM: Detailed information about the physical locations of
structures such as pipes, valves, and manholes within geographic areas with the use of satellites.

GEOTECHNICAL: Characteristics of soil, rock, or formation such as grain size, shear strength,
porosity, and compressibility, etc. Of particular concern to a geologist or engineer relative to soil or
aquifer characteristics.

GLOBE VAVLVE: The main difference between a globe valve and a gate valve is that a globe valve is
designed as a controlling device.

GOOD CONTACT TIME, pH and LOW TURBIDITY: These are factors that are important in providing
good disinfection when using chlorine.

GPM: Gallons per minute.

GRAB SAMPLE: A sample which is taken from a water or wastestream on a one-time basis with no
regard to the flow of the water or wastestream and without consideration of time. A single grab sample
should be taken over a period of time not to exceed 15 minutes.

GRAINSIZE: The dimension of particle classifications such as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Often
based on the unified soil classification system.

GROUNDWATER: Water that percolates through and exists within saturated portions of the earth’s
crust and is replenished by the hydrologic cycle.

GROUT: A type of cement that is normally fine grained and used to effectively construct well seals and
used in well abandonment. Grout may also be used to stabilize otherwise unstable boreholes,
permitting continued drilling.

GT: Represents (Detention time) x (mixing intensity) in flocculation.

H2SO4: The molecular formula of Sulfuric acid.

HALIDES: A halide is a binary compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an
element or radical that is less electronegative than the halogen, to make a fluoride, chloride, bromide,
iodide, or astatide compound. Many salts are halides. All Group 1 metals form halides with the halogens
and they are white solids. A halide ion is a halogen atom bearing a negative charge. The halide anions
are fluoride (F), chloride (Cl), bromide (Br), iodide (I) and astatide (At). Such ions are present in all ionic
halide salts.

HALL EFFECT: Refers to the potential difference (Hall voltage) on the opposite sides of an electrical
conductor through which an electric current is flowing, created by a magnetic field applied perpendicular
to the current. Edwin Hall discovered this effect in 1879.

HALOACETIC ACIDS: Haloacetic acids are carboxylic acids in which a halogen atom takes the place
of a hydrogen atom in acetic acid. Thus, in a monohaloacetic acid, a single halogen would replace a
hydrogen atom. For example, chloroacetic acid would have the structural formula CH2ClCO2H. In the
same manner, in dichloroacetic acid two chlorine atoms would take the place of two hydrogen atoms
(CHCl2CO2H).

HAMMER BIT: The bit driven by the hammer to cut into rock or formation.

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HAMMER: See Air Hammer

HARD ROCK: Consolidated formation or solid rock.

HARD WATER: Hard water causes a buildup of scale in household hot water heaters. Hard water is a
type of water that has high mineral content (in contrast with soft water). Hard water primarily consists of
calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes other dissolved compounds
such as bicarbonates and sulfates. Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium sulfate (CaSO4), in the form of other mineral
deposits. The predominant source of magnesium is dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Hard water is generally not
harmful. The simplest way to determine the hardness of water is the lather/froth test: soap or
toothpaste, when agitated, lathers easily in soft water but not in hard water. More exact measurements
of hardness can be obtained through a wet titration. The total water 'hardness' (including both Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions) is read as parts per million or weight/volume (mg/L) of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the
water. Although water hardness usually only measures the total concentrations of calcium and
magnesium (the two most prevalent, divalent metal ions), iron, aluminum, and manganese may also be
present at elevated levels in some geographical locations.

HARDNESS: A measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in water. More calcium and
magnesium lead to greater hardness. The term "hardness" comes from the fact that it is hard to get
soap suds from soap or detergents in hard water. This happens because calcium and magnesium react
strongly with negatively-charged chemicals like soap to form insoluble compounds.

HARTSHORN: The antler of a hart, formerly used as a source of ammonia. Ammonium carbonate.

HAZARDS OF POLYMERS: Slippery and difficult to clean-up are the most common hazards
associated with the use of polymers in a water treatment plant.

HEAD: The measure of the pressure of water expressed in feet of height of water. 1 PSI = 2.31 feet of
water or 1 foot of head equals about a half a pound of pressure or .433 PSI. There are various types of
heads of water depending upon what is being measured. Static (water at rest) and Residual (water at
flow conditions).

HEADWORKS: The facility at the "head" of the water source where water is first treated and routed into
the distribution system.

HEALTH ADVISORY: An EPA document that provides guidance and information on contaminants that
can affect human health and that may occur in drinking water, but which the EPA does not currently
regulate in drinking water.

HERTZ: The term used to describe the frequency of cycles in an alternating current (AC) circuit.

HETEROTROPHIC PLATE COUNT: A test performed on drinking water to determine the total number
of all types of bacteria in the water.

HF: The molecular formula of Hydrofluoric acid.

HIGH TURBIDITY CAUSING INCREASED CHLORINE DEMAND: May occur or be caused by the
inadequate disinfection of water.

HOLLOW STEM (AUGER): An auger form of drilling in which the flighting is hollow.

HOLLOW STEM FLIGHT: The hollow spiral flanged drill pipe used on hollow stem auger rigs.

HOMOPOLAR: Of uniform polarity; not separated or changed into ions; not polar in activity. Electricity.
unipolar.

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY: A primary factor in Darcy’s Law, the measure of a soil or formations
ability to transmit water, measured in gallons per day (gpd) See also Permeability and Darcy’s Law.

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HYDRIDES: Hydride is the name given to the negative ion of hydrogen, H. Although this ion does not
exist except in extraordinary conditions, the term hydride is widely applied to describe compounds of
hydrogen with other elements, particularly those of groups 1–16. The variety of compounds formed by
hydrogen is vast, arguably greater than that of any other element. Various metal hydrides are currently
being studied for use as a means of hydrogen storage in fuel cell-powered electric cars and batteries.
They also have important uses in organic chemistry as powerful reducing agents, and many promising
uses in hydrogen economy.

HYDROCHLORIC AND HYPOCHLOROUS ACIDS: HCL and HOCL The compounds that are formed
in water when chlorine gas is introduced.

HYDROFLUOSILIC ACID: (H2SiF6) a clear, fuming corrosive liquid with a pH ranging from 1 to 1.5.
Used in water treatment to fluoridate drinking water.

HYDROGEN SULFIDE OR CHLORINE GAS: These chemicals can cause olfactory fatigue.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE: (Water Cycle) The continual process of precipitation (rain and snowfall),
evaporation (primarily from the oceans), peculation (recharge to groundwater), runoff (surface water),
and transpiration (plants) constituting the renew ability and recycling of each component.

HYDROPHOBIC: Does not mix readily with water.

HYGROSCOPIC: Absorbing or attracting moisture from the air.

HYPOCHLORITE (OCL-) AND ORGANIC MATERIALS: Heat and possibly fire may occur when
hypochlorite is brought into contact with an organic material.

HYPOLIMNION: The layer of water in a thermally stratified lake that lies below the thermocline, is
noncirculating, and remains perpetually cold.

IMPELLERS: The semi-open or closed props or blades of a turbine pump that when rotated generate
the pumping force.

IMPERVIOUS: Not allowing, or allowing only with great difficulty, the movement of water.

IN SERIES: Several components being connected one to the other without a bypass, requiring each
component to work dependent on the one before it.

INFILTRATION: The percolation of fluid into soil or formation. See also percolation.

INFECTIOUS PATHOGENS/MICROBES/GERMS: Are considered disease-producing bacteria, viruses

and other microorganisms.

INFLATABLE PACKER: A rubber or fiber bladder device that is inflated to seal against either casing or
borehole walls.

INFORMATION COLLECTION RULE: ICR EPA collected data required by the Information Collection
Rule (May 14, 1996) to support future regulation of microbial contaminants, disinfectants, and
disinfection byproducts. The rule was intended to provide EPA with information on chemical byproducts
that form when disinfectants used for microbial control react with chemicals already present in source
water (disinfection byproducts (DBPs)); disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens), including
Cryptosporidium; and engineering data to control these contaminants.

INITIAL MONITORING YEAR: An initial monitoring year is the calendar year designated by the
Department within a compliance period in which a public water system conducts initial monitoring at a
point of entry.

INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS: Mineral-based compounds such as metals, nitrates, and asbestos.

These contaminants are naturally-occurring in some water, but can also get into water through farming,
chemical manufacturing, and other human activities. EPA has set legal limits on 15 inorganic
contaminants.

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INORGANIC IONS: Present in all waters. Inorganic ions are essential for human health in small
quantities, but in larger quantities they can cause unpleasant taste and odor or even illness. Most
community water systems will commonly test for the concentrations of seven inorganic ions: nitrate,
nitrite, fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, chloride, and bromide. Nitrate and nitrite can cause an illness in
infants called methemoglobinemia. Fluoride is actually added to the drinking water in some public water
systems to promote dental health. Phosphate, sulfate, chloride, and bromide have little direct effect on
health, but high concentrations of inorganic ions can give water a salty or briny taste.

INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS: Are types of compounds cannot be dissolved. When iron or manganese
reacts with dissolved oxygen (DO) insoluble compound are formed.

INTAKE FACILITIES: One of the more important considerations in the construction of intake facilities is
the ease of operation and maintenance over the expected lifetime of the facility. Every intake structure
must be constructed with consideration for operator safety and for cathodic protection.

ION EXCHANGE: An effective treatment process used to remove iron and manganese in a water
supply. The hardness of the source water affects the amount of water an ion exchange softener may
treat before the bed requires regeneration.

IRON: Fe The elements iron and manganese are undesirable in water because they cause stains and
promote the growth of iron bacteria.

IRON AND MANGANESE: Fe and Mn In water they can usually be detected by observing the color of
the inside walls of filters and the filter media. If the raw water is pre-chlorinated, there will be black
stains on the walls below the water level and a black coating over the top portion of the sand filter bed.
When significant levels of dissolved oxygen are present, iron and manganese exist in an oxidized state
and normally precipitate into the reservoir bottom sediments. The presence of iron and manganese in
water promote the growth of Iron bacteria. Only when a water sample has been acidified then you can
perform the analysis beyond the 48 hour holding time. Iron and Manganese in water may be detected
by observing the color of the of the filter media. Maintaining a free chlorine residual and regular flushing
of water mains may control the growth of iron bacteria in a water distribution system.

IRON BACTERIA: Perhaps the most troublesome consequence of iron and manganese in the water is
they promote the growth of a group of microorganism known as Iron Bacteria.

IRON FOULING: You should look for an orange color on the resin and backwash water when checking
an ion exchange unit for iron fouling

JARS (DRILLING JARS): Metal sections of a drill string that when released provide a jarring force or
action to aid in removing drill string. Used primarily in cable tool or percussion drilling methods.

JETTING: The process of injecting high velocity streams of water and/or air through a system of
nozzles or jets into the well screen and filter pack for well development.

KARST TOPOGRAPHY: The visual presence of karst on the surface.

KARST: The presence of caverns, voids, sink holes as characteristic features of a weathered
limestone or other carbonate formation on or beneath the surface.

KELLY: A multi-faceted section of drill pipe driven by a kelly drive (table or top drive).

KILL = C X T: Where other factors are constant, the disinfecting action may be represented by: Kill=C x
T. C= Chlorine T= Contact time.

KINETIC ENERGY: The ability of an object to do work by virtue of its motion. The energy terms that are
used to describe the operation of a pump are pressure and head.

LACRIMATION: The secretion of tears, esp. in abnormal abundance Also, lachrymation, lachrimation.

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LANGELIER INDEX: A measurement of Corrosivity. The water is becoming corrosive in the distribution
system causing rusty water if the Langelier index indicates that the pH has decreased from the
equilibrium point. Mathematically derived factor obtained from the values of calcium hardness, total
alkalinity, and pH at a given temperature. A Langelier index of zero indicates perfect water balance (i.e.,
neither corroding nor scaling). The Langelier Saturation Index (sometimes Langelier Stability Index) is a
calculated number used to predict the calcium carbonate stability of water. It indicates whether the
water will precipitate, dissolve, or be in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. Langelier developed a
method for predicting the pH at which water is saturated in calcium carbonate (called pHs). The LSI is
expressed as the difference between the actual system pH and the saturation pH.
LSI = pH - pHs

LEACHING: A chemical reaction between water and metals that allows for removal of soluble
materials.

LEAD AND COPPER: Initial tap water monitoring for lead and copper must be conducted during 2
consecutive 6-month periods.

LIME: Is a chemical that may be added to water to reduce the corrosivity. When an operator adds lime
to water, Calcium and magnesium become less soluble.

LIME SODA SOFTENING: In a lime soda softening process, to the pH of the water is raised to 11.0. In
a lime softening process, excess lime is frequently added to remove Calcium and Magnesium
Bicarbonate. The minimum hardness which can be achieved by the lime-soda ash process is 30 to 40
mg/L as calcium carbonate. The hardness due to noncarbonate hardness is most likely to determine the
choice between lime softening and ion exchange to remove hardness.

LIME SOFTENING: Lime softening is primarily used to “soften” water—that is to remove calcium and
magnesium mineral salts. But it also removes harmful toxins like radon and arsenic. Though there is no
consensus, some studies have even suggested that lime softening is effective at removal of Giardia.
Hard water is a common condition responsible for numerous problems. Users often recognize hard
water because it prevents their soap from lathering properly. However, it can also cause buildup
(“scale”) in hot water heaters, boilers, and hot water pipes. Because of these inconveniences, many
treatment facilities use lime softening to soften hard water for consumer use. Before lime softening can
be used, managers must determine the softening chemistry required. This is a relatively easy task for
groundwater sources, which remain more constant in their composition. Surface waters, however,
fluctuate widely in quality and may require frequent changes to the softening chemical mix. In lime
softening, lime and sometimes sodium carbonate are added to the water as it enters a combination
solids contact clarifier. This raises the pH (i.e., increases alkalinity) and leads to the precipitation of
calcium carbonate. Later, the pH of the effluent from the clarifier is reduced again, and the water is then
filtered through a granular media filter. The water chemistry requirements of these systems require
knowledgeable operators, which may make lime softening an economic challenge for some very small
systems.

LINE SHAFT TURBINE: See vertical turbine.

LOGGED (LOGGING): The assessment and documentation of geological and water production data
obtained while drilling progresses or following drilling through the use of borehole geophysical logging
tools.

L.O.T.O.: Lock Out, Tag Out. If a piece of equipment is locked out, the key to the lock-out device the
key should be held by the person who is working on the equipment. The tag is an identification device
and the lock is a physical restraint.

M-ENDO BROTH: The coliform group is used as indicators of fecal pollution in water, for assessing the
effectiveness of water treatment and disinfection, and for monitoring water quality. m-Endo Broth is
used for selectively isolating coliform bacteria from water and other specimens using the membrane
filtration technique. m-Endo Broth is prepared according to the formula of Fifield and Schaufus.1 It is
recommended by the American Public Health Association in standard total coliform membrane filtration
procedure for testing water, wastewater, and foods.2,3 The US EPA specifies using m-Endo Broth in
the total coliform methods for testing water using single-step, two-step, and delayed incubation
membrane filtration methods.

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MAGNESIUM HARDNESS: Measure of the magnesium salts dissolved in water – it is not a factor in
water balance.

MAGNETIC STARTER: Is a type of motor starter should be used in an integrated circuit to control flow
automatically.

MARBLE AND LANGELIER TESTS: Are used to measure or determine the corrosiveness of a water
source.

MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL (MCLs): The maximum allowable level of a contaminant that
federal or state regulations allow in a public water system. If the MCL is exceeded, the water system
must treat the water so that it meets the MCL.

MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL GOAL (MCLG): The level of a contaminant at which there would
be no risk to human health. This goal is not always economically or technologically feasible, and the
goal is not legally enforceable.

MCL for TURBIDITY: Turbidity is undesirable because it causes health hazards. An MCL for turbidity
was established by the EPA because turbidity does not allow for proper disinfection.

MEASURE CORROSION DAMAGE: A coupon such as a strip of metal and is placed to measure
corrosion damage in the distribution system in a water main.

MECHANICAL SEAL: A mechanical device used to control leakage from the stuffing box of a pump.
Usually made of two flat surfaces, one of which rotates on the shaft. The two flat surfaces are of such
tolerances as to prevent the passage of water between them. Held in place with spring pressure.

MEDIUM WATER SYSTEM: More than 3,300 persons and 50,000 or fewer persons.

MEGGER: Is a portable instrument used to measure insulation resistance. The megger consists of a
hand-driven DC generator and a direct reading ohm meter. Used to test the insulation resistance on a
motor.

M-ENDO BROTH: The media shall be brought to the boiling point when preparing M-Endo broth to be
used in the membrane filter test for total coliform.

METALIMNION: Thermocline, middle layer of a thermally stratified lake which is characterized by a

rapid decrease in temperature in proportion to depth.

METALLOID: Metalloid is a term used in chemistry when classifying the chemical elements. On the
basis of their general physical and chemical properties, nearly every element in the periodic table can
be termed either a metal or a nonmetal. A few elements with intermediate properties are, however,
referred to as metalloids. (In Greek metallon = metal and eidos = sort)

METHANE: Methane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula CH4. It is the simplest alkane,
and the principal component of natural gas. Methane's bond angles are 109.5 degrees. Burning
methane in the presence of oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water. The relative abundance of
methane and its clean burning process makes it a very attractive fuel. However, because it is a gas at
normal temperature and pressure, methane is difficult to transport from its source. In its natural gas
form, it is generally transported in bulk by pipeline or LNG carriers; few countries still transport it by
truck.

MILLILITER: One one-thousandth of a liter; A liter is a little more than a quart. A milliliter is
about two drops from an eye dropper.

Mg/L: Stands for "milligrams per liter." A common unit of chemical concentration. It expresses
the mass of a chemical that is present in a given volume of water. A milligram (one one-
thousandth of a gram) is equivalent to about 18 grains of table salt. A liter is equivalent to about
one quart.

MICROBIOLOGICAL: Is a type of analysis in which a composite sample unacceptable.

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MICROBE OR MICROBIAL: Any minute, simple, single-celled form of life, especially one that causes
disease.

MICROBIAL CONTAMINANTS: Microscopic organisms present in untreated water that can cause
waterborne diseases.

MICROORGANISMS: Very small animals and plants that are too small to be seen by the naked eye
and must be observed using a microscope. Microorganisms in water include algae, bacteria, viruses,
and protozoa. Algae growing in surface waters can cause off-taste and odor by producing the chemicals
MIB and geosmin. Certain types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa can cause disease in humans.
Bacteria are the most common microorganisms found in treated drinking water. The great majority of
bacteria are not harmful. In fact, humans would not be able to live without the bacteria that inhabit the
intestines. However, certain types of bacteria called coliform bacteria can signal the presence of
possible drinking water contamination.

MILLILITER: One one-thousandth of a liter. A liter is a little more than a quart. A milliliter is about two
drops from an eye dropper.

MOISTURE: If a material is hygroscopic, it must it be protected from water.

MOISTURE AND POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: The combination of moisture and potassium

permanganate produces heat.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: The molecular mass (abbreviated Mr) of a substance, formerly also called
molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the
unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). This is distinct from the
relative molecular mass of a molecule, which is the ratio of the mass of that molecule to 1/12 of the
mass of carbon 12 and is a dimensionless number. Relative molecular mass is abbreviated to Mr.

MOTTLING: High levels of fluoride may stain the teeth of humans.

M.S.D.S.: Material Safety Data Sheet. A safety document must an employer provide to an operator
upon request.

MUD BALLS IN FILTER MEDIA: Is a possible result of an ineffective or inadequate filter backwash.

MUD CAKE: A film of mud drilling fluid that builds up on borehole walls adding to borehole stability and
limits the groundwater’s ability to enter the borehole while drilling.

MUD CAKING: The process of building up the mud cake.

MUD ENGINEER: A specially trained individual who’s responsible for maintaining proper drilling fluid
densities and viscosity.

MUD PIT: Single or multiple subsurface or surface containment system used for settling cuttings out of
drilling fluid and for recirculation of drilling fluid.

MUD PUMP: A specially designed pump that can pass particles of mud and cuttings (drilling fluid) at
variable pressures, serving as the primary component in a mud rotary drilling system (similar to a grout
or cement pump).

MUD ROTARY: The method of rotary drilling with mud circulation as the drilling fluid.

MURIATIC ACID: An acid used to reduce pH and alkalinity. Also used to remove stain and scale.

MYCOTOXIN: A toxin produced by a fungus.

NaOCl: Is the molecular formula of Sodium hypochlorite.

NaOH: Is the molecular formula of Sodium hydroxide.

NASCENT: Coming into existence; emerging.

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NATURAL GRAVEL PACK (NATURALLY PACKED): Refers to a well that has no gravel pack
installed but is simply allowed to develop a filter pack composed of the aquifer particles itself. Usually
coarse grained and hard rock aquifers are naturally packed.

NH3: The molecular formula of Ammonia.

NH4+: The molecular formula of the Ammonium ion.

NITRATES: A dissolved form of nitrogen found in fertilizers and sewage by-products that may leach
into groundwater and other water sources. Nitrates may also occur naturally in some waters. Over time,
nitrates can accumulate in aquifers and contaminate groundwater.

NITROGEN: Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.0. It has five electrons in its outer
shell and is therefore trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen (N2) is one of
the strongest in nature. The resulting difficulty of converting (N2) into other compounds, and the ease
(and associated high energy release) of converting nitrogen compounds into elemental N2, have
dominated the role of nitrogen in both nature and human economic activities.

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS: Pairs of elements and major plant nutrients that cause algae to
grow.
-
NO3 : The molecular formula of the Nitrate ion.

NON-CARBONATE HARDNESS: The portion of the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity.

NON-CARBONATE IONS: Water contains non-carbonate ions if it cannot be softened to a desired level
through the use of lime only.

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION: Air pollution may leave contaminants on highway surfaces. This
non-point source pollution adversely impacts reservoir water and groundwater quality.

NON-TRANSIENT, NON-COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: A water system which supplies water to 25

or more of the same people at least six months per year in places other than their residences. Some
examples are schools, factories, office buildings, and hospitals which have their own water systems.

NORMALITY: It is the number of equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution. Normality highlights
+
the chemical nature of salts: in solution, salts dissociate into distinct reactive species (ions such as H ,
Fe3+, or Cl-). Normality accounts for any discrepancy between the concentrations of the various ionic
-
species in a solution. For example, in a salt such as MgCl2, there are two moles of Cl for every mole of
Mg2+, so the concentration of Cl- as well as of Mg2+ is said to be 2 N (read: "two normal"). Further
examples are given below. A normal is one gram equivalent of a solute per liter of solution. The
definition of a gram equivalent varies depending on the type of chemical reaction that is discussed - it
can refer to acids, bases, redox species, and ions that will precipitate. It is critical to note that normality
measures a single ion which takes part in an overall solute. For example, one could determine the
normality of hydroxide or sodium in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, but the normality of
sodium hydroxide itself has no meaning. Nevertheless it is often used to describe solutions of acids or
bases, in those cases it is implied that the normality refers to the H+ or OH- ion. For example, 2 Normal
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), means that the normality of H+ ions is 2, or that the molarity of the sulfuric acid is
1. Similarly for 1 Molar H3PO4 the normality is 3 as it contains three H+ ions.

NTNCWS: Non-transient non-community water system.

NTU (Nephelometric turbidity unit): A measure of the clarity or cloudiness of water.

O3: The molecular formula of ozone.

OIL TUBE: A tubular enclosure that houses the line shaft and bearings of a vertical turbine pump. Oil
is allowed to pass through the oil tube in order to lubricate the pumps drive shaft and bearings.

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OLIGOTROPHIC: A reservoir that is nutrient-poor and contains little plant or animal life. An oligotrophic
ecosystem or environment is one that offers little to sustain life. The term is commonly utilized to
describe bodies of water or soils with very low nutrient levels. It derives etymologically from the Greek
oligo (small, little, few) and trophe (nutrients, food). Oligotrophic environments are of special interest for
the alternative energy sources and survival strategies upon which life could rely.

ORGANIC PRESURSORS: Natural or man-made compounds with chemical structures based upon
carbon that, upon combination with chlorine, leading to trihalomethane formation.

OSMOSIS: Osmosis is the process by which water moves across a semi permeable membrane from a
low concentration solute to a high concentration solute to satisfy the pressure differences caused by the
solute.

OVERBURDEN: Normally a thin loosely consolidated or unconsolidated sediment overlying competent

formation.

OVER-RANGE PROTECTION DEVICES: Mechanical dampers, snubbers and an air cushion chamber
are examples of surging and overrange protection devices.

OXIDE: An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom as well as at least one
other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides. Oxides result when elements are oxidized by
oxygen in air. Combustion of hydrocarbons affords the two principal oxides of carbon, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. Even materials that are considered to be pure elements often contain a coating of
oxides. For example, aluminum foil has a thin skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion.

OXIDIZED:
1. to convert (an element) into an oxide; combine with oxygen.
2. to cover with a coating of oxide or rust.
3. to take away hydrogen, as by the action of oxygen; add oxygen or any nonmetal.
4. to remove electrons from (an atom or molecule), thereby increasing the valence. Compare REDUCE
(def. 12).
–verb (used without object)
5. to become oxidized.

OXIDIZING: The process of breaking down organic wastes into simpler elemental forms or by products.
Also used to separate combined chlorine and convert it into free chlorine.

OXYGEN DEFICIENT ENVIRONMENT: One of the most dangerous threats to an operator upon
entering a manhole.

OZONE: Ozone or trioxygen (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an
allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic O2. Ground-level ozone is an air pollutant
with harmful effects on the respiratory systems of animals. Ozone in the upper atmosphere filters
potentially damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth's surface. It is present in low
concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere. It has many industrial and consumer applications.
Ozone, the first allotrope of a chemical element to be recognized by science, was proposed as a distinct
chemical compound by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1840, who named it after the Greek word for
smell (ozein), from the peculiar odor in lightning storms. The formula for ozone, O3, was not determined
until 1865 by Jacques-Louis Soret and confirmed by Schönbein in 1867. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing
agent, far better than dioxygen. It is also unstable at high concentrations, decaying to ordinary diatomic
oxygen (in about half an hour in atmospheric conditions):
2 O3 = 3 O2

This reaction proceeds more rapidly with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure. Deflagration
of ozone can be triggered by a spark, and can occur in ozone concentrations of 10 wt% or higher.

OZONE DOES NOT PROVIDE A RESIDUAL: One of the major drawbacks to using ozone as a
disinfectant.

OZONE, CHLORINE DIOXIDE, UV, CHLORAMINES: These chemicals may be used as alternative
disinfectants.

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PAC: A disadvantage of using PAC is it is very abrasive and requires careful maintenance of
equipment. One precaution that should be taken in storing PAC is that bags of carbon should not be
stored near bags of HTH. Removes tastes and odors by adsorption only. Powered activated carbon
frequently used for taste and odor control because PAC is non-specific and removes a broad range of
compounds. Jar tests and threshold odor number testing determines the application rate for powdered
activated carbon. Powdered activated carbon, or PAC, commonly used for in a water treatment plant for
taste and odor control. Powdered activated carbon may be used with some success in removing the
precursors of THMs

PACKING: Material, usually of woven fiber, placed in rings around the shaft of a pump and used to
control the leakage from the stuffing box.

PARAMECIUM: Paramecia are a group of unicellular ciliate protozoa formerly known as slipper
animalcules from their slipper shape. They are commonly studied as a representative of the ciliate
group. Simple cilia cover the body which allows the cell to move with a synchronous motion (like a
caterpilla). There is also a deep oral groove containing inconspicuous compound oral cilia (as found in
other peniculids) that is used to draw food inside. They generally feed upon bacteria and other small
cells. Osmoregulation is carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles, which actively expel water
absorbed by osmosis from their surroundings. Paramecia are widespread in freshwater environments,
and are especially common in scums. Paramecia are attracted by acidic conditions. Certain single-
celled eukaryotes, such as Paramecium, are examples for exceptions to the universality of the genetic
code (translation systems where a few codons differ from the standard ones).

PATHOGENS: Disease-causing pathogens; waterborne pathogens A pathogen may contaminate water

and cause waterborne disease.

Pb: The chemical symbol of Lead.

PCE: Perchloroethylene. Known also as perc or tetrachloroethylene, perchloroethylene is a clear,

colorless liquid with a distinctive, somewhat ether-like odor. It is non-flammable, having no measurable
flashpoint or flammable limits in air. Effective over a wide range of applications, perchloroethylene is
supported by closed loop transfer systems, stabilizers and employee exposure monitoring.

PEAK DEMAND: The maximum momentary load placed on a water treatment plant, pumping station or
distribution system.

PERCOLATION: The process of fluid penetrating or slowly flowing through soil, rock, or formation.
See also infiltration.

PERCUSSION RIG: See Cable Tool.

PERFORATED SCREEN: Well screen that has openings mechanically cut into it.

PERFORMANCE CURVE: A graphical representation of a pumps efficiency relative to gpm and feet of
head.

PEPTIDOGLYCAN: A polymer found in the cell walls of prokaryotes that consists of polysaccharide
and peptide chains in a strong molecular network. Also called mucopeptide, murein.

PERMEATE: The term for water which has passed through the membrane of a reverse osmosis unit.

PERMEABILITY: A measure of a soil or formation’s capacity to transmit water, typically in volume per
time units. Equivalent to Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity.

PERMEABLE: Soil or formation of which water can pass through.

pH: A unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH scale
runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the mid-point or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the
scale with 0 as the point of greatest acid activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of
the scale with 14 as the point of greatest basic activity. The term pH is derived from “p”, the
mathematical symbol of the negative logarithm, and “H”, the chemical symbol of Hydrogen. The
definition of pH is the negative logarithm of the Hydrogen ion activity. pH=-log[H+].

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pH OF SATURATION: The ideal pH for perfect water balance in relation to a particular total alkalinity
level and a particular calcium hardness level, at a particular temperature. The pH where the Langelier
Index equals zero.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN/TOTAL ALKALINITY: The relationship between the alkalinity constituent’s

bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide can be based on the P and T alkalinity measurement.

PHENOL RED: Chemical reagent used for testing pH in the range of 6.8 - 8.4.

PHOSPHATE, NITRATE AND ORGANIC NITROGEN: Nutrients in a domestic water supply reservoir
may cause water quality problems if they occur in moderate or large quantities.

PHYSISORPTION: (Or physical adsorption) Is adsorption in which the forces involved are
intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces) of the same kind as those responsible for the imperfection
of real gases and the condensation of vapors, and which do not involve a significant change in the
electronic orbital patterns of the species involved. The term van der Waals adsorption is synonymous
with physical adsorption, but its use is not recommended.

PICOCURIE: A unit of radioactivity. "Pico" is a metric prefix that means one one-millionth of one one-
millionth. A picocurie is one one-millionth of one one-millionth of a Curie. A Curie is that quantity of any
radioactive substance that undergoes 37 billion nuclear disintegrations per second. Thus a picocurie is
that quantity of any radioactive substance that undergoes 0.037 nuclear disintegrations per second.

pCi/L: Picocuries per liter A curie is the amount of radiation released by a set amount of a certain
compound. A picocurie is one quadrillionth of a curie.

PICOCURIE: A unit of radioactivity. "Pico" is a metric prefix that means one one-millionth of one one-
millionth. A picocurie is one one-millionth of one one-millionth of a Curie. A Curie is that quantity of any
radioactive substance that undergoes 37 billion nuclear disintegrations per second. Thus a picocurie is
that quantity of any radioactive substance that undergoes 0.037 nuclear disintegrations per second.

PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE: See potentiometric surface.

PILOT BIT: A bit used on auger rigs to cut a pilot hole ahead of the cutter head when drilling into more
resistant formations.

PIPELINE APPURTENANCE: Pressure reducers, bends, valves, regulators (which are a type of
valve), etc.

PITLESS ADAPTER: A fitting installed on a section of column pipe and well casing permitting piping
from the well to be installed below grade. (Often requires a special permit for construction)

PLANKTON: The aggregate of passively floating, drifting, or somewhat motile organisms occurring in a
body of water, primarily comprising microscopic algae and protozoa.

PLATFORM: The portion of the drilling rig where a driller and crew operate the drill rig.

PLUG: A removable cap installed behind the pilot and cutter bits on hollow stem auger flighting.

PLUNGER: See Surge-block.

POINT OF ENTRY: POE.

POLLUTION: To make something unclean or impure. See Contaminated.

POLYPHOSPHATES: Chemicals that may be added to remove low levels of iron and manganese.

POLYMER: A type of chemical when combined with other types of coagulants aid in binding small
suspended particles to larger particles to help in the settling and filtering processes.

PORE SPACE: The interstitial space between sediments and fractures that is capable of storing and
transmitting water.

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POROSITY: A factor representing a rock, soil, or formations percentage of open space available for the
percolation and storage of groundwater.

POST-CHLORINE: Where the water is chlorinated to make sure it holds a residual in the distribution
system.

POTABLE: Good water which is safe for drinking or cooking purposes. Non-Potable: A liquid or water
that is not approved for drinking.

POTENTIAL ENERGY: The energy that a body has by virtue of its position or state enabling it to do
work.

POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE: An imaginary surface representing the height a column of water will
reach at any location within a confined aquifer. The measured surface of a confined aquifer related to
the aquifer’s pressure head.

PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million.

PRE-CHLORINE: Where the raw water is dosed with a large concentration of chlorine.

PRE-CHLORINATION: The addition of chlorine before the filtration process will help:
> Control algae and slime growth
> Control mud ball formation
> Improve coagulation
> Precipate iron
The addition of chlorine to the water prior to any other plant treatment processes.

PERKINESIS: The aggregation resulting from random thermal motion of fluid molecules.

PRESSURE: Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is usually more convenient to use pressure
rather than force to describe the influences upon fluid behavior. The standard unit for pressure is the
Pascal, which is a Newton per square meter. For an object sitting on a surface, the force pressing on
the surface is the weight of the object, but in different orientations it might have a different area in
contact with the surface and therefore exert a different pressure.

PRESSURE HEAD: The height of a column of water capable of being maintained by pressure. See
also Total Head, Total Dynamic Head.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT: Bourdon tube, Bellows gauge and Diaphragm are commonly used to
measure pressure in waterworks systems. A Bellows-type sensor reacts to a change in pressure.

PREVENTION: To take action; stop something before it happens.

PROTON, NEUTRON AND ELECTRON: Are the 3 fundamental particles of an atom.

PRODUCING ZONE: A specific productive interval.

PRODUCTIVE INTERVAL: The portion or portions of an aquifer in which significant water production is
obtained within the well.

PROTIST: Any of a group of eukaryotic organisms belonging to the kingdom Protista according to
some widely used modern taxonomic systems. The protists include a variety of unicellular, coenocytic,
colonial, and multicellular organisms, such as the protozoans, slime molds, brown algae, and red algae.
A unicellular protoctist in taxonomic systems in which the protoctists are considered to form a kingdom.

PROTOCTIST: Any of various unicellular eukaryotic organisms and their multicellular, coenocytic, or
colonial descendants that belong to the kingdom Protoctista according to some taxonomic systems. The
protoctists include the protozoans, slime molds, various algae, and other groups. In many new
classification systems, all protoctists are considered to be protists.

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PROTOZOA: Microscopic animals that occur as single cells. Some protozoa can cause disease in
humans. Protozoa form cysts, which are specialized cells like eggs that are very resistant to chlorine.
Cysts can survive the disinfection process, then "hatch" into normal cells that can cause disease.
Protozoa must be removed from drinking water by filtration, because they cannot be effectively killed by
chlorine.

PUBLIC NOTIFICATION: An advisory that EPA requires a water system to distribute to affected
consumers when the system has violated MCLs or other regulations. The notice advises consumers
what precautions, if any, they should take to protect their health.

PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM (PWS): Any water system which provides water to at least 25 people for at
least 60 days annually. There are more than 170,000 PWSs providing water from wells, rivers and other
sources to about 250 million Americans. The others drink water from private wells. There are differing
standards for PWSs of different sizes and types.

PUMP SURGING: A process of well development whereby water is pumped nearly to the surface and
then is allowed to fall back into the well. The process creates a backwashing action that cleans the well
and nearby formation.

PUMPING LIFT: The height to which water must be pumped or lifted to, feet of head.

PWS: 3 types of public water systems. Community water system, non-transient non-community water
system, transient non community water system.

RADIOCHEMICALS: (Or radioactive chemicals) Occur in natural waters. Naturally radioactive ores are
particularly common in the Southwestern United States, and some streams and wells can have
dangerously high levels of radioactivity. Total alpha and beta radioactivity and isotopes of radium and
strontium are the major tests performed for radiochemicals. The federal drinking water standard for
gross alpha radioactivity is set at 5 picocuries per liter.

RADIUS OF INFLUENCE: The distance away from a pumping well that water levels are affected by a
wells cone of depression.

RAWHIDING: See Pump Surging.

RAW TURBIDITY: The turbidity of the water coming to the treatment plant from the raw water source.

RAW WATER: Water that has not been treated in any way; it is generally considered to be unsafe to
drink.

REAGENT: A substance used in a chemical reaction to measure, detect, examine, or produce other
substances.

REAM: The process of enlarging a borehole.

REAMER BIT: A special bit designed to ream existing boreholes.

RECHARGE: The infiltration component of the hydrologic cycle. Often used in the context of referring
to: The infiltration of water back into an aquifer, resulting in the restoration of lost storage and water
levels which had been decreased due to pumping and/or natural discharges from the aquifer.

RECIRCULATING SYSTEM: A system of constructed or surface mud pits that settle out cuttings from
drilling fluid to be circulated back down the borehole.

RECORDER, FLOW: A flow recorder that measures flow is most likely to be located anywhere in the
plant where a flow must be measured and in a central location.

RED WATER AND SLIME: Iron bacteria are undesirable in a water distribution system because of red
water and slime complaints.

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REDOX POTENTIAL: Reduction potential (also known as redox potential, oxidation / reduction
potential or ORP) is the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons and thereby be reduced.
Each species has its own intrinsic reduction potential; the more positive the potential, the greater the
species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced. In aqueous solutions, the reduction potential
is the tendency of the solution to either gain or lose electrons when it is subject to change by
introduction of a new species. A solution with a higher (more positive) reduction potential than the new
species will have a tendency to gain electrons from the new species (i.e. to be reduced by oxidizing the
new species) and a solution with a lower (more negative) reduction potential will have a tendency to
lose electrons to the new species (i.e. to be oxidized by reducing the new species).

RELAY LOGIC: The name of a popular method of automatically controlling a pump, valve, chemical
feeder, and other devices.

RESERVOIR: An impoundment used to store water.

RESIDUAL DISINFECTION PROTECTION: A required level of disinfectant that remains in treated

water to ensure disinfection protection and prevent recontamination throughout the distribution system
(i.e., pipes).

REVERSE MUD ROTARY: A non-conventional drilling method in which drilling fluid is injected through
the borehole annulus downward through the bit and circulated back to the surface through the drill
string.

REVERSE OSMOSIS: Forces water through membranes that contain holes so small that even salts
cannot pass through. Reverse osmosis removes microorganisms, organic chemicals, and inorganic
chemicals, producing very pure water. For some people, drinking highly purified water exclusively can
upset the natural balance of salts in the body. Reverse osmosis units require regular maintenance or
they can become a health hazard.

RIBBED STABILIZER: A stabilizer or drill collar that has cutting ribs attached to its side. Ribs are
normally installed in vertical or spiral arrangements.

ROLLER BIT: A rotary drill bit having rotating cutting heads.

ROTAMETER: The name of transparent tube with a tapered bore containing a ball is often used to
measure the rate of flow of a gas or liquid.

ROTARY RIG: A conventional rotary drill rig. Can be either an air or mud rotary rig.

ROTIFER: Rotifers get their name (derived from Greek and meaning "wheel-bearer"; they have also
been called wheel animalcules) from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated tufts around the
mouth that in motion resemble a wheel. These create a current that sweeps food into the mouth, where
it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called the mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like
structure called the trophi. The cilia also pull the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-
living forms have pairs of posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding. Rotifers have bilateral
symmetry and a variety of different shapes. There is a well-developed cuticle which may be thick and
rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape; such rotifers
are respectively called loricate and illoricate.

RUNOFF: Surface water sources such as a river or lake are primarily the result of natural processes of
runoff.

SAFE YIELD: A possible consequence when the “safe yield” of a well is exceeded and water continues
to be pumped from a well, is land subsidence around the well will occur. Safe yield refers to a long-term
balance between the water that is naturally and artificially recharged to an aquifer and the groundwater
that is pumped out. When more water is removed than is recharged, the aquifer is described as being
out of safe yield. When the water level in the aquifer then drops, we are said to be mining groundwater.

SALTS ARE ABSENT: Is a strange characteristic that is unique to water vapor in the atmosphere.

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SAMPLE: The water that is analyzed for the presence of EPA-regulated drinking water contaminants.
Depending on the regulation, EPA requires water systems and states to take samples from source
water, from water leaving the treatment facility, or from the taps of selected consumers.

SAMPLING LOCATION: A location where soil or cuttings samples may be readily and accurately
collected.

SAND, ANTHRACITE AND GARNET: Mixed media filters are composed of these three materials.

SANITARY SURVEY: Persons trained in public health engineering and the epidemiology of
waterborne diseases should conduct the sanitary survey. The importance of a detailed sanitary survey
of a new water source cannot be overemphasized. An on-site review of the water sources, facilities,
equipment, operation, and maintenance of a public water systems for the purpose of evaluating the
adequacy of the facilities for producing and distributing safe drinking water. The purpose of a non-
regulatory sanitary survey is to identify possible biological and chemical pollutants which might affect a
water supply.

SANITIZER: A disinfectant or chemical which disinfects (kills bacteria), kills algae and oxidizes organic
matter.

SATURATION INDEX: See Langelier's Index.

SATURATOR: A device which produces a fluoride solution for the fluoride process. Crystal-grade types
of sodium fluoride should be fed with a saturator. Overfeeding must be prevented to protect public
health when using a fluoridation system.

SATURATED ZONE: Where an unconfined aquifer becomes saturated beneath the capillary fringe.

SCADA: A remote method of monitoring pumps and equipment. 130 degrees F is the maximum
temperature that transmitting equipment is able to with stand. If the level controller may be set with too
close a tolerance 45 could be the cause of a control system that is frequently turning a pump on and off.

SCALE: Crust of calcium carbonate, the result of unbalanced water. Hard insoluble minerals deposited
(usually calcium bicarbonate) which forms on pool and spa surfaces and clog filters, heaters and
pumps. Scale is caused by high calcium hardness and/or high pH. The regular use of stain prevention
chemicals can prevent scale.

SCHMUTZDECKE: German, "grime or filth cover", sometimes spelt schmutzedecke) is a complex

biological layer formed on the surface of a slow sand filter. The schmutzdecke is the layer that provides
the effective purification in potable water treatment, the underlying sand providing the support medium
for this biological treatment layer. The composition of any particular schmutzdecke varies, but will
typically consist of a gelatinous biofilm matrix of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic
insect larvae. As a schmutzdecke ages, more algae tend to develop, and larger aquatic organisms may
be present including some bryozoa, snails and annelid worms.

SCROLL AND BASKET: The two basic types of centrifuges used in water treatment.

SEAL: For wells: to abandon a well by filling up the well with approved seal material including
cementing with grout from a required depth to the land surface.

SECONDARY DRINKING WATER STANDARDS: Non-enforceable federal guidelines regarding

cosmetic effects (such as tooth or skin discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color)
of drinking water.

SECTIONAL MAP: The name of a map that provides detailed drawings of the distribution system’s
zones. Sometimes we call these quarter-sections.

SEDIMENTATION BASIN: Where the thickest and greatest concentration of sludge will be found.
Twice a year sedimentation tanks should be drained and cleaned if the sludge buildup interferes with
the treatment process.

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SEDIMENTATION: The process of suspended solid particles settling out (going to the bottom of the
vessel) in water.

SEDIMENT: Grains of soil, sand, gravel, or rock deposited by and generated by water movement.

SENSOR: A float and cable system are commonly found instruments that may be used as a sensor to
control the level of liquid in a tank or basin.

SESSILE: Botany. attached by the base, or without any distinct projecting support, as a leaf issuing
directly from the stem. Zoology. permanently attached; not freely moving.

SETTLED SOLIDS: Solids that have been removed from the raw water by the coagulation and settling
processes.

SHAKER: A device used in mud containment systems that vibrates various sized screens as drilling
fluid passes through it, thereby separating cuttings from drilling fluid and providing a good sampling
location.

SHOCK: Also known as superchlorination or break point chlorination. Ridding a water of organic waste
through oxidization by the addition of significant quantities of a halogen.

SHORT-CIRCUITING: Short Circuiting is a condition that occurs in tanks or basins when some of the
water travels faster than the rest of the flowing water. This is usually undesirable since it may result in
shorter contact, reaction or settling times in comparison with the presumed detention times.

SHROUD: A baffle or piece of pipe installed over a pump to force water to pass the pumps motor.

SIEVE ANALYSIS: The process of sifting soil or formation samples through a series of screens to
determine percentages of particle sizes.

SINGLE PHASE POWER: The type of power used for lighting systems, small motors, appliances,
portable power tools and in homes.

SINUSOID: A curve described by the equation y = a sin x, the ordinate being proportional to the sine of
the abscissa.

SINUSOIDAL: Mathematics. Of or pertaining to a sinusoid. Having a magnitude that varies as the sine
of an independent variable: a sinusoidal current.

SLUDGE BASINS: After cleaning sludge basins and before returning the tanks into service the tanks
should be inspected, repaired if necessary, and disinfected.

SLUDGE REDUCTION: Organic polymers are used to reduce the quantity of sludge. If a plant
produces a large volume of sludge, the sludge could be dewatered, thickened, or conditioned to
decrease the volume of sludge. Turbidity of source water, dosage, and type of coagulant used are the
most important factors which determine the amount of sludge produced in a treatment of water.

SLURRY: A mixture of crushed rock and water.

SMALL WATER SYSTEM: 3,300 or fewer persons.

SOC: Synthetic organic chemical. A common way for a synthetic organic chemical such as dioxin to
be introduced to a surface water supply is from an industrial discharge, agricultural drainage, or a spill.

SODA ASH: Chemical used to raise pH and total alkalinity (sodium carbonate)

SODIUM BICARBONATE: Commonly used to increase alkalinity of water and stabilize pH.

SODIUM BISULFATE: Chemical used to lower pH and total alkalinity (dry acid).

SODIUM HYDROXIDE: Also known as caustic soda, a by-product chlorine generation and often used
to raise pH.

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SOIL MOISTURE: A relative consideration of the degree to which a soil is saturated.

SOFTENING WATER: When the water has a low alkalinity it is advantageous to use soda ash instead
of caustic soda for softening water.

SOFTENING: The process that removes the ions which cause hardness in water.

SOLAR DRYING BEDS OR LAGOONS: Are shallow, small-volume storage pond where sludge is
concentrated and stored for an extended periods.

SOLAR DRYING BEDS, CENTRIFUGES AND FILTER PRESSES: Are procedures used in the
dewatering of sludge.

SOLID, LIQUID AND VAPOR: 3 forms of matter.

SOLDER: A fusible alloy used to join metallic parts.

SOLID STEM (AUGER): An auger that is constructed of solid stem drill flights.

SPADNS: The lab reagent called SPADNS solution is used in performing the Fluoride test.

SPECIFIC CAPACITY (Sc): A measure of a well’s pumping performance in gallons per minute per foot
of drawdown.

SPIDER: A bearing or flange used in vertical turbine pumps to stabilize the drive shaft or shaft tube and
seal column joints.

SPIRAL FLANGE: A continuous blade that wraps spirally around auger flighting.

SPIRIT OF HARTSHORN: A colorless, pungent, suffocating, aqueous solution of about 28.5 percent
ammonia gas: used chiefly as a detergent, for removing stains and extracting certain vegetable coloring
agents, and in the manufacture of ammonium salts.

SPLIT SPOON: A sampling device that is driven into the earth and operated by a wire line for the
retrieval of soil or formation samples.

SPLIT FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM: This type of control system is to control the flow to each filter
influent which is divided by a weir.

SPRAY BOTTLE OF AMMONIA: An operator should use ammonia to test for a chlorine leak around a
valve or pipe. You will see white smoke if there is a leak.

SPRING PRESSURE: Is what maintains contact between the two surfaces of a mechanical seal.

STABILE: Reference to formation, soil, or sediments of sufficient strength to remain in place under its
own weight and existing pressures.

STABILIZE: Actions taken to enhance borehole stability or vertical rotational when drilling.

STABILIZER: The portion of a drill string used to stabilize rotation.

STANDPIPE: A water tank that is taller than it is wide. Should not be found in low point.

STERILIZED GLASSWARE: The only type of glassware that should be used in testing for coliform
bacteria.

STORAGE TANKS: Three types of water usage that determine the volume of a storage tank are fire
suppression storage, equalization storage, and emergency storage. Equalization storage is the volume
of water needed to supply the system for periods when demand exceeds supply. Generally, a water
storage tank’s interior coating (paint) protects the interior about 3-5 years.

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S.T.P.: Standard temperature and pressure standard temperature and pressure the temperature of
0°C and pressure of 1 atmosphere, usually taken as the conditions when stating properties of gases.

STRATIFIED: Layered.

STUFFING BOX: That portion of the pump that houses the packing or mechanical seal.

SUB: A small section of drill pipe used to connect larger sections.

SUBMERSIBLE PUMP: A turbine pump that has the motor attached directly to it and therefore is
operated while submerged.

SULFATE: Will readily dissolve in water to form an anion. Sulfate is a substance that occurs naturally
in drinking water. Health concerns regarding sulfate in drinking water have been raised because of
reports that diarrhea may be associated with the ingestion of water containing high levels of sulfate. Of
particular concern are groups within the general population that may be at greater risk from the laxative
effects of sulfate when they experience an abrupt change from drinking water with low sulfate
concentrations to drinking water with high sulfate concentrations.

Sulfate in drinking water currently has a secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) of 250
milligrams per liter (mg/L), based on aesthetic effects (i.e., taste and odor). This regulation is not a
federally enforceable standard, but is provided as a guideline for States and public water systems. EPA
estimates that about 3% of the public drinking water systems in the country may have sulfate levels of
250 mg/L or greater. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), as amended in 1996, directs the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to
jointly conduct a study to establish a reliable dose-response relationship for the adverse human health
effects from exposure to sulfate in drinking water, including the health effects that may be experienced
by sensitive subpopulations (infants and travelers). SDWA specifies that the study be based on the best
available peer-reviewed science and supporting studies, conducted in consultation with interested
States, and completed in February 1999.

SULFIDE: The term sulfide refers to several types of chemical compounds containing sulfur in its lowest
-
oxidation number of -2. Formally, "sulfide" is the dianion, S2 , which exists in strongly alkaline aqueous
solutions formed from H2S or alkali metal salts such as Li2S, Na2S, and K2S. Sulfide is exceptionally
basic and, with a pKa > 14, it does not exist in appreciable concentrations even in highly alkaline water,
being undetectable at pH < ~15 (8 M NaOH). Instead, sulfide combines with electrons in hydrogen to
form HS, which is variously called hydrogen sulfide ion, hydrosulfide ion, sulfhydryl ion, or bisulfide ion.
At still lower pH's (<7), HS- converts to H2S, hydrogen sulfide. Thus, the exact sulfur species obtained
upon dissolving sulfide salts depends on the pH of the final solution. Aqueous solutions of transition
metals cations react with sulfide sources (H2S, NaSH, Na2S) to precipitate solid sulfides. Such inorganic
sulfides typically have very low solubility in water and many are related to minerals. One famous
example is the bright yellow species CdS or "cadmium yellow". The black tarnish formed on sterling
silver is Ag2S. Such species are sometimes referred to as salts. In fact, the bonding in transition metal
sulfides is highly covalent, which gives rise to their semiconductor properties, which in turn is related to
the practical applications of many sulfide materials.

SUPERNATANT: The liquid layer which forms above the sludge in a settling basin.

SURFACE SEAL: The upper portion of a wells construction where surface contaminants are
adequately prevented from entering the well, normally consisting of surface casing and neat cement
grout.

SURFACE WATER SOURCES: Surface water sources such as a river or lake are primarily the result of
Runoff.

SURFACE WATER: Water that is open to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff; generally,
lakes, streams, rivers.

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SURFACTANT: Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-gas
interface. They also reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water by adsorbing at the liquid-liquid
interface. Many surfactants can also assemble in the bulk solution into aggregates. Examples of such
aggregates are vesicles and micelles. The concentration at which surfactants begin to form micelles is
known as the critical micelle concentration or CMC. When micelles form in water, their tails form a core
that can encapsulate an oil droplet, and their (ionic/polar) heads form an outer shell that maintains
favorable contact with water. When surfactants assemble in oil, the aggregate is referred to as a
reverse micelle. In a reverse micelle, the heads are in the core and the tails maintain favorable contact
with oil. Surfactants are also often classified into four primary groups; anionic, cationic, non-ionic, and
zwitterionic (dual charge).

SUSCEPTIBILITY WAIVER: A waiver that is granted based upon the results of a vulnerability
assessment.

SURGE-BLOCK: A disc shaped device that fits tightly into a well and is moved up and down to agitate
the water column in order to develop a well.

SURGING: The process of purging a well rapidly for well development.

SWAB: See Surge-block.

SWING ARM: A large moveable arm on a bucket auger rig that pulls the bucket auger out away from
the drilling rig for dumping.

SYNCHRONY: Simultaneous occurrence; synchronism.

TABLE DRIVE: A drilling rig that uses a rotating table within the platform to turn a kelly driven drill
string.

TABLE: The back portion of a drill rig where the drill pipe is inserted (or driven if a table drive),
adjacent to or within the driller’s platform.

TAPPING VALVE: The name of the valve that is specifically designed for connecting a new water main
to an existing main that is under pressure.

TARGET DEPTH: The proposed construction depth of a well prior to drilling.

TASTE AND ODORS: The primary purpose to use potassium permanganate in water treatment is to
control taste and odors. Anaerobic water undesirable for drinking water purposes because of color and
odor problems are more likely to occur under these conditions. Taste and odor problems in the water
may happen if sludge and other debris are allowed to accumulate in a water treatment plant.

TCE, trichloroethylene: A solvent and degreaser used for many purposes; for example dry cleaning, it
is a common groundwater contaminant. Trichloroethylene is a colorless liquid which is used as a
solvent for cleaning metal parts. Drinking or breathing high levels of trichloroethylene may cause
nervous system effects, liver and lung damage, abnormal heartbeat, coma, and possibly death.
Trichloroethylene has been found in at least 852 of the 1,430 National Priorities List sites identified by
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

TDS-TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS: An expression for the combined content of all inorganic and
organic substances contained in a liquid which are present in a molecular, ionized or micro-granular
(colloidal sol) suspended form. Generally, the operational definition is that the solids (often abbreviated
TDS) must be small enough to survive filtration through a sieve size of two micrometers. Total dissolved
solids are normally only discussed for freshwater systems, since salinity comprises some of the ions
constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of TDS is in the study of water quality for
streams, rivers and lakes, although TDS is generally considered not as a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not
deemed to be associated with health effects), but it is rather used as an indication of aesthetic
characteristics of drinking water and as an aggregate indicator of presence of a broad array of chemical
contaminants. Ion exchange is an effective treatment process used to remove iron and manganese in a
water supply. This process is ideal as long as the water does not contain a large amount of TDS. When
determining the total dissolved solids, a sample should be filtered before being poured into an

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evaporating dish and dried. Demineralization may be necessary in a treatment process if the water has
a very high value Total Dissolved Solids.

TELEMETERING: The use of a transmission line with remote signaling to monitor a pumping station or
motors. Can be used to accomplish accurate and reliable remote monitoring and control over a long
distribution system.

TEMPERATURE SAMPLE: This test should be performed immediately in the field, this is a grab
sample.

TELESCOPING KELLY: A kelly with successively smaller sized pipe within itself that drops out as a
borehole is drilled. This permits that drilling may proceed without adding drill pipe. Normally found on
bucket auger rigs.

TELESCOPING: The successive decrease in borehole size with depth.

THE RATE DECREASES: In general, when the temperature decreases, the chemical reaction rate
decreases also.

THICKENING, CONDITIONING AND DEWATERING: Common processes that are utilized to reduce
the volume of sludge.

TIME FOR TURBIDITY BREAKTHROUGH AND MAXIMUM HEADLOSS: Are the two factors which
determine whether or not a change in filter media size should be made.

TITRATION: A method of testing by adding a reagent of known strength to a water sample until a
specific color change indicates the completion of the reaction.

TITRIMETRIC: Chemistry. Using or obtained by titration. Titrimetrically, adverb.

TOP DRIVE: A rotary type drill head that moves freely up and down the rigs mast while driving the drill
string.

TOROID: A surface generated by the revolution of any closed plane curve or contour about an axis
lying in its plane. The solid enclosed by such a surface.

TOTAL ALKALINITY: A measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water which indicates its buffering
ability, i.e. measure of its resistance to a change in pH. Generally, the higher the total alkalinity, the
greater the resistance to pH change.

TOTAL COLIFORM: Total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli are all indicators of drinking water quality.
The total coliform group is a large collection of different kinds of bacteria. Fecal coliforms are types of
total coliform that mostly exist in feces. E. coli is a sub-group of fecal coliform. When a water sample is
sent to a lab, it is tested for total coliform. If total coliform is present, the sample will also be tested for
either fecal coliform or E. coli, depending on the lab testing method.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS): The accumulated total of all solids that might be dissolved in
water.

TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD: The pressure (psi) or equivalent feet of water, required for a pump to lift
water to its point of storage overcoming elevation head, friction loss, line pressure, drawdown and
pumping lift.

TRANSIENT, NON-COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: TNCWS A water system which provides water in
a place such as a gas station or campground where people do not remain for long periods of time.
These systems do not have to test or treat their water for contaminants which pose long-term health
risks because fewer than 25 people drink the water over a long period. They still must test their water
for microbes and several chemicals. A Transient Non-community Water System: Is not required to
sample for VOC’s.

TREATED WATER: Disinfected and/or filtered water served to water system customers. It must meet
or surpass all drinking water standards to be considered safe to drink.

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TRIHALOMETHANES (THM): Four separate compounds including chloroform, dichlorobromomethane,
dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. The most common class of disinfection by-products created
when chemical disinfectants react with organic matter in water during the disinfection process. See
Disinfectant Byproducts.

TRICONE BIT: A roller bit with three independent rolling bits with teeth or buttons that intermesh for
efficient rock crushing and cutting.

TUBE SETTLERS: This modification of the conventional process contains many metal tubes that are
placed in the sedimentation basin, or clarifier. These tubes are approximately 1 inch deep and 36
inches long, split-hexagonal shape and installed at an angle of 60 degrees or less. These tubes provide
for a very large surface area upon which particles may settle as the water flows upward. The slope of
the tubes facilitates gravity settling of the solids to the bottom of the basin, where they can be collected
and removed. The large surface settling area also means that adequate clarification can be obtained
with detention times of 15 minutes or less. As with conventional treatment, this sedimentation step is
followed by filtration through mixed media.

TUBERCLES: The creation of this condition is of the most concern regarding corrosive water effects on
a water system. Tubercles are formed due to joining dissimilar metals, causing electro-chemical
reactions. Like iron to copper pipe. We have all seen these little rust mounds inside cast iron pipe.

TURBIDIMETER: Monitoring the filter effluent turbidity on a continuous basis with an in-line instrument
is a recommended practice. Turbidimeter is best suited to perform this measurement.

TURBIDITY: A measure of the cloudiness of water caused by suspended particles.

TURBINE PUMP: A pump that utilizes rotating impellers on a shaft that generate centrifugal force for
pumping water.

UNCONFINED AQUIFER: An aquifer that exists under atmospheric pressure and is not confined.

UNCONSOLIDATED: Sediment that is not cemented or is loosely arranged.

UNDER-REAM: The process of reaming, from within the borehole, a section of an existing smaller
borehole area.

UNSATURATED ZONE: That portion of the subsurface, including the capillary fringe that is not
saturated but may contain water in both vapor and liquid form. See also Vadose Zone.

UNSTABLE: Sediment or other material that cannot exit without rapidly decomposing or collapsing in
on itself. (ex. unconsolidated sediment)

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: In the United States, this agency responsible for
setting drinking water standards and for ensuring their enforcement. This agency sets federal
regulations which all state and local agencies must enforce.

UNDER PRESSURE IN STEEL CONTAINERS: After chlorine gas is manufactured, it is primarily

transported in steel containers.

UNIT FILTER RUN VOLUME (UFRV): One of the most popular ways to compare filter runs. This
technique is the best way to compare water treatment filter runs.

VADOSE ZONE: A portion of the subsurface above the water table that is not saturated but contains
water in both vapor and liquid form. The portion of the subsurface where water percolates through to
the saturated zone. See also Unsaturated Zone.

VANE: That portion of an impeller that throws the water toward the volute.

VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMP: A pump that will produce different volumes of water dependent
on the pressure head against it.

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VELOCITY HEAD: The vertical distance a liquid must fall to acquire the velocity with which it flows
through the piping system. For a given quantity of flow, the velocity head will vary indirectly as the pipe
diameter varies.

VENTURI: If water flows through a pipeline at a high velocity, the pressure in the pipeline is reduced.
Velocities can be increased to a point that a partial vacuum is created.

VERTICAL TURBINE: A type of variable displacement pump in which the motor or drive head is
mounted on the wellhead and rotates a drive shaft connected to the pump impellers.

VIRION: A complete viral particle, consisting of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein shell and
constituting the infective form of a virus.

VIRUSES: Very small disease-causing microorganisms that are too small to be seen even with
microscopes. Viruses cannot multiply or produce disease outside of a living cell.

VITRIFICATION: Vitrification is a process of converting a material into a glass-like amorphous solid that
is free from any crystalline structure, either by the quick removal or addition of heat, or by mixing with an
additive. Solidification of a vitreous solid occurs at the glass transition temperature (which is lower than
melting temperature, Tm, due to supercooling). When the starting material is solid, vitrification usually
involves heating the substances to very high temperatures. Many ceramics are produced in such a
manner. Vitrification may also occur naturally when lightning strikes sand, where the extreme and
immediate heat can create hollow, branching rootlike structures of glass, called fulgurite. When applied
to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often
but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime. The microstructure of whiteware
ceramics frequently contain both amorphous and crystalline phases.

VOC WAIVER: The longest term VOC waiver that a public water system using groundwater could
receive is 9 years.

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: (VOCs) Solvents used as degreasers or cleaning agents.

Improper disposal of VOCs can lead to contamination of natural waters. VOCs tend to evaporate very
easily. This characteristic gives VOCs very distinct chemical odors like gasoline, kerosene, lighter fluid,
or dry cleaning fluid. Some VOCs are suspected cancer-causing agents. Volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapor pressures under normal
conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere. A wide range of carbon-based molecules,
such as aldehydes, ketones, and other light hydrocarbons are VOCs. The term often is used in a legal
or regulatory context and in such cases the precise definition is a matter of law. These definitions can
be contradictory and may contain "loopholes"; e.g. exceptions, exemptions, and exclusions. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency defines a VOC as any organic compound that participates in a
photoreaction; others believe this definition is very broad and vague as organics that are not volatile in
the sense that they vaporize under normal conditions can be considered volatile by this EPA definition.
The term may refer both to well characterized organic compounds and to mixtures of variable
composition.

VOID: An opening, gap, or space within rock or sedimentary formations formed at the time of origin or
deposition.

VOLTAGE: Voltage (sometimes also called electric or electrical tension) is the difference of electrical
potential between two points of an electrical or electronic circuit, expressed in volts. It measures the
potential energy of an electric field to cause an electric current in an electrical conductor. Depending on
the difference of electrical potential it is called extra low voltage, low voltage, high voltage or extra high
voltage. Specifically Voltage is equal to energy per unit charge.

VOLUTE: The spiral-shaped casing surrounding a pump impeller that collects the liquid discharge by
the impeller.

VORTEX: The helical swirling of water moving towards a pump.

VIRUSES: Are very small disease-causing microorganisms that are too small to be seen even with
microscopes. Viruses cannot multiply or produce disease outside of a living cell.

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VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: (VOCs) Solvents used as degreasers or cleaning agents.
Improper disposal of VOCs can lead to contamination of natural waters. VOCs tend to evaporate very
easily. This characteristic gives VOCs very distinct chemical odors like gasoline, kerosene, lighter fluid,
or dry cleaning fluid. Some VOCs are suspected cancer-causing agents.

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT: An evaluation of drinking water source quality and its vulnerability to
contamination by pathogens and toxic chemicals.

WAIVERS: Monitoring waivers for nitrate and nitrite are prohibited.

WASHOUT: The rapid erosion of aquifer material from the borehole walls while a well is being drilled,
which often results in a loss of circulation.

WATER COURSE: An opening within a cable tool drill string that allows fluid to flow in and out of the
drill string thereby minimizing friction loss to the slurry.

WATER HAMMER: A surge in a pipeline resulting from the rapid increase or decrease in water flow.
Water hammer exerts tremendous force on a system and can be highly destructive.

WATER PURVEYOR: The individuals or organization responsible to help provide, supply, and furnish
quality water to a community.

WATER QUALITY: The 4 broad categories of water quality are: Physical, chemical, biological,
radiological. Pathogens are disease causing organisms such as bacteria and viruses. A positive
bacteriological sample indicates the presence of bacteriological contamination. Source water monitoring
for lead and copper be performed when a public water system exceeds an action level for lead of
copper.

WATER QUALITY CRITERIA: Comprised of both numeric and narrative criteria. Numeric criteria are
scientifically derived ambient concentrations developed by EPA or States for various pollutants of
concern to protect human health and aquatic life. Narrative criteria are statements that describe the
desired water quality goal.

WATER QUALITY STANDARD: A statute or regulation that consists of the beneficial designated use or
uses of a waterbody, the numeric and narrative water quality criteria that are necessary to protect the
use or uses of that particular waterbody, and an antidegradation statement.

WATER TABLE: The measured water level surface of an unconfined aquifer.

WATER VAPOR: A characteristic that is unique to water vapor in the atmosphere is that water does
not contain any salts.

WATERBORNE DISEASE: A disease, caused by a virus, bacterium, protozoan, or other

microorganism, capable of being transmitted by water (e.g., typhoid fever, cholera, amoebic dysentery,
gastroenteritis).

WATERSHED: An area that drains all of its water to a particular water course or body of water. The
land area from which water drains into a stream, river, or reservoir.

WEATHERED: The existence of rock or formation in a chemically or physically broken down or

decomposed state. Weathered material is in an unstable state.

WELL ABANDONMENT: The process of sealing a well by approved means. The filling of a well to the
surface with cement grout.

WELL HEAD: The upper portion of the well that is constructed on the land surface, including the well
manifold. Also a term used to refer to the area near the well that is subject to wellhead protection.

WELL HEAD PROTECTION: Programs designed to maintain the quality of groundwater used as public
drinking water sources, by managing the land uses around the well field. A government program that
encourages the limitation and elimination of activities, near and within a wells recharge area, which
present a potential risk to the wells water supply.

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WELL MANIFOLD: The piping, valves, and metering equipment used to connect the well to the
distribution system, installed on the wellhead.

WELL SCREEN: A section of well casing that contains openings which permit water to enter the well
but limit or prevent sediment from entering the well while pumping.

WELL SEAL: The watertight cap or seal installed within and between the well casing and pumping
equipment. The metal or plastic plug or seal, which the pumping column rests on the top of casing.

WHOLE EFFLUENT TOXICITY: The total toxic effect of an effluent measured directly with a toxicity
test.

YIELD: The volume of water measured in flow rates that are produced from the well.

ZONE OF AERATION: See Saturated Zone or Vadose Zone.

ZONE OF SATURATION: See Saturated Zone.

A cross completely blown out. A major job. Good thing it wasn’t under the
blacktop.

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