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Reproduction
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Concepts
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
GAMETOGENESIS
The process of formation of sex cells (gametes) is called gametogenesis.
It is of two types.
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
Production of spermatids Production of ootids
Testis Ovary (except AII TII Phases)
Starts after Puberty Starts at 3rd fetal month
2 Stopovers
Continuous process (1st at Prophase 1 Diplotene – Puberty
2nd at Metaphase II - Magic touch)
10 weeks 1 month
Followed by Maturation
Followed by Maturation
Spermatids ——> Sperm
Ootid ——> Ovum
(Spermiogenesis)
Growth Phase is too short in Spermatogonia Growth Phase is too long in Oogonia
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MATING is the process in which male and female take part in fertilization.
FERTILIZATION: The process in which male and female gametes unite together to
form zygote is called fertilization.
External is the process of fusion of sperm and ovum outside the body of
female in an aquatic medium.
Internal is the process in which eggs are fertilized inside the body of female.
UNISEXUAL ANIMALS/HETEROPHRODITE
Unisexual animals have male and female reproductive organs i.e. testes and
ovaries present in separate animals.
Example: all vertebrates, insects etc.
BISEXUAL ANIMALS/HERMAPHRODITE
Bisexual animals have male and female reproductive organs i.e. testes and
ovaries present in same animal.
Example: Hydra, earth-worm, leech.
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OVIPARITY:
Oviparous animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other embryonic
development within the mother.
Chances of survival of young ones is less as the female lay egg in the open
environment.
Example: this is the reproductive method of most fish, amphibians, reptiles, all
birds, the monotremes, and most insects, some mollusks and arachnids.
VIVIPARITY
Viviparous animals give birth to live young.
Chances of survival of young one is more because of proper embryonic care
and protection inside the mother’s body.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Paired Testes ----------- Spermatogenesis
Epididymis ------------- Spermiogenesis
Vas Deferens ---------- Carries mature sperms to urethra
Accessory glands ----- Seminal Vesicle, Prostate, Cowper’s Gland
Penis ---------------------- Copulation through urethra
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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Paired Ovaries --------- Oogenesis
Fallopian Tube --------- Capacitation of Sperm, Fertilization
Uterus -------------------- Growth and development of embryo / fetus
Cervix ------------------- Storage and direction of sperms
Vagina ---------------------- Reception of Sperms
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
The female reproductive cycles are;
Oestrous Cycles
Menstrual Cycles
OESTROUS CYCLE:
During the breeding season when eggs mature hormonal secretion in females
initiates certain behavioral changes indicating their readiness for mating and
the animal is said to be in a heat a period of sexual receptivity. This occurs in a
cyclic manner called the oestrous cycle.
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This cycle is found in all animals except in human beings. This process may
occurs only once in a year in some mammals and in others twice in a year and
in some more often.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The monthly egg maturation(ovarian cycle) and uterine preparation for
possible pregnancy (uterine cycle) is collectively called menstrual cycle.
Menstruation begins around the age of thirteen and stops at menopause
around the age of fifty.
Average of 28 days
21 to 45 days in young women
21 to 35 days in adults
Menstrual Cycle contains 2 cycles and 4 phases
Ovarian Cycle Uterine Cycle
Menstruation Phase – (Day 1- 5)
Follicular / Proliferative Phase – (Day 6 – 12)
Ovulation Phase (Day 13 – 15)
Luteal / Secretory Phase (Day 16 – 28)
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PHASE I- MENSTRUATION: Day 1-5
The progesterone secretion is stopped by the corpus luteum and as a result the
soft spongy vascular internal lining of uterus called endometrium breaks off and
starts flowing along with blood out of vagina in the form of menstruation flow.
PHASE II- FOLLICLE STAGE: Day 6 to 12
This stage stimulates the development of many follicles in the ovary.
Primary oocytes are enclosed by flat granulosa cells and is called
PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLE.
Primordial follicle develops into PRIMARY FOLLICLE with many layers of
cuboidal granulosa cells.
The zona pellucida forms around the oocyte, separating it from the
surrounding granulosa cells. The zona pellucida, which remains with the
oocyte after ovulation, contains enzymes that catalyze with sperm to allow
penetration.
Cells from the stroma form layers known as
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A fluid is secreted by the granulosa cells and the follicle with fluid filled
space(antrum) is called SECONDARY FOLLICLE.
It matures to form GRAFFIAN FOLLICLE that has secondary oocyte.
This process is initiated by the FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) secreted in
blood from pituitary gland.
FSH stimulates the ovary to produce a hormones of its own called ESTROGEN
that causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining and when reaches its
peak inhibits FSH production and triggers the secretion of LH.
PHASE III- OVULATION: Day 13 - 15
This stage is initiated by the increase of LH (Luteinizing Hormone) level.
LH matures the egg and weakens the wall of the follicle in the ovary, causing
the fully developed follicle to release its secondary oocyte.
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The secondary oocyte promptly matures into an ootid and then becomes a
mature ovum.
After being released from the ovary, the egg is swept into the fallopian tube by
the fimbria.
The ovulated oocyte consists of a nucleus in metaphase I and is surrounded
by zona pellucida and Corona radiata.
PHASE IV- CORPUS LUTEUM PHASE: Day 16-28
LH causes the ruptured follicle to change into a yellowish body the corpus
luteum which starts producing another hormones the progesterone and
estrogen.
Progesterone maintains the uterine lining, stimulates glandular activity, making
it richly supplied by blood for implantation of embryo and inhibits FSH and LH
production.
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CONCEPTION: Fertilization in human being is most commonly called conception.
IMPLANTATION: After fertilization has been taken place in oviduct the zygote
begins to divide and form a ball of cells called blastocyst which travels down the
oviduct and reaches in its walls. This process is called implantation.
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GESTATION: Gestation is the period of time between conception and birth.
normal pregnancy can range from 38 to 42 weeks.
PLACENTA
The tissue attaching the embryo to the wall of uterus called placenta.
The placenta looks like a flat pie shaped structure, it has millions of blood vessels
that are the part of the embryo‘s blood system.
Functions:
Food and O2 from the mother blood vessels through the placental blood
vessels diffuse into embryo.
CO2 and wastes from the embryo diffuse out through the placenta to the
mother.
The blood of mother and the embryo however are not mixed.
Placenta secretes progesterone hormone for maintaining pregnancy.
UMBILICAL CORD:
A rope like structure that connects the embryo to placenta.
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It contains blood vessels which carry food and O2 from placenta.
It serves as supply line between embryo and its mother.
PROTECTIVE COATS OF EMBRYO
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AMNION:
This layer is produced from ectoderm of embryo and encloses the embryo
completely.
This layer contains a cavity called amniotic cavity having amniotic fluid.
It became like a fluid cushion and protects embryo from injury.
It also keeps the embryo moist.
CHORION:
The trophoblast grow and develop into an outer layer called chorion.
It is called as extra embryonic covering.
It covers the embryonic body completely and present on the extreme outer
side of the embryo near egg shell.
It assists in nutrition and excretion.
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Extra Embryonic Coats/Membranes
Chorion – Placenta
Amnion – Amniotic sac
Allantois – Umbilical Cord
Yolk sac - Degenerate
BIRTH
Birth, also known as parturition, is the act or process of bearing or bringing
forth offspring.
It is accomplished by rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle,
coordinated by prostaglandins and the peptide hormone oxytocin.
LACTATION
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Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the
period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young.
Prolactin causes milk production.
Oxytocin is critical for the milk let-down reflex in response to suckling.
Progesterone influences the growth in size of alveoli and lobes; high levels of
progesterone inhibit lactation before birth.
Estrogen stimulates the milk duct system to grow and differentiate.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
GONORRHEA:
It is caused by a bacterium Neisseria Gonorrhea
The bacteria cause wounds on genital tubes.
In males, the infected male experiences burning sensation during urination
with discharge of thick white pus from urethra.
In females infected oviduct become damaged and blocked.
An infected person can transmit these bacteria to her new born baby. These
babies more often suffer eye diseases and can become blind if not treated.
Proper antibiotics should be used for the treatment of disease.
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SYPHILIS:
It is caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum.
The bacteria not only damage the reproductive system but also affect the
nervous system and skeletal system in addition to causing large number of
lesions.
One of the lethal STDs if left untreated
Three stages
Primary Syphilis – Chancre
Secondary Syphilis – Rash, mucous patches, Snail tract Ulcer
Tertiary Syphilis – Gumma, Arteritis, Nervous Damage
Vertical Transmission common
Prolonged antibiotic treatment is the probable remedy.
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AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome):
AIDS is caused by virus called Human Immuno-deficiency virus
(HIV).Considered as smartest micro-organism
Targets T4 Lymphocytes
Shuts down Immune system
Opportunistic Infections occur
Oral Thrush – Candidiasis
Pneumonia
Kaposi’s Sarcoma – (Skin Cancer according to Sindh board) – HHV - VIIII
Transmission:
Sexual contact
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Unscreened blood transfusion
Mother to baby
Reuse of used syringes
Symptoms:
Flu like symptoms in the beginning later on immune system is destroyed.
Spots are developed on the skin called skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma).
Blood become poisonous called septicemia.
Nervous system is damaged, loss of memory and ultimately death occur.
Precaution and Treatment:
Sexual contact with the infected person should be completely avoided.
Testing of blood before donation.
Reuse of used syringes should be controlled.
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Important Questions
1. During spermatogenesis, where do the final stages of sperm maturation
occur?
a. Seminiferous tubules
b. Epididymis
c. Vas deferens
d. Prostate gland
2. Which of the following hormones is responsible for the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics?
a. FSH
b. LH
c. Testosterone
d. Estrogen
3. What is the function of the seminal vesicles in the male reproductive system?
a. Produce sperm
b. Store and nourish sperm
c. Produce seminal fluid
d. Transport sperm to the urethra
4. In the female reproductive system, where does fertilization typically occur?
a. Uterus
b. Fallopian tube
c. Ovary
d. Cervix
5. What is the primary function of the corpus luteum?
a. Produce estrogen
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b. Produce progesterone
c. Produce FSH
d. Produce LH
6. During which phase of the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?
a. Menstrual phase
b. Follicular phase
c. Luteal phase
d. Proliferative phase
7. Which structure in the female reproductive system is responsible for
producing eggs?
a. Uterus
b. Ovary
c. Fallopian tube
d. Cervix
8. What is the purpose of the cervix in the female reproductive system?
a. Produce eggs
b. Allow passage of sperm
c. Produce hormones
d. Menstrual regulation
9. Which sexually transmitted disease is caused by a bacterium?
a. Herpes
b. Gonorrhea
c. HPV
d. HIV
10. What is the most effective method for preventing the transmission of sexually
transmitted diseases?
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a. Restricted to one partner only
b. Abstinence
c. Hormonal contraception
d. Vaccination
11. Which sexually transmitted disease is caused by a virus and can lead to
cervical cancer?
a. Chlamydia
b. Syphilis
c. HPV
d. Trichomoniasis
12. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infectious (STI) disease caused by the
bacterium
a. Treponema pallidum
b. Escherichia coli (E. coli)
c. Staphylococcus aureus
d. Streptococcus pneumoniae
13. Which hormone is responsible for the development of female secondary
sexual characteristics?
a. FSH
b. LH
c. Estrogen
d. Testosterone
14. In which part of the female reproductive system does fertilization usually
occur?
a. Ovary
b. Uterus
c. Fallopian tube
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d. Cervix
15. What is the function of the prostate gland in the male reproductive system?
a. Produce sperm
b. Produce seminal fluid
c. Store and nourish sperm
d. Transport sperm to the urethra
16. What is the function of the Cowper's glands in the male reproductive system?
a. Produce sperm
b. neutralize the acidic urine and lubrication the distal urethra
c. Store and nourish sperm
d. Transport sperm to the urethra
17. During which phase of the menstrual cycle does the uterine lining thicken in
preparation for a potential pregnancy?
a. Menstrual phase
b. Follicular phase
c. Luteal phase
d. Proliferative phase
18. Which hormone is responsible for initiating the release of an egg from the
ovary during ovulation?
a. FSH
b. LH
c. Estrogen
d. Progesterone
19. In the male reproductive system, where are sperm produced?
a. Epididymis
b. Seminiferous tubules
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c. Vas deferens
d. Prostate gland
20. What is the primary function of the vas deferens in the male reproductive
system?
a. Produce sperm
b. Transport sperm to the urethra
c. Produce seminal fluid
d. Store and nourish sperm
21. Which sexually transmitted disease is caused by a parasite?
a. Herpes
b. Gonorrhea
c. Trichomoniasis
d. Syphilis
22. What is the purpose of the fallopian tubes in the female reproductive system?
a. Produce eggs
b. Transport eggs from the ovary to the uterus
c. Produce hormones
d. Menstrual regulation
23. Which hormone is responsible for the development and maintenance of the
uterine lining during the menstrual cycle?
a. FSH
b. LH
c. Estrogen
d. Progesterone
24. What is the function of the seminal fluid in the male reproductive system?
a. Nourish and protect sperm
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b. Produce sperm
c. Transport sperm to the urethra
d. Store sperm in the epididymis
25. During which phase of the menstrual cycle does the uterine lining break down
and shed if no pregnancy occurs?
a. Menstrual phase
b. Follicular phase
c. Luteal phase
d. Proliferative phase
26. Which sexually transmitted disease is known as the "silent infection" because
it often has no symptoms?
a. Gonorrhea
b. Chlamydia
c. Syphilis
d. HIV
27. What is the role of the corpus albicans in the female reproductive system?
a. Produce eggs
b. Produce hormones
c. Break down the uterine lining
d. Regulate the menstrual cycle
28. Which part of the male reproductive system carries sperm from the testes to
the urethra?
a. Vas deferens
b. Epididymis
c. Seminiferous tubules
d. Prostate gland
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29. What is the primary symptom of chlamydia in both men and women?
a. Painful urination
b. Genital warts
c. Unexplained infertility
d. Yellow-green vaginal discharge
30. In the female reproductive system, what structure connects the uterus to the
vagina?
a. Fallopian tube
b. Cervix
c. Ovary
d. Uterus
Answer Key
1. b
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. b
6. b
7. b
8. b
9. b
10. a
11. c
12. a
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13. c
14. c
15. b
16. b
17. d
18. b
19. b
20. b
21. c
22. b
23. d
24. a
25. a
26. b
27. c
28. a
29. c
30. b
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