Brij Kishore Pandey
A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE
SQL (Structured
Query Language)
SQL
Master SQL in the Shortest
Possible Time
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WHAT IS SQL?
SQL is a database computer
language used to manage data
stored in relational databases.
SQL stands for Structured Query
Language.
SQL was developed in the 1970s
by IBM Computer Scientists. It
became a standard of the ANSI in
1986, and of the ISO in 1987.
All relational databases like
MySQL, MS Access, Oracle,
Sybase, Postgres and SQL Server
use SQL as their standard
database language.
SQL DEFINITION swipe
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SQL COMMANDS
DDL
These are SQL commands that are
used to define the database
schema. DDL stands for Data
Definition Language.
DDL COMMANDS - CREATE, DROP, ALTER,
TRUNCATE
DML
These are SQL commands that are
used to manipulate the data
present in the database. DML
stands for Data Manipulation
Language.
DML COMMANDS - INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
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SQL COMMANDS
DCL
These are SQL commands that deal
with rights, permissions, and other
controls of the database system.
DCL stands for Data Control
Language.
DCL COMMANDS - GRANT, REVOKE
TCL
These are SQL commands that deal
with the transactions happening in
the database. TCL stands for
Transaction Control Language.
TCL COMMANDS - COMMIT, ROLLBACK
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SQL COMMANDS
DQL
These are SQL commands that are
used to retreive data present in the
database. DQL stands for Data
Query Language.
DQL COMMANDS - SELECT
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DATABASE QUERIES
CREATE DATABASE
This statement is used to create a
new SQL database.
CREATE DATABASE DATABASENAME;
EXAMPLE
CREATE DATABASE COMPANY;
USE DATABASE
This statement is used to select an
SQL database for usage.
USE DATABASENAME;
EXAMPLE
USE COMPANY;
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DATABASE QUERIES
LIST DATABASES
This statement is used to list down
all the available databases.
SHOW DATABASES;
DROP DATABASE
This statement is used to delete an
existing database along with all the
data such as tables, views, indexes,
etc.
DROP DATABASE DATABASENAME;
EXAMPLE
DROP DATABASE COMPANY;
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CREATE TABLE
This statement is used to create a
new table in a database.
CREATE TABLE TABLENAME(
column-1 datatype,
column-2 datatype,...,
column-N datatype);
EXAMPLE
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEES(
EMPID int,
FIRSTName varchar(70),
LASTName varchar(70),
City varchar(50)
SALARY DECIMAL(10, 2));
This creates an empty table named
EMPLOYEES with all the fields
mentioned.
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INSERT VALUES
This statement is used to insert
new records in a table.
INSERT INTO tablename VALUES(
value1, value2,..., value3);
EXAMPLE
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEES VALUES(
10000, 'Frances', 'BERGER', '
ALABAMA', 52750);
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEES VALUES(
10001, 'Michael', '
Thompson', 'florida', 48450);
Here, we have inserted two records
into the table. You must enter
values in the order of the fields.
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SELECT QUERY
This statement is used to retrieve
data and display it as a table. These
tables are called result-sets.
DISPLAY ALL COLUMNS
SELECT * FROM TABLENAME;
EXAMPLE
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES;
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10000 FRANCES BERGER ALABAMA 52750.00
10001 MICHAEL THOMPSON FLORIDA 48450.00
Here, the employees table is displayed
with the inserted records. You can
specify the column names instead of
asterisk (*) to display specific columns
of a table.
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EMPLOYEES TABLE
Consider this table for the next few
concepts explained.
EXAMPLE TABLE
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10000 mitchell johnson ALABAMA 52750.00
10001 MICHAEL williams FLORIDA 48450.00
10002 james brown ALABAMA 26320.00
10003 william smith ohio 40000.00
10004 oscar jones georgia 35850.00
10005 jake brown nevada 43700.00
10006 john THOMPSON FLORIDA 55000.00
10007 david smith texas 23450.00
10008 MICHAEL smith georgia 38900.00
10009 shane johnson ohio 32000.00
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SELECT DISTINCT
This statement is used to return
only distinct (different) values.
SELECT DISTINCT column1,
column2, ... FROM tablename;
CONSIDER the employees table
QUERY
SELECT DISTINCT CITY FROM
EMPLOYEES;
OUTPUT
CITY
ALABAMA
FLORIDA
OHIO
GEORGIA
NEVADA
TEXAS
SELECT QUERY swipe
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WHERE CLAUSE
This statement is used to filter
records. It is used to extract only
those records that fulfill a specified
condition.
SELECT column1, column2, ..
FROM tablename WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
QUERY
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE
SALARY > 50000;
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10000 mitchell johnson ALABAMA 52750.00
10006 john THOMPSON FLORIDA 55000.00
SELECT QUERY swipe
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ORDER BY
This statement is used to sort the
result set in ascending or
descending order.
SELECT * FROM tablename
ORDER BY column1, column2, ASC|
DESC;
QUERY
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY SALARY;
CONSIDER the employees table -
OUTPUT IN NEXT PAGE
By default, the ORDER BY statement
sorts the data in ascending order. You
can specify the DESC keyword to sort it
in descending order.
SELECT QUERY swipe
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ORDER BY
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10007 david smith texas 23450.00
10002 james brown ALABAMA 26320.00
10009 shane johnson ohio 32000.00
10004 oscar jones georgia 35850.00
10008 MICHAEL smith georgia 38900.00
10003 william smith ohio 40000.00
10005 jake brown nevada 43700.00
10001 MICHAEL williams FLORIDA 48450.00
10000 mitchell johnson ALABAMA 52750.00
10006 john THOMPSON FLORIDA 55000.00
SELECT QUERY swipe
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AND Operator
The AND operator is used to filter
records based on more than one
condition. The records must match
both the condition.
SELECT columnS FROM
tablename WHERE
condITION1 AND condition2;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT EMPID FROM EMPLOYEEs
WHERE LASTNAME = 'SMITH' AND
SALARY > 30000;
OUTPUT
empid
10003
10008
SELECT QUERY swipe
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OR Operator
The OR operator is used to filter
records based on more than one
condition. The records must match
any of the conditions.
SELECT columnS FROM
tablename WHERE
condITION1 OR condition2;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT FIRSTNAME FROM EMPLOYEEs
WHERE CITY = 'NEVADA' OR
CITY = 'TEXAS';
OUTPUT
FIRSTNAME
JAKE
DAVID
SELECT QUERY swipe
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NOT Operator
The NOT operator is used in combo
with other operators to give the
opposite result. It is also called as
the negative result.
SELECT columnS FROM tablename
WHERE not condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEEs
WHERE NOT SALARY > 30000;
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10002 james brown ALABAMA 26320.00
10007 david smith texas 23450.00
SELECT QUERY swipe
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Aggregate Functions
An aggregate function is a
function that performs a
calculation on a set of values, and
returns a single value.
Aggregate functions are often
used with the GROUP BY clause of
the SELECT statement.
The GROUP BY clause splits the
result-set into groups of values
and the aggregate function can be
used to return a single value for
each group.
The most commonly used SQL
aggregate functions are: MIN,
MAX, COUNT, SUM, AVG.
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MIN
The MIN function returns the
smallest value of the selected
column.
SELECT MIN(columnname) FROM
tablename WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT MIN(salary) FROM
employees;
OUTPUT
MIN(SALARY)
23450.00
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MAX
The MAX function returns the
largest value of the selected
column.
SELECT MAX(columnname) FROM
tablename WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT Max(salary) FROM
employees;
OUTPUT
Max(SALARY)
55000.00
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COUNT
The COUNT function returns the
number of rows that matches a
specified criterion.
SELECT COUNT(columnname) FROM
tablename WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees
WHERE CITY = 'FLORIDA';
OUTPUT
COUNT(*)
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SUM
The SUM function returns the total
sum of a numeric column.
SELECT SUM(columnname) FROM
tablename WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT SUM(SALARY)
FROM employees
WHERE SALARY > 50000;
OUTPUT
SUM(SALARY)
107750.00
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AVG
The AVG function returns the
average of a numeric column.
SELECT AVG(columnname) FROM
tablename WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT AVG(SALARY)FROM
employees;
OUTPUT
AVG(SALARY)
39642
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GROUP BY
The GROUP BY statement groups
rows that have the same values into
summary rows.
The GROUP BY statement is often
used with aggregate functions to
group the result set by one or more
columns.
SELECT columnname(s)FROM
tablename
WHERE condition GROUP BY
column_name(s);
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT COUNT(EMPID), CITY
FROM EMPLOYEEs GROUP BY CITY;
SELECT QUERY swipe
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GROUP BY
OUTPUT
COUNT(EMPID) CITY
2 ALABAMA
2 FLORIDA
2 OHIO
2 GEORGIA
1 NEVADA
1 TEXAS
SELECT QUERY swipe
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HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to
SQL because the WHERE keyword
cannot be used with aggregate
functions.
SELECT columnname(s)FROM
tablename WHERE condition
GROUP BY
columnname(s) HAVING condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
EXAMPLE
SELECT COUNT(EMPID), CITY FROM
EMPLOYEEs GROUP BY CITY HAVING
COUNT(EMPID) < 2 ;
OUTPUT
COUNT(EMPID) CITY
1 NEVADA
1 TEXAS
SELECT QUERY swipe
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LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in
a WHERE clause to search for a
specified pattern in a column.
There are two wildcards often
used with the LIKE operator.
The percent sign (%) represents
zero, one, or multiple characters
and the underscore sign (_)
represents one single character.
SELECT column-1,column-2
FROM tablename WHERE
column-N LIKE pattern;
EXAMPLE
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEEs
WHERE FIRSTName LIKE 'J%';
SELECT QUERY swipe
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LIKE OPERATOR
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10002 james brown ALABAMA 26320.00
10005 jake brown nevada 43700.00
10006 john THOMPSON FLORIDA 55000.00
Here, the query selects all the first
names that start with J. You can
use these wildcards in different
formats to achieve different
results.
SELECT QUERY swipe
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IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify
multiple values in a WHERE clause.
The IN operator is a shorthand for
multiple OR conditions.
SELECT columnname(s)
FROM tablename
WHERE columnname IN (valueS 1,
2, ...);
CONSIDER the employees table
QUERY
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEEs
WHERE CITY IN ('OHIO', 'NEVADA');
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10003 william smith ohio 40000.00
10005 jake brown nevada 43700.00
10009 shane johnson ohio 32000.00
SELECT QUERY swipe
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BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects
values within a given range. The
values can be numbers, text, or
dates. It is inclusive: begin and end
values are included.
SELECT columnname(s)FROM tablename
WHERE columnname
BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
CONSIDER the employees table
QUERY
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEEs WHERE
SALARY BETWEEN 20000 AND 32000;
OUTPUT
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10002 james brown ALABAMA 26320.00
10007 david smith texas 23450.00
10009 shane johnson ohio 32000.00
SELECT QUERY swipe
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UPDATE QUERY
This statement is used to modify
the existing records in a table.
UPDATE tablename SET
column1 = value1, column2 =
value2 WHERE condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
QUERY
UPDATE EMPLOYEEs
SET FIRSTName = 'LUKE'
WHERE EMPID = 10003;
UPDATED ROW
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10003 LUKE smith ohio 40000.00
The updated row is only displayed here. You must use
the select query to view the full result.
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DELETE QUERY
This statement is used to delete
existing records in a table.
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE
condition;
CONSIDER the employees table
QUERY
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEEs WHERE
EMPID = 10008;
DELETED ROW
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
10008 MICHAEL smith georgia 38900.00
The deleted row is just displayed here. You must use
the select query to view the full result.
TABLE QUERIES swipe
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DROP TABLE
This statement is used to drop an
existing table in a database.
DROP TABLE tablename;
EXAMPLE
DROP TABLE employees;
TRUNCATE TABLE
This statement is used to delete
the data inside a table, but not the
table itself.
TRUNCATE TABLE tablename;
EXAMPLE
TRUNCATE TABLE employees;
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ALTER TABLE
This statement is used to add,
delete, or modify columns in an
existing table and also used to add
and drop various constraints on an
existing table.
ADD COLUMN
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD
columnname datatype;
EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEEs ADD
BONUS DECIMAL(10, 2);
EXTRA COLUMN ADDED
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY BONUS
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ALTER TABLE
DROP COLUMN
ALTER TABLE tablename DROP
COLUMN columnname;
EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEEs DROP
COLUMN BONUS;
BONUS COLUMN DELETED
empid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
RENAME COLUMN
ALTER TABLE tablename RENAME
COLUMN oldname to newname;
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ALTER TABLE
EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES RENAME
COLUMN FIRSTNAME to Fname;
FIRSTNAME COLUMN RENAMED
empid FNAME LASTNAME CITY SALARY
MODIFY DATATYPE
ALTER TABLE tablename MODIFY
COLUMN columnname datatype;
EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEEs MODIFY
COLUMN CITY VARCHAR(100);
This query will modify and increase the number of
characters for the city column.
TABLE QUERIES swipe
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Constraints
SQL constraints are used to
specify rules for the data in a
table. Constraints are used to limit
the type of data that can go into a
table.
This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the table.
If there is any violation between
the constraint and the data action,
the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or
table level. Column level
constraints apply to a column, and
table level constraints apply to the
whole table.
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Constraints
NOT NULL
This constraint enforces a column
to not accept NULL values.
It enforces a field to always contain
a value, which means that you
cannot insert a new record, or
update a record without adding a
value to this field.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TABLE employees (
empID int NOT NULL,
firstName varchar(70),
lastName varchar(70),
city varchar(50), salary
decimal(10, 2) not null);
The EMPID and SALARY field is NOT NULL here.
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Constraints
UNIQUE
This constraint ensures that all
values in a column are different.
Both the UNIQUE and PRIMARY
KEY constraints provide a
guarantee for uniqueness for a
column or set of columns.
EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE employees
ADD UNIQUE (EMPID);
Here, we have used ALTER to add a
UNIQUE constraint to the EMPID
column. The EMPID column can not take
duplicate values.
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Constraints
PRIMARY KEY
This constraint uniquely identifies
each record in a table. Primary keys
must contain UNIQUE values, and
cannot contain NULL values.
A table can have only one primary
key, and in the table, this primary
key can consist of single or multiple
columns.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TABLE employees (empID
int, firstName varchar(70),
lastName varchar(70), city
varchar(50), salary decimal(10,
2),primary key (empid));
Here, EMPID column is the primary key of the table.
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Constraints
CHECK
This constraint is used to limit the
value range that can be placed in a
column.
If you define a CHECK constraint
on a column it will allow only certain
values for this column.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TABLE employees (empID
int, firstName varchar(70),
lastName varchar(70), age int
check (age >= 18));
Here, we have defined a CHECK constraint for the
AGE column where the age must be greater or equal
to 18. Anything below that wouldn't be accepted.
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Constraints
DEFAULT
This constraint is used to set a
default value for a column. The
default value will be added to all
new records, if no other value is
specified.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TABLE employees (empID
int, firstName varchar(70),
lastName varchar(70), city
varchar(50) DEFAULT 'ALABAMA',
salary decimal(10, 2));
Here, the CITY column would be filled
with the value ALABAMA if there are no
values explicitly specified.
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EXAMPLE TABLES
Consider these two tables for the
next few concepts explained.
PERSONS TABLE
pid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME AGE
1 MARCO JANSEN 28
2 ASHIF BASHA 24
3 MONISH KUMAR 26
ORDERS TABLE
Oid ORDERNO PID
1 34578 2
2 45876 1
3 55900 2
4 22089 3
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Constraints
FOREIGN KEY
This constraint is used to prevent
actions that would destroy links
between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY is a field (or
collection of fields) in one table,
that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in
another table.
CONSIDER BOTH the eXAMPLE tableS
QUERY
ALTER TABLE Orders ADD
FOREIGN KEY (PID)
REFERENCES Persons(PID);
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ANY OPERATOR
The ANY operator returns a boolean
value as a result and returns TRUE if
any of the subquery values meet
the condition.
This means that the condition will
be true if the operation is true for
any of the values in the range.
SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE
columnname operator ANY (SELECT
columnname FROM tablename
WHERE condition);
QUERY
SELECT FIRSTName FROM PERSONs
WHERE PID = ANY(SELECT PID
FROM Orders WHERE ORDERNO >
40000);
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ANY OPERATOR
OUTPUT
FIRSTNAME
MARCO
ASHIF
Here, the ORDERNO is greater than
40000 for PID 1 and 2 in the ORDERS
table. So, it displays their respective first
names from the PERSONS table.
SELECT QUERY swipe
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ALL OPERATOR
The ALL operator returns a boolean
value as a result and returns TRUE if
all of the subquery values meet the
condition.
ALL means that the condition will be
true only if the operation is true for all
values in the range.
SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE
columnname operator ALL (SELECT
columnname FROM tablename
WHERE condition);
QUERY
SELECT FIRSTName FROM PERSONs
WHERE PID = All(SELECT PID
FROM Orders WHERE ORDERNO >
40000);
SELECT QUERY swipe
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ALL OPERATOR
OUTPUT
empty table
Here, the condition does not match all
the records in the ORDERS table. So, it
displays an empty table with no records.
SELECT QUERY swipe
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SQL JOINs
A JOIN clause is used to combine
rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column
between them.
TYPES OF JOINS
TABLE 1 TABLE 2 TABLE 1 TABLE 2
INNER JOIN LEFT JOIN
TABLE 1 TABLE 2 TABLE 1 TABLE 2
RIGHT JOIN FULL OUTER JOIN
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INNER JOIN
The INNER JOIN keyword selects
records that have matching values
in both tables.
SELECT columnname(s)FROM
table1 INNER JOIN
table2 ON table1.colname =
table2.colname;
CONSIDER BOTH the eXAMPLE tableS
QUERY
SELECT FIRSTName, AGE, OID
FROM PERSONs
INNER JOIN ORDERs ON
PERSONs.PID = ORDERs.PID;
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INNER JOIN
OUTPUT
FIRSTNAME AGE OID
MARCO 28 2
ASHIF 24 3
ASHIF 24 1
MONISH 26 4
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LEFT JOIN
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns
all records from the left table, and
the matching records from the right
table. The result is 0 records from
the right side, if there is no match.
SELECT columnname(s) FROM
table1 LEFT JOIN
table2 ON table1.colname =
table2.colname;
CONSIDER BOTH the eXAMPLE tableS
QUERY
SELECT LASTNAME, ORDERS.PID,
ORDERNO FROM PERSONS LEFT JOIN
ORDERS ON PERSONS.PID =
ORDERS.PID;
SQL JOINS swipe
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LEFT JOIN
OUTPUT
LASTNAME PID ORDERNO
JANSEN 1 45876
BASHA 2 34578
BASHA 2 55900
KUMAR 3 22089
SQL JOINS swipe
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RIGHT JOIN
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns
all records from the right table, and
the matching records from the left
table. The result is 0 records from
the left side, if there is no match.
SELECT columnname(s) FROM
table1 RIGHT JOIN
table2 ON table1.colname =
table2.colname;
CONSIDER BOTH the eXAMPLE tableS
QUERY
SELECT LASTNAME, ORDERS.PID,
ORDERNO FROM PERSONS RIGHT JOIN
ORDERS ON PERSONS.PID =
ORDERS.PID;
SQL JOINS swipe
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RIGHT JOIN
OUTPUT
LASTNAME PID ORDERNO
BASHA 2 34578
JANSEN 1 45876
BASHA 2 55900
KUMAR 3 22089
SQL JOINS swipe
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FULL OUTER JOIN
The FULL OUTER JOIN or FULL JOIN
keyword returns all records when
there is a match in left or right table
records.
SELECT columnname(s) FROM
table1 full outer JOIN
table2 ON table1.colname =
table2.colname where condition;
CONSIDER BOTH the eXAMPLE tableS
QUERY
SELECT LASTNAME, ORDERS.PID,
ORDERNO FROM PERSONS RIGHT JOIN
ORDERS ON PERSONS.PID =
ORDERS.PID;
SQL JOINS swipe
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FULL OUTER JOIN
OUTPUT
LASTNAME PID ORDERNO
JANSEN 1 45876
BASHA 2 34578
BASHA 2 55900
KUMAR 3 22089
SQL JOINS swipe
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Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table,
or a column in a table, a temporary
name.
An alias only exists for the duration
of that query. An alias is created
with the AS keyword.
SELECT columnname AS aliasname
FROM tablename;
QUERY
SELECT OID AS ID FROM ORDers;
ORDERS TABLE
id
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Stored Procedure
A stored procedure is a prepared
SQL code that you can save, so the
code can be reused over and over
again.
If you have an SQL query that you
write over and over again, save it as
a stored procedure, and then just
call it to execute it.
You can also pass parameters to a
stored procedure, so that the stored
procedure can act based on the
parameter value(s) that is passed.
STORED PROCEDURES swipe
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Stored Procedure
CREATE PROCEDURE procedurename
AS
sqlstatement
GO;
QUERY
CREATE PROCEDURE AllPERSONS
AS
SELECT * FROM PERSONs
GO;
EXECUTE STORED PROCEDURE
EXEC AllPERSONs;
OUTPUT
pid FIRSTNAME LASTNAME AGE
1 MARCO JANSEN 28
2 ASHIF BASHA 24
3 MONISH KUMAR 26
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