Introduction to Prolog
1. What is Prolog?
Prolog, short for "Programming in Logic," is a declarative programming language that is based
on formal logic. In Prolog, you express relationships and rules rather than giving step-by-step
instructions. It excels at solving problems involving symbolic reasoning and is widely used in
artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.
2. Basic Structure of Prolog Programs
A Prolog program consists of facts and rules. Facts are statements about relationships, and rules
define how new facts can be inferred from existing ones.
% Facts
parent(john, mary).
parent(john, jim).
parent(sue, mary).
parent(sue, jim).
% Rule
ancestor(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y).
In this example, we have facts about parent-child relationships and a rule that defines the
relationship of being an ancestor.
3. Basic Queries
You can query Prolog by asking questions about the relationships defined in your program.
?- parent(john, mary). % true
?- parent(john, george). % false
4. Variables and Queries
Prolog uses variables to represent unknown values. You can use queries with variables to find
solutions.
?- parent(john, X).
% X = mary ;
% X = jim.
This query finds all children of John.
5. Simple Rules
Expand on your knowledge by defining and using rules.
% Rule
sibling(X, Y) :- parent(Z, X), parent(Z, Y), X \= Y.
This rule defines the relationship of being siblings. The \= operator denotes inequality.
?- sibling(mary, jim).
% true
6. Recursive Rules
Prolog supports recursion, allowing you to define rules that refer to themselves.
% Recursive rule
ancestor(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y).
ancestor(X, Y) :- parent(X, Z), ancestor(Z, Y).
This rule defines the relationship of being an ancestor recursively.
7.Running Prolog
You can use an interactive Prolog interpreter to run your programs. Popular Prolog interpreters
include SWI-Prolog, GNU Prolog, and SICStus Prolog. Install one of these on your system and
open the interpreter.
Compiler: https://swish.swi-prolog.org/
Homework
-Try creating a simple Prolog program that models a family tree with at least three generations.
-Write a prolog program that calculates factorial.
Exercises
fact. | ?- Query.
male(ali). | ?- male(X). |?- male(X).
male(albert). %a fact stating albert is a male ?-male(albert).
male(edward). ?-male(mycat).
female(alice). %a fact stating alice is a female ?-male(X).
female(victoria). %X is a variable, we are asking
parent(albert,edward). %a fact: albert is parent of edward “who is male?”
parent(victoria,edward). ?-father(F,C).
#rule or relation %F & C are variables, we are
father(X,Y) :- %a rule: X is father of Y if X if a male parent of Y asking “who is father of whom”
parent(X,Y), male(X). %body of above rule, can be on same line.
mother(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y), female(X). %a similar rule for X being
mother of Y
elephant(fred). animal(fred), animal(mary),
elephant(mary). animal(joe)
elephant(joe). elephant(joe)
animal(fred) :- elephant(fred). animal(X)
animal(mary) :- elephant(mary). elephant(X)
animal(joe) :- elephant(joe).
%The three rules can be replaced by the single rule
animal(X) :- elephant(X). %variables allow many additional matches.
X is 3+5.
5+7=5+7.
5+7=7+5.
