PHYSIOLOGY OF EAR

INTRODUCTION:-
The ear is a sensitive organ of the human body. It is mainly concerned with
detecting, transmitting and transducing sound. Maintaining a sense of balance
is another important function performed by the human ear.
Let us have an overview of the structure and functions of the human ear.
Structure of Ear
The human ear consists of three parts:
 External ear
 Middle ear
 Internal ear
Anatomy of the human ear:-
Human Ear Parts
The human ear parts are explained below:
External Ear
The external ear is further divided into the following parts:
Auricle (Pinna)
The auricle comprises a thin plate of elastic cartilage covered by a layer of skin.
It consists of funnel-like curves that collect sound waves and transmits them to
the middle ear.
The lobule consists of adipose and fibrous tissues supplied with blood
capillaries.
External Auditory Meatus
It is a slightly curved canal supported by bone in its interior part and cartilage
in the exterior part.
The meatus or the canal is lined with stratified epithelium and wax glands.
Tympanic Membrane
This membrane separates the middle ear and the external ear. This part
receives and amplifies the sound waves.
Its central part is known as the umbo.
Middle Ear
The middle ear comprises the following parts:
Tympanic Cavity
It is a narrow air-filled cavity separated from the external ear by tympanic
membrane and from inner ear by the bony wall.
The tympanic cavity has an auditory tube known as the eustachian tube in its
anterior wall.
Eustachian Tube
The eustachian tube is a 4cm long tube that equalizes air pressure on either
side of the tympanic membrane.
It connects the tympanic cavity with the nasopharynx.
Ear Ossicles
These are responsible for transmitting sound waves from the eardrum to the
middle ear. There are three ear ossicles in the human ear:
 Malleus: A hammer-shaped part that is attached to the tympanic
membrane through the handle and incus through the head. It is the
largest ear ossicle.
 Incus: An anvil-shaped ear ossicle connected with the stapes.
 Stapes: It is the smallest ossicle and also the smallest bone in the human
body.
Inner Ear
It comprises two parts:
 Bony labyrinth
 Membranous labyrinth
Bony Labyrinth
The bony labyrinth comprises a vestibule, three semi-circular canals, and
spirally coiled cochlea. It is filled with perilymph.
Membranous labyrinth
The bony labyrinth surrounds the membranous labyrinth. It comprises sensory
receptors responsible for balance and hearing. The membranous labyrinth is
filled with endolymph and comprises three semi-circular ducts, cochlear duct,
saccule and utricle. The sensory receptors include cristae, an organ of corti,
and ampullaris maculae.
Inner ear, consisting of:
 Cochlea. This contains the nerves for hearing.

Cochlea (Auditory organ)

o The Cochlea is a coiled portion of the membranous labyrinth, which looks like a snail.
o The cochlea is made up of three canals, upper vestibular canal or scala vestibuli, middle
cochlear duct or scala media and the lower tympanic canal or scala tympani, which are
separated by thin membranes.
o The scala vestibuli is filled with the perilymph and terminates at the oval window.
o The scala tympani is also filled with the perilymph and ends at the opening in the middle
ear, i.e. round window.
o The Reissner’s membrane separates scala media and scala vestibuli.
o The scala media is filled with endolymph and contains the auditory organ, the organ of
Corti.
o Each organ of Corti contains ~18000 hair cells. Hair cells are present in the basilar
membrane, which separates scala media from scala tympani.
o Stereocilia project from the hair cells and extend till the cochlear duct. There is another
membrane called the tectorial membrane present above hair cells.
o Hair cells present in the cochlea detect pressure waves, there are sensory receptors
(afferent nerves) present at the base of hair cells that send signals to the brain. Vestibular
apparatus (Equilibrium organ)
o
o Vestibule of the ear maintains the equilibrium and is present above the cochlea. It is
present in the membranous labyrinth. It has two sac-like chambers called saccule and
utricle and three semicircular canals.
o Saccule and utricle have macula, which is a projecting ridge.
o Macula has hair cells, which are sensory. Stereocilia protrude out from the hair cells.
o Stereocilia are covered by ampullary cupula, which is gelatinous and otoliths are
embedded in it.
o Otoliths are calcium ear stones, which press stereocilia against gravity and play an
important role in spatial orientation.
o Each semicircular canal is filled with endolymph and present at the right angle to each
other and connects to the utricle. The base of canals is swollen and known as the ampulla.
o Crista ampullaris is present in each of the ampulla and responsible for sensing angular
rotation. It has hair cells.
o There are no otoliths present in cristae like maculae of saccule and utricle and stereocilia
of hair cells are stimulated by the movement of endolymph in the canals.

Vestibule
 Vestibular apparatus (Equilibrium organ)
 Vestibule of the ear maintains the equilibrium and is present above the
cochlea. It is present in the membranous labyrinth. It has two sac-like
chambers called saccule and utricle and three semicircular canals.
 Saccule and utricle have macula, which is a projecting ridge.
 Macula has hair cells, which are sensory. Stereocilia protrude out from
the hair cells.
 Stereocilia are covered by ampullary cupula, which is gelatinous and
otoliths are embedded in it.
 Otoliths are calcium ear stones, which press stereocilia against gravity
and play an important role in spatial orientation.
 Each semicircular canal is filled with endolymph and present at the right
angle to each other and connects to the utricle. The base of canals is
swollen and known as the ampulla.
 Crista ampullaris is present in each of the ampulla and responsible for
sensing angular rotation. It has hair cells.
 There are no otoliths present in cristae like maculae of saccule and
utricle and stereocilia of hair cells are stimulated by the movement of
endolymph in the canals.
 Semicircular canals. This contains receptors for balance.
 Semicircular canals
 The three semicircular canals of the bony labyrinth are delegated as per
its position – posterior, horizontal, superior. The posterior and superior
canals are in diagonal vertical planes intersecting at right angles. Each
canal has the ampulla opening into the vestibule. Ampullae or superior
and horizontal canals are found above the oval window however, the
ampulla of the posterior canal leads to the opposite side of the
vestibule. The vestibular aqueduct is near the mouth opening into the
cranial cavity. The vestibule completes the circle for every semicircular
canal.
Physiology of Ear
 Ears perform two main functions, hearing and equilibrium maintenance.
 The organ of Corti (Cochlea) is responsible for hearing function.
  Maculae (Saccule and Utricle) are responsible for static equilibrium.
 Cristae (semicircular canals) are responsible for dynamic equilibrium.
Mechanism of Hearing
 The pinna receives the sound waves and it reaches the tympanic
membrane through the meatus.
 The eardrum vibrates and these vibrations get transmitted to the three
ossicles present in the middle ear.
 Malleus, incus and stapes amplify the sound waves.
 These vibrations then reach the perilymph (scala vestibuli) through the
oval window.
 Then the pressure waves get transferred to the endolymph of scala
media and reach basilar membrane and then to perilymph of scala
tympani. This movement of fluid is facilitated by the round window
present at the end of scala tympani.
 The basilar membrane movement causes rubbing of stereocilia against
the tectorial membrane.
 Stereocilia are bent resulting in the opening of ion channels in the
plasma membrane of hair cells. Glutamate, a neurotransmitter, is
released due to Ca++ ion movement inside the cell.
 These neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of afferent neurons,
which synapse with hair cells causing depolarisation of neurons. A nerve
impulse is generated and transmitted to the auditory cortex of the brain
through the auditory nerve (cranial nerve VIII).
 The brain analyses the impulses and we hear the sound. The brain not
only recognises the sound but also judges the direction, loudness and
pitch of the sound.

 To summarize the events in the mechanism of hearing:



 Mechanism of Maintaining Equilibrium

 We all know that hearing ability is due to ears. Other than hearing, ears are also
responsible for maintaining equilibrium.
 The vestibular apparatus is the main organ for maintaining equilibrium.
 Static equilibrium is maintained by macula of saccule and utricle. Otoliths press
against stereocilia due to gravitational pull and stimulate the initiation of a nerve
impulse. When the head is tilted or moves in a straight line with increasing speed,
otoliths press on stereocilia of different cells. The brain interprets the nerve impulses
resulting in the awareness of body position with respect to ground, irrespective of the
head position.
 Utricle responds to the vertical movement and Saccule responds to the sideways
movement of the head.
 Dynamic equilibrium is detected by cristae of semicircular canals.
How do you hear?
Hearing starts with the outer ear. When a sound is made outside the outer
ear, the sound waves, or vibrations, travel down the external auditory canal
and strike the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The eardrum vibrates. The
vibrations are then passed to 3 tiny bones in the middle ear called the
ossicles. The ossicles amplify the sound. They send the sound waves to
the inner ear and into the fluid-filled hearing organ (cochlea).
Once the sound waves reach the inner ear, they are converted into
electrical impulses. The auditory nerve sends these impulses to the brain.
The brain then translates these electrical impulses as sound.
Function of Ear
Following are the important function of the ear:
Hearing
The mechanism of hearing involves the following steps:
 The sound waves pass through the auditory canal and reach the
eardrum.
 The vibrations produced pass through the tympanic membrane to the
tympanic cavity.
 The ear ossicles in the tympanic cavity receive the vibrations and the
stapes pushes the oval window in and out.
 This action is passed on to the organ of corti, the receptor of hearing,
that contains tiny hair cells that translate the vibrations into an electrical
impulse that are transmitted to the brain by sensory nerves.
Balance
The eustachian tube and the vestibular complex are the important parts of the
ear responsible for the balance.
 The eustachian tube equalizes the air pressure in the middle ear and
maintains the balance.
 The vestibular complex contains receptors that maintain body balance.
Functions of Semicircular Canals
The ear structure is in charge of the sense of balance and position of the head
in space. The middle and outer ear structures are involved in hearing
sensation. These structures are called semicircular ducts or semicircular canals.
The fluid that fills the three semicircular canals—the lateral (horizontal),
anterior, and posterior—remains in place while the head moves. As a result,
each one delivers specific information about balance and body position,
assisting in maintaining steady vision even in motion and synchronising total
activity.

Semicircular Canals Location

The interconnected semicircular canals are situated in distinct semicircular
ducts in the labyrinth bone of the inner ear. They are found in the petrous
region of the temporal bone, a pair of bones near the skull base and its sides.
They essentially hang over the cochlea and the vestibule, the organ attached to
it resembling a snail shell. A group of nerves, the vestibular ganglion, is
connected to the canals by nerves that eventually travel to nuclei (receptor
areas) in the upper spinal column.
Structure
Each semicircular canal begins and ends in the vestibule. Although slightly
varied in length, each one creates a loop with a 1-millimetre diameter.
Lateral or Horizontal Semicircular Canal: Because of its angle of around 30° to
the horizontal plane, the lateral semicircular canal is called the “horizontal”
canal. This is the shortest of all three canals.
Anterior or Superior Semicircular Canal: The anterior semicircular canal is
positioned vertically to separate the left and right sides of the body. It is
perpendicular to the petrous portion of the temporal bone.
Posterior or Inferior Semicircular Canal: This canal is positioned at the frontal
plane, vertically dividing the body’s front and back sides.
INNER EAR

Functions of Semicircular Canals

The semicircular ducts, or canals, play a crucial role in detecting the head’s
rotational position. Inertia causes the endolymph to move slower than the
head, encouraging the cells of hair to produce signals essential for stabilising
and regulating body posture.
As a result of the complementary aspect of the canal activity, head movements
boost signalling on one side while inhibiting communication from the opposite
side.
As a result, the eyes can perform a better oculomotor activity, i.e. smooth eye
movement, maintaining stable vision even when the head is turned or twisted.
This is the reason we feel the head moving or bending.
The semicircular canals and the otolithic organs (saccule and utricle of the
vestibule) are essential for proprioception (also known as kinaesthesia, the
awareness of one’s own body in space and when moving) and balance.
Hence, the vestibular nuclei of the brain stem receive this information and
transmit it to other brain regions involved in coordination and movement.
Because of this crucial role, diseases of semicircular canals can have serious
consequences. These include a prolonged feeling of dizziness, motion sickness,
various forms of vertigo, and nystagmus (fast, abnormal eye movements).
The caloric reflex test can assess the functionality of semicircular canals and
the vestibular system overall.
Transmission of sound waves through the outer and middle ear
Transmission of sound by air conduction

 The outer ear directs sound waves from the external environment to the
tympanic membrane.
 The auricle, the visible portion of the outer ear, collects sound waves
and, with the concha, the cavity at the entrance to the external auditory
canal, helps to funnel sound into the canal.
 Because of its small size and virtual immobility, the auricle in humans is
less useful in sound gathering and direction finding than it is in many
animals.
 The canal helps to enhance the amount of sound that reaches the
tympanic membrane. This resonance enhancement works only for
sounds of relatively short wavelength—those in the frequency range
between 2,000 and 7,000 hertz—which helps to determine the
frequencies to which the ear is most sensitive, those important for
distinguishing the sounds of consonants.
 Sounds reaching the tympanic membrane are in part reflected and in
part absorbed. Only absorbed sound sets the membrane in motion.
 The tendency of the ear to oppose the passage of sound is
called acoustic impedance.
 The magnitude of the impedance depends on the mass and stiffness of
the membrane and the ossicular chain and on the frictional resistance
they offer.