Framing the Research

Definition: Framing the research refers to the process of identifying a specific research
problem, formulating research questions and objectives, and justifying the study's
importance. It sets the scope and direction for the research.

Methods:

1. Identifying the research problem

o Definition: This involves determining the specific issue, challenge, or gap that
the research aims to address.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Identify an issue or gap in knowledge that needs to be addressed.
o When: At the beginning of the research process.
o How: By reviewing existing literature, observing phenomena, or based on
practical problems.
o Why: To provide a clear focus and direction for the research.
o Desired Outcome: A clearly defined and relevant research problem.
2. Formulating research questions and objectives
o Definition: This involves developing specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, and time-bound (SMART) research questions and objectives based
on the identified research problem.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Develop research questions and objectives that guide the research
process.
o When: After identifying the research problem.
o How: By refining the research problem into specific questions and objectives
that the study aims to answer or achieve.
o Why: To guide the research process and provide specific goals for the study.
o Desired Outcome: Well-formulated research questions and objectives that
align with the research problem.
3. Justifying the study's importance
o Definition: This involves explaining why the research is important, who it will
benefit, and how it contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Justify why the research is worth conducting.
o When: After formulating the research questions and objectives.
o How: By explaining the potential impact of the research, its contribution to the
academic field, and its practical implications.
o Why: To demonstrate the value of the research to various stakeholders,
including the academic community and potential beneficiaries of the research.
o Desired Outcome: A clear and compelling justification for the study's
importance.

Literature Review

Definition: A literature review is a comprehensive survey of scholarly sources on a specific

topic to provide a summary, comparison, and evaluation of the current state of knowledge on
the subject.
Methods:

1. Conducting a literature search

o Definition: This involves finding relevant scholarly sources related to the
research topic.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Identify and locate sources that contain relevant information about the
research topic.
o When: After framing the research and before designing the study.
o How: By using databases, search engines, and other resources to find books,
articles, reports, and other materials related to the research topic.
o Why: To find existing research and information related to the research topic.
o Desired Outcome: A collection of relevant scholarly sources related to the
research topic.
2. Reviewing and synthesizing the literature
o Definition: This involves critically reading the identified sources,
summarizing their content, and synthesizing the information.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Critically review and synthesize the content of the identified sources.
o When: After conducting the literature search.
o How: By reading each source carefully, summarizing its main points,
comparing and contrasting different sources, and synthesizing the information
to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the research topic.
o Why: To gain a deep understanding of the research topic and identify gaps or
inconsistencies in the existing literature.
o Desired Outcome: A comprehensive and coherent overview of the existing
literature on the research topic.

Research Design

Definition: Research design refers to the overall strategy chosen to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way. It includes the plan for the methods
and procedures for collecting and analyzing information.

Methods:

1. Selecting a Research Approach

o Definition: This involves choosing the best approach to answer the research
question(s) — typically qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Decide on the most appropriate research approach.
o When: After conducting a literature review and before data collection.
o How: Based on the research questions, the nature of the topic, and the
available resources.
o Why: To ensure the chosen approach will effectively answer the research
questions.
o Desired Outcome: A suitable research approach that aligns with the study's
objectives.
2. Designing the Research Procedure
 o Definition: This involves planning the specific procedures for data collection
and analysis.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Design a detailed plan for how data will be collected and analyzed.
o When: After selecting a research approach and before data collection.
o How: By determining the specific techniques and tools for data collection and
analysis that align with the chosen research approach.
o Why: To provide a clear and replicable plan for conducting the study.
o Desired Outcome: A detailed and feasible research procedure that aligns with
the research design.
3. Design Science Research (DSR):

o Definition: DSR involves creating and evaluating artifacts to solve identified

problems. The aim is to develop solutions that contribute to the body of
knowledge in the field.
o Who: The researcher or a team of researchers, often in collaboration with
practitioners.
o When: During the research process, after identifying a problem that needs
solving.
o How: By identifying a problem, designing an artifact as a solution, evaluating
the artifact in its context, and reflecting on the results.
o What: Create and evaluate artifacts to address identified problems.
o Why: To contribute to the body of knowledge in the field and solve practical
problems.
o Desired Outcome: A validated artifact that effectively addresses the identified
problem and contributes to theory.
2. Positivist Research:
o Definition: This approach is based on the philosophy that knowledge can be
gained through observable facts and phenomena.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o When: During the data collection and analysis stages.
o How: By collecting and analyzing quantitative data, often using statistical
tests.
o What: Testing hypotheses based on observable facts and phenomena.
o Why: To establish facts and causal relationships based on observed
phenomena.
o Desired Outcome: A confirmation or rejection of a hypothesis, contributing to
the knowledge in the field.
3. Interpretive Research:
o Definition: This paradigm assumes that our understanding of reality is
constructed through our interactions with the world and the meanings we
attach to those interactions.
o Who: The researcher, often working closely with participants.
o When: Throughout the research process, from data collection to analysis.
o How: By conducting qualitative research, such as interviews or case studies,
and interpreting the data to understand the meanings participants attach to
their experiences.
o What: Understand the context and human factors involved in the use of
information systems.
 o Why: To gain a deep understanding of human behavior and the meanings
people attach to their experiences.
o Desired Outcome: Rich, detailed insights into human behavior and
experiences, contributing to theory.
4. Critical Research:
o Definition: Critical researchers seek to critique and transform the societal
structures that lead to social inequality, often focusing on power relations.
o Who: The researcher, often working in a critical or advocacy role.
o When: Throughout the research process, from problem identification to data
collection and analysis.
o How: By critically analyzing societal structures and power relations, often
using qualitative research methods.
o What: Examine how information systems contribute to power imbalances
within an organization.
o Why: To critique and seek to transform social inequality.
o Desired Outcome: Insights into power imbalances and social inequality,
contributing to theory and advocating for change.
5. Action Research:
o Definition: This involves researchers working directly with practitioners to
solve a real-world problem, reflecting on the results, and then refining the
solution.
o Who: The researcher in collaboration with practitioners.
o When: Throughout the problem-solving process, from problem identification
to solution implementation and refinement.
o How: By collaboratively identifying a problem, implementing a solution,
reflecting on the results, and refining the solution as necessary.
o What: Solve real-world problems and contribute to theory.
o Why: To create practical outcomes and contribute to the body of knowledge.
o Desired Outcome: A practical solution to a real-world problem, and insights
that contribute to theory.
6. Ethnographic Research:
o Definition: Ethnography involves in-depth study and prolonged observation of
a group or culture.
o Who: The researcher, often immersing themselves in the group or culture
being studied.
o When: ??

oHow: By immersing oneself in the group or culture being studied, observing

behaviors, and often conducting interviews or participating in activities.
o What: Study how a particular group or organization uses information
technology in their daily activities.
o Why: To gain a deep, holistic understanding of the behaviors, beliefs, and
practices of a group or culture.
o Desired Outcome: Detailed, nuanced insights into a group or culture,
contributing to a holistic understanding of their behaviors, beliefs, and
practices.
7. Grounded Theory:
o Definition: Grounded Theory is a systematic methodology that involves
constructing theory through methodic gathering and analysis of data.
 oWho: The researcher or a team of researchers.
oWhen: Throughout the research process, with data collection and analysis
often occurring simultaneously.
o How: By collecting data (often qualitative), systematically coding the data,
identifying themes or patterns, and developing a theory grounded in the data.
o What: Develop a theory about how users interact with a certain technology.
o Why: To develop a theory that is closely tied to the data, capturing the
complexity of human behavior.
o Desired Outcome: A theory that is grounded in the data and provides detailed
insights into the phenomenon of interest.
8. Case Study Research:
o Definition: Case Study Research involves an in-depth investigation of a single
or small number of units (e.g., a single company, a single system) at one point
in time.
o Who: The researcher or a team of researchers.
o When: After a specific case or cases have been identified for study.
o How: By collecting data related to the case(s) through various methods (e.g.,
interviews, observations, document analysis), and then analyzing the data to
understand the case(s) in depth.
o What: Get a deep understanding of the implementation and use of specific
information systems.
o Why: To provide detailed insights into a particular case, which can inform our
understanding of similar cases or phenomena.
o Desired Outcome: A detailed understanding of the case, contributing to both
practical understanding and theoretical knowledge.

Data Collection

Definition: Data collection is the process of gathering information relevant to the research
questions and objectives. It can be conducted using various methods such as surveys,
interviews, observations, or secondary data.

Methods:

1. Surveys
o Definition: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals using
questionnaires.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Collect data from a sample of individuals.
o When: After designing the research and before data analysis.
o How: By designing a questionnaire, selecting a sample, distributing the
questionnaire, and collecting responses.
o Why: Surveys are versatile, can collect data from a large sample, and are
useful for quantitative research.
o Desired Outcome: A dataset that can be analyzed to answer the research
questions.
2. Interviews
o Definition: Interviews involve collecting data through direct, one-on-one
communication between the researcher and the participant.
 o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Collect detailed and personal data from individuals.
o When: After designing the research and before data analysis.
o How: By preparing an interview guide, selecting participants, conducting the
interviews, and recording the responses.
o Why: Interviews can provide in-depth insights and are useful for qualitative
research.
o Desired Outcome: Rich, detailed data that can be analyzed to answer the
research questions.

Data Analysis

Definition: Data analysis is the process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling
collected data to discover useful information, draw conclusions, and support decision-
making.

Methods:

1. Data Coding
o Definition: Data coding involves categorizing and labeling qualitative data to
transform it into concepts or variables that can be analyzed.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Transform qualitative data into a form that can be analyzed.
o When: After data collection and before data analysis.
o How: By identifying common themes or categories in the data and assigning
codes to these themes.
o Why: To make qualitative data analyzable and to uncover patterns and themes.
o Desired Outcome: Coded data that can be analyzed to answer the research
questions.
2. Basic Stats and Hypothesis Testing
o Definition: Basic stats refer to simple statistical techniques used to summarize
and describe data

o Who: The researcher or research team.

o What: Apply statistical methods to summarize, describe, and infer from the
data.
o When: After data collection and coding.
o How: By using statistical software to calculate measures such as mean,
median, mode, and standard deviation, and to conduct hypothesis tests such as
t-tests or chi-square tests.
o Why: To summarize and describe the data, and to test hypotheses and make
inferences about the population based on the sample data.
o Desired Outcome: Statistical results that provide insights into the data and
answer the research questions.

Data Types
Definition: Data types refer to the kind of information that can be collected and analyzed in
research. This includes qualitative data (non-numerical, such as interviews or open-ended
survey responses) and quantitative data (numerical data, such as scores or ratings).

Methods:

1. Qualitative Data
o Definition: Qualitative data is non-numerical data that can capture complex,
detailed, and nuanced information.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Collect and analyze data that provides depth and detail.
o When: Throughout the research process, depending on the research design.
o How: By using methods such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and
open-ended survey questions.
o Why: To gain a deep understanding of a phenomenon, explore complex issues,
and capture the richness and complexity of human experiences.
o Desired Outcome: Rich and detailed insights that provide a deep
understanding of the research topic.
2. Quantitative Data
o Definition: Quantitative data is numerical data that can be measured and
analyzed statistically.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Collect and analyze data that can be quantified and statistically
analyzed.
o When: Throughout the research process, depending on the research design.
o How: By using methods such as surveys, experiments, and secondary data
analysis.
o Why: To measure phenomena, test hypotheses, and generalize results from a
sample to a population.
o Desired Outcome: Statistical results that provide measurable and generalizable
insights into the research topic.
3. Primary Data
o Definition: Primary data is original data collected directly by the researcher
for a specific research purpose.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Collect original data directly related to the research question.
o When: After the research question has been formulated and a data collection
method has been identified.
o How: By using methods such as surveys, experiments, interviews,
observations, or focus groups.
o Why: To gather data that is current, reliable, and specific to the research
question.
o Desired Outcome: Collection of original data that directly answers the
research question.
4. Secondary Data
o Definition: Secondary data is data that was collected by someone else for a
different purpose.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Analyze existing data to answer a new research question.
 oWhen: After the research question has been formulated and relevant secondary
data sources have been identified.
o How: By analyzing existing data sources such as databases, documents,
records, or previous research studies.
o Why: To utilize existing data that may be relevant to the research question,
often saving time and resources.
o Desired Outcome: New insights or answers to the research question using pre-
existing data.
5. Mixed Data (Quantitative and Qualitative)
o Definition: Mixed data refers to the collection or use of both quantitative and
qualitative data in a single research study.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Collect and analyze both numerical and non-numerical data.
o When: Throughout the research process, depending on the research design.
o How: By combining methods such as surveys (quantitative) and interviews
(qualitative) or analyzing existing mixed data.
o Why: To provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research
question, leveraging the strengths of both data types.
o Desired Outcome: A broader and more comprehensive understanding of the
research question by integrating numerical and non-numerical data.
o

Data Coding

Definition: Data coding in qualitative research involves categorizing and labeling data to
transform it into concepts or variables that can be analyzed. This is often done with software
for qualitative data analysis.

Methods:

1. Manual Coding
o Definition: Manual coding is the process of manually sorting and labeling
qualitative data to identify themes and patterns.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Identify themes, patterns, and categories in the qualitative data.
o When: After data collection, during the data analysis phase.
o How: By reading through the data, identifying recurring themes or categories,
and labeling the data accordingly.
o Why: To understand the themes, patterns, and categories that emerge from the
data.
o Desired Outcome: Thematic or categorical understanding of the data that
provides a deep, nuanced interpretation of the research topic.
2. Software-assisted Coding
o Definition: Software-assisted coding involves using qualitative data analysis
software to help with the coding process.
o Who: The researcher or research team.
o What: Facilitate the coding process by using software to identify themes,
patterns, and categories in the data.
o When: After data collection, during the data analysis phase.
 oHow: By using software like NVivo or ATLAS.ti, which can help with
organizing and coding data, visualizing patterns, and managing large amounts
of data.
o Why: To handle large amounts of qualitative data, ensure consistency in
coding, and make the coding process more efficient.
o Desired Outcome: Coded data that can be analyzed further to provide insights
into the research topic, with the help of the software's capabilities.
3. Auto-coding
o Definition: Auto-coding is the process of using algorithms or machine learning
models to automatically code qualitative data.
o Who: The researcher or research team, often with expertise in computational
methods.
o What: Code large amounts of qualitative data quickly and consistently.
o When: After data collection, during the data analysis phase.
o How: By using computational methods or machine learning models that have
been trained to recognize and code certain themes or patterns.
o Why: To code large amounts of data quickly, ensure consistency, and reduce
the potential for human error.
o Desired Outcome: Coded data that can be analyzed further to provide insights
into the research topic, done in a quick and consistent manner.

Basic Statistics

Definition: Basic statistics refer to simple statistical techniques used to summarize and
describe data. These statistics can include measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode) and measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance).

Methods:

1. Mean
oDefinition: The mean is the average of a set of numbers.
oWho: The researcher or statistician.
oWhat: Calculate the average of a dataset.
oWhen: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
oHow: By adding up all the values and dividing by the number of values.
oWhy: To find the central value of the dataset.
oDesired Outcome: A single value representing the average of the dataset.
2. Median
o Definition: The median is the middle number in a sorted list of numbers.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Find the middle value of a dataset.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By sorting the data and finding the value in the middle. If there is an
even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.
o Why: To find the central value that isn't skewed by outliers.
o Desired Outcome: A single value representing the middle of the dataset.
3. Mode
o Definition: The mode is the number that appears most frequently in a dataset.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
 o What: Identify the most frequent value in a dataset.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By counting the frequency of each value and identifying the one that
occurs most frequently.
o Why: To identify the most common value in the dataset.
o Desired Outcome: A single value (or values) that represent the most common
data point in the dataset.
4. Standard Deviation
o Definition: The standard deviation measures the amount of variation or
dispersion in a set of values.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Measure the dispersion of values in a dataset.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By calculating the square root of the variance.
o Why: To understand how spread out the values are around the mean.
o Desired Outcome: A single value representing the dispersion of the dataset
around the mean.

Hypothesis Testing

Definition: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences or draw

conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. It involves forming a null and
alternative hypothesis, choosing a significance level, and testing the null hypothesis.

Methods:

1. T-Test
oDefinition: A t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two
groups to see if they are significantly different from each other.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Compare the means of two groups.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By calculating the t-statistic and comparing it to a critical value, based
on the chosen significance level and degrees of freedom.
o Why: To determine if there is a significant difference between two groups.
o Desired Outcome: A decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis,
based on the results of the t-test.
2. Chi-Square Test
o Definition: A Chi-Square test is a statistical test used to determine if there is a
significant association between two categorical variables.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Test for an association between two categorical variables.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after dat collection.

 How: By comparing observed frequencies with expected frequencies, calculated

under the assumption of independence.
 Why: To determine if there is a significant relationship between two categorical
variables.
 Desired Outcome: A decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis, based on
the results of the Chi-Square test.

3. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

o Definition: ANOVA is a statistical test used to compare the means of more
than two groups to see if they are significantly different from each other.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Compare the means of more than two groups.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By partitioning the total sum of squares into between-group and within-
group components, and comparing these with the relevant degrees of freedom
to obtain an F-statistic.
o Why: To determine if there are significant differences between the means of
three or more groups.
o Desired Outcome: A decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis,
based on the results of the ANOVA.
4. Correlation
o Definition: Correlation is a statistical technique used to measure the
relationship between two or more variables.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Measure the relationship between two or more variables.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By calculating the correlation coefficient, such as Pearson's r for interval
or ratio data, or Spearman's rho for ordinal data.
o Why: To determine the degree and direction of association between two
variables.
o Desired Outcome: A correlation coefficient (between -1 and +1) indicating the
strength and direction of the relationship, and a significance test indicating
whether the observed correlation could have arisen by chance.
5. Regression Analysis
o Definition: Regression analysis is a statistical technique used to model the
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent
variables.
o Who: The researcher or statistician.
o What: Model the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables.
o When: During the data analysis stage, after data collection.
o How: By fitting a regression line or curve to the data that minimizes the sum
of the squared residuals.
o Why: To predict the value of a dependent variable based on the values of one
or more independent variables, and to test hypotheses about the nature of the
relationship.
o Desired Outcome: A regression equation describing the best-fitting line or
curve, and statistical tests of the regression coefficients.