Linear and Digital IC

Applications
(3/2 ECE)
Autonomous
Text Books:
1. Linear Integrated Circuits – D. Roy Choudhury
2. Op-Amps & Linear ICs – Ramakanth A. Gayakwad.
3. Digital Design Principles & Practices- John F. Wakerly.
 Unit 1- Integrated Circuits

! What is an Integrated Circuit?

! Where do you use an Integrated Circuit?

! Why do you prefer an Integrated Circuit to the circuits

made by interconnecting discrete components?
Def: The “Integrated Circuit “ or IC is a miniature,
low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and
passive components that are irreparably joined
together on a single crystal chip of silicon.

In 1958 Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments invented first IC

Applications of an Integrated Circuit

! Communication

! Control

! Instrumentation

! Computer

! Electronics
Advantages:

! Small size

! Low cost

! Less weight

! Low supply voltages

! Low power consumption

! Highly reliable

! Matched devices

! Fast speed
 Chip size and Complexity
! Invention of Transistor (Ge) - 1947

! Development of Silicon - 1955-1959

! Silicon Planar Technology - 1959

! First ICs, SSI (3- 30gates/chip) - 1960

! MSI ( 30-300 gates/chip) - 1965-1970

! LSI ( 300-3000 gates/chip) -1970-1975

! VLSI (More than 3k gates/chip) - 1975

! ULSI (more than one million active devices are integrated on single
chip)
 SSI MSI LSI VLSI ULSI

< 100 active 100-1000 1000- >100000 Over 1

devices active 100000 active million
devices active devices active
devices devices
Integrated BJT’s and MOSFETS 8bit, 16bit Pentium
resistors, Enhanced Microproces Microproces
diodes & MOSFETS sors sors
BJT’s
 Temperature Ranges

1. Military temperature range : -55o C to +125o C (-55o C to +85o C)

2. Industrial temperature range : -20o C to +85o C (-40o C to +85o C )

3. Commercial temperature range: 0o C to +70o C (0o C to +75o C )

 Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a multi-

terminal device which Amplifies the week signal.
 Operational Amplifier

An “Operational amplifier” is a direct coupled high-gain

amplifier usually consisting of one or more differential
amplifiers and usually followed by a level Shifter and output
drive.

The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be

used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals and was
originally designed for computing such mathematical
functions as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
integration.
 Basic Information of Op-Amp

Op-amps have five basic terminals, that is, two input terminals, one

output terminal and two power supply terminals.

 Packages

The metal can (TO) The Flat Package

Package

The Dual-in-Line (DIP)

Package
 Basic Information of an Op-amp
contd…

Power supply connection:

The power supply voltage may range from about + 5V to

+ 22V.

The common terminal of the V+ and V- sources is

connected to a reference point or ground.
OPAMP Operation Modes

1.Common Mode (Vc)

2.Differential Mode (Vd)
 Op-amp Block Diagram

V2 - Output
Buffer and level
Diff.Amp Diff.Amp Driver
V1+ Shifter
 Differential Amplifier

V0 =Ad (V1 – V2 )

Ad =20 log10 (Ad ) in dB

Vc =

CMRR= ρ = | |
Features of Differential Amplifier
! High differential voltage gain

! Low common mode gain

! High CMRR

! Two input terminals

! High input impedance

! Large Bandwidth

! Low Offset voltages and currents

! Low output impedance

 Differential Amplifier
Definition:

! A circuit that amplifies the voltage

difference between two input signals. The
instantaneous output voltage is equal to

Vin1 Vout1 some constant multiple of the difference

between the instantaneous input voltages.

Vin2 Vout2
i.e. Output= Constant (Vin1 – Vin2)

21
TERMINOLOGIES
! Whenever one output is
taken w.r.t. ground, the
output is said to be
single ended and
unbalanced.
! i.e. Vout= (Vout1-0)
=Vout1
OR
Vout=(Vout2-0)
= Vout2

22
TERMINOLOGIES (CONTD…)
Double Ended Output Whenever the output is
!
taken w.r.t. another
output, the output is
said to be double
ended and balanced.
! i.e. Vout= (Vout1-Vout2)
OR
Vout=(Vout2-Vout1)

23
Dual Input Balanced output Differential Amplifier
Characteristics and performance parameters of
Op-amp

! Input offset Voltage

! Input offset current

! Input bias current

! Differential Input Resistance

! Open loop voltage gain

! CMRR

! Power supply rejection ratio

! Slew rate

! Output offset voltage

 1. Input Offset Voltage

The differential voltage that must be applied between the

two input terminals of an op-amp, to make the output
voltage zero.

It is denoted as Vios

For op-amp 741IC the input offset voltage is 6mV

 2. Input offset current

The algebraic difference between the currents flowing into

the two input terminals of the op-amp

It is denoted as Iios = | Ib1 – Ib2|

For op-amp 741C the input offset current is 200nA

 3. Input bias current

The average value of the two currents flowing

into the op-amp input terminals

It is expressed mathematically as

For 741C the maximum value of Ib is 500nA

 4. Differential Input Resistance

It is the equivalent resistance measured at either the

inverting or non-inverting input terminal with the other
input terminal grounded

It is denoted as Ri

For 741C it is of the order of 2MΩ

 5. Open loop Voltage gain

It is the ratio of output voltage to the differential input

voltage, when op-amp is in open loop configuration,
without any feedback. It is also called as large signal

voltage gain

It is denoted as AOL AOL=Vo / Vd

For 741C it is typically 200,000

 6. CMRR

It is the ratio of differential voltage gain Ad to common

mode voltage gain Ac

CMRR = Ad / Ac

Ad is open loop voltage gain AOL and Ac = VOC / Vc

For op-amp 741C CMRR is 90 dB

 7. Power supply rejection ratio

PSRR is defined as the ratio of the change in input offset

voltage due to the change in supply voltage producing it,
keeping the other power supply voltage constant. It is
also called as power supply sensitivity (PSV)

PSRR= (Δvios / ΔVcc)|constant VEE PSRR= (Δvios / ΔVEE)|constant Vcc

The typical value of PSRR for op-amp 741C is 30µV/V

 8. Slew rate

It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output

voltage with time. The slew rate is specified in V/µsec

Slew rate = S = dVo / dt |max

It is specified by the op-amp in unity gain condition.

The slew rate is caused due to limited charging rate of the

compensation capacitor and current limiting and saturation of the
internal stages of op-amp, when a high frequency large amplitude
signal is applied.
 Slew rate

It is given by dVc /dt = I/C

For large charging rate, the capacitor should be small or the

current should be large.

S = Imax / C

For 741 IC the charging current is 15 µA and

the internal capacitor is 30 pF. S= 0.5V/ µsec
 Slew rate equation

Vs = Vm sinωt = Vm ω cosωt
Vo = Vm sinωt

S =slew rate =
max

S = Vm ω = 2 π f Vm
For distortion free output, the
S = 2 π f Vm V / sec maximum allowable input
frequency fm can be obtained as
This is also called full
power bandwidth of the
op-amp
 9. Output offset voltage ( Voos )

The output offset voltage is the dc voltage present at the

output terminals when both the input terminals are
grounded.

It is denoted as Voos
 The Ideal Operational Amplifier

! Open loop voltage gain AOL =∞

! Input Impedance Ri =∞

! Output Impedance Ro =0

! Bandwidth BW =∞

! Zero offset (Vo = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0) Vios =0

! CMRR ρ =∞

! Slew rate S =∞

! No effect of temperature

! Power supply rejection ratio PSRR = 0

 Ideal Voltage transfer curve

+Vsat
AOL = ∞

-Vd +Vd
0

+Vsat ≈ +Vcc
-Vsat
 Equivalent circuit of practical op-amp

AOL = Large signal open loop voltage gain

Vd = Difference voltage V1 – V2

V1 = Non-inverting input voltage with respect to ground

V2 = Inverting input voltage with respect to ground

Ri = Input resistance of op-amp

Ro = Output resistance of op-amp

 Op-amp Characteristics

! DC Characteristics
Input bias current

Input offset current

Input offset voltage

Thermal drift

! AC Characteristics
Slew rate

Frequency response
 DC Characteristics
Thermal Drift

The op-amp parameters input offset voltage Vios and input

offset current Iios are not constants but vary with the
factors

1. Temperature

2. Supply Voltage changes

3. Time
 Thermal Voltage Drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input offset voltage

per unit change in temperature. It is also called as input offset
voltage drift

Input offset voltage drift =

∆Vios = change in input offset voltage

∆T = Change in temperature
It is expressed in µV/0 c. The drift is not constant and it is
not uniform over specified operating temperature range.
The value of input offset voltage may increase or
decrease with the increasing temperature

Slope can be of Input Offset Voltage Drift

2
either polarities
Vios
1
in
mv
0
-1

-2
TA , ambient
temp in oc
-55
-25 0 25 50 75
 Input bias current drift
It is defined as the average rate of change of input bias
current per unit change in temperature

Thermal drift in input bias current =

It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oc. These parameters vary randomly with

temperature. i.e. they may be positive in one temperature range and negative in
another
 Input bias current drift

100

80
Ib in
nA 60
40
TA ambient temp.
20
in oC

-55
-25 0 25 50 75
 Input Offset current drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input offset

current per unit change in temperature

Thermal drift in input offset current =

It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oc. These parameters vary randomly with

temperature. i.e. they may be positive in one temperature range and negative in
another
 Input Offset current Drift

2 Slope can be of
either polarities
Iios in
1
nA
0
-1

-2
TA , ambient
temp in oc
-55
-25 0 25 50 75
 AC Characteristics
Frequency Response

Ideally, an op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth but practically op-

amp gain decreases at higher frequencies. Such a gain reduction
with respect to frequency is called as roll off.

The plot showing the variations in magnitude and phase

angle of the gain due to the change in frequency is called
frequency response of the op-amp
When the gain in decibels, phase angle in degrees are
plotted against logarithmic scale of frequency, the plot is
called Bode Plot

The manner in which the gain of the op-amp changes with

variation in frequency is known as the magnitude plot.

The manner in which the phase shift changes with variation

in frequency is known as the phase-angle plot.
 Obtaining the frequency response

To obtain the frequency response , consider the high frequency model

of the op-amp with capacitor C at the output, taking into account the
capacitive effect present
Where
AOL(f) = open loop voltage gain as a
function of frequency
AOL = Gain of the op-amp at 0Hz
F = operating frequency
Fo = Break frequency or cutoff
frequency of op-amp
Frequency Response of an op-amp
 The following observations can be made from the frequency response of an
op-amp
i)The open loop gain AOL is almost constant from 0 Hz to the break frequency fo
.

ii)At f=fo , the gain is 3dB down from its value at 0Hz . Hence the frequency fo
is also called as -3dB frequency. It is also know as corner frequency
iii) After f=fo , the gain AOL (f) decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade or
6dB/octave. As the gain decreases, slope of the magnitude plot is -
20dB/decade or -6dB/octave, after f=fo .
iv) At a certain frequency, the gain reduces to 0dB. This means 20log|AOL | is
0dB i.e. |AOL | =1. Such a frequency is called gain cross-over frequency or
unity gain bandwidth (UGB). It is also called closed loop bandwidth.

UGB is the gain bandwidth product only if an op-amp has a single breakover
frequency, before AOL (f) dB is zero.
 The modes of using an op-amp

! Open Loop : (The output assumes one of the two

possible output states, that is +Vsat or – Vsat and the
amplifier acts as a switch only).

! Closed Loop: ( The utility of an op-amp can be greatly

increased by providing negative feed back. The output in
this case is not driven into saturation and the circuit
behaves in a linear manner).
 Open loop configuration of op-amp

! The voltage transfer curve indicates the inability of op-

amp to work as a linear small signal amplifier in the open
loop mode

! Such an open loop behaviour of the op-amp finds some

rare applications like voltage comparator, zero crossing
detector etc.
 Open loop op-amp configurations

! The configuration in which output depends on input, but output has

no effect on the input is called open loop configuration.

! No feed back from output to input is used in such configuration.

! The opamp works as high gain amplifier

! The op-amp can be used in three modes in open loop

configuration they are

1. Differential amplifier

2. Inverting amplifier

3. Non inverting amplifier

 Differential Amplifier

The amplifier which amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages is called differential amplifier.

Key point: For very small Vd , output gets driven into saturation due to high AOL ,
hence this application is applicable for very small range of differential input
voltage.
 Inverting Amplifier

The amplifier in which the output is inverted i.e. having 180o

phase shift with respect to the input is called an inverting
amplifier

Vo = -AOL Vin2

Keypoint: The negative sign indicates that there is phase shift of 180o between
input and output i.e. output is inverted with respect to input.
(By Virtual Ground Concept both input will be equal i.e. V+ =V-)
 Non-inverting Amplifier

The amplifier in which the output is amplified without any

phase shift in between input and output is called non
inverting amplifier

Vo = AOL Vin1

Keypoint: The positive output shows that input and output are in phase and
input is amplified AOL times to get the output.
(By Virtual Ground Concept both input will be equal i.e. V+ =V- )
 Comparison of the ideal inverting and non-
inverting op-amp
Ideal Inverting amplifier Ideal non-inverting amplifier

1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1 1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1

2. The output is inverted with 2. No phase shift between input

respect to input and output

3. The voltage gain can be 3. The voltage gain is always

adjusted as greater than, equal to greater than one
or less than one

4. The input impedance is R1 4. The input impedance is very

large
This indicates the inability of op-amp to work as a linear small signal
amplifier in the open loop mode. Hence the op-amp in open loop
configuration is not used for the linear applications
 Closed loop operation of op-amp

! The utility of the op-amp can be increased considerably by

operating in closed loop mode.

! The closed loop operation is possible with the help of feedback.

The feedback allows to feed some part of the output back to the
input terminals.

! In the linear applications, the op-amp is always used with negative

feedback.

! The negative feedback helps in controlling gain, which otherwise

drives the op-amp out of its linear range, even for a small noise
voltage at the input terminals
 General purpose op-amp 741

The IC 741 is high performance monolithic op-amp IC. It is

available in 8pin, 10pin or 14pin configuration. It can
operate over a temperature of -550 C to 1250 C.

Features:
i) No frequency compensation required
ii) Short circuit protection provided
iii) Offset Voltage null capability
iv) Large common mode and differential voltage range
v) No latch up
Internal schematic of 741 op-amp
The 8pin DIP package of IC 741
 Realistic simplifying assumptions

! Zero input current: The current drawn by either of the

input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) is zero

! Virtual ground :This means the differential input voltage

Vd between the non-inverting and inverting terminals is
essentially zero. (The voltage at the non inverting input
terminal of an op-amp can be realistically assumed to be
equal to the voltage at the inverting input terminal
 Frequency Compensation

! Frequency compensation is a technique to eliminate

the ill effects of oscillations and to reduce the high
frequency noise from being amplified.

! Frequency compensation is used to

stable the output gain of an op-amp for
all input frequency.
! frequency compensation is a technique used
in amplifiers, and especially in amplifiers employing
negative feedback. It usually has two primary goals: To
avoid the unintentional creation of positive feedback,
which will cause the amplifier to oscillate, and to
control overshoot and ringing in the amplifier's step
response. It is also used extensively to improve
the bandwidth
! More particularly, capacitances within the amplifier's gain
stages cause the output signal to lag behind the input
signal by 90° for each pole they create. If the sum of
these phase lags reaches 360°, the output signal will be
in phase with the input signal.
! Feeding back any portion of this output signal to the input
when the gain of the amplifier is sufficient will cause the
amplifier to oscillate.
! This is because the feedback signal will reinforce the
input signal. That is, the feedback is then positive rather
than negative.
 Dominant-pole compensation
! Dominant-pole compensation can be implemented for general
purpose operational amplifiers by adding an integrating capacitance
to the stage that provides the bulk of the amplifier's gain.
! This capacitor creates a pole that is set at a frequency low enough
to reduce the gain to one (0 dB) at or just below the frequency
where the pole next highest in frequency is located. The result is
a phase margin of ≈ 45°, depending on the proximity of still higher
poles. This margin is sufficient to prevent oscillation in the most
commonly used feedback configurations.
! In addition, dominant-pole compensation allows control
of overshoot and ringing in the amplifier step response,
The End