Table of Content ……………………...…………….

Grade 5
Introduction ………………………………………………. 3
The Cell ………………..………………………………… 4
Living things ……………………………………………. 7
Vertebrates and Invertebrates …………………….………. 12
The Animal Kingdom ………………………………..…… 14
Invertertebrates……………………………………………. 17
Plant kingdom …………………………………………….. 19
Plants …………………………………………………….. 20
Pollination ………………………………………………… 21
Flowering and non-flowering plants ……………………… 23
An ecosystem ……………………………………….…….. 25
Terrestrial ecosystems ……………………….…………… 26
Aquatic ecosystems ……………………………………….. 28
Characteristics of an ecosystem …………………………… 29
Water ……………………………………………………. 32
Energy ……………………………………………………. 35
Atmosphere ……………………………………………….. 38
Atmospheric pollution …………………………………… 39

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Atmospheric movements ………………………..………… 40
Food chain ………………………………………………… 42
Systems in the Human body ……………………….……… 47
Diseases and Illnesses of the human systems …………… 52
Alcohol and the Human body …………………………..…. 55
Density and Volume ……………………………………… 58
Mass ……………………………………………………. 59
Simple Machines ………………………………………… 61
Compound Machines……………………………………… 66
Pollution ………………………………………………….. 68
Taste and Smell………………………………..…………. 71
Phenomenons in C.A. ……………………........................... 73
Hurricane Mitch …………………………………………. 74

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 Introduction
My name is _______________________________________________________

I am in grade ______________________________________________________

The name of my school is ____________________________________________

I live in ___________________________________________________________

My telephone number is _____________________________________________

Draw a picture of yourself, label and colour it.

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The Cell
All living organisms on Earth are divided into cells. The main concept of
cell theory is that cells are the basic structural unit for all organisms.
Cells are small compartments that hold the biological equipment
necessary to keep an organism alive and successful. Living things may
be single-celled or they may be very complex such as a human being.

There are smaller pieces that make up cells such as macromolecules

and organelles. A protein is an example of a macromolecule while a
mitochondrion is an example of an organelle. Cells can also connect to
form larger structures. They might group together to form the tissues
of the stomach and eventually the entire digestive system. However, in
the same way that atoms are the basic unit when you study matter,
cells are the basic unit for biology and organisms.

In larger organisms, the main purpose of a cell is to organize. Cells hold

a variety of pieces and each cell type has a different purpose. By
dividing responsibilities among different groups of cells, it is easier for
an organism to survive and grow.

The trillions of cells in your body make your way of life possible.

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There are many types of cells. In our Science class, usually cellsa are
refred to as plant-like cells and animal-like cells. It is said "animal-like"
because an animal type of cell could be anything from a tiny
microorganism to a nerve cell in your brain. Biology classes often take
out a microscope and look at single-celled microbes from pond water.

Plant cells are easier to identify because they have a protective

structure called a cell wall made of cellulose. Plants have the wall;
animals do not. Plants also have organelles such as the green
chloroplast or large, water-filled vacuoles. Chloroplasts are the key
structure in the process of photosynthesis.

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___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Label the main parts of a cell

What parts of the cell are similar in both plant and animal cells?

6
___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Complete the following diagram of the cells.

Label them Animal Cell and Plant cell

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LIVING THINGS
All living things are made up of cells. In order to recognise and group all
of these living things; we divide them into kingdoms. There are six main
kingdoms. We are going to see the four main kingdoms. The four main
kingdoms are: Protista(Protists), Fungi, Plantae(plants) and Animalia
(Animals).

Protista
The protists are usually single celled organisms. They have a distinct
nucleus. Some form colonies (or groups of single cells), some act more
like animals (they move around and have large cells), and some are even
like plants (algae, have chlorophyll and do photosynthesis).

Fungi
This kingdom is made up of the decomposers (they absorb nutrients).
Some of the members of this kingdom are fungi, slime molds, yeast,
mold, and mushrooms.

Plantae

The characteristics of plants are that they have chlorophyll, cell walls
(cellulose), and vacuoles. This kingdom also includes red, brown, and
green algae.

Animalia
These are the most complex organisms on the planet. One big thing
about animals is that they must eat other organisms to survive. They
cannot create their own food because they do not contain chlorophyll.
They are able to move around, and most have sense organs of some type.
Because they have those sense organs, they have nervous systems.
Animals include species such as anemone, insects, lizards, and
mammals.

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___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Label the following Protista, Fungi, Plant, Animal

___________________ ____________________

___________________
____________________

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Species associate themselves to survive

Many species of living things associate themselves in order to

survive, to reproduce and to protect themselves from predators.
Many animals in the wild travel or move in great numbers. Fishes in
the sea and other mammals like the dolphins and whales travel in
groups. These species that associate themselves with the same type
of specie to survive are called intra-specific species.

Some of the animals that tend to associate themselves with a large

group of their own specie are: the elephants, gorillas, monkeys,
zebras, ostriches, buffalos, deer, whales, sharks, dolphins, among
many others. Yet, it is not surprising to see some of these animals in
the wild on their own.

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Many species can also associate themselves with other animals that are
not of the same kind. They form an inter-specific association. An
example of this type of association is the remora fish and the shark or
the remora fish and the stingray. The oxpecker bird or tick bird and the
rhinoceros also form an inter-specific association.
Plants living in a specific environment also form this interspecific
association.

The animals that tend to associate themselves in this way do so for a

certain type of convenience. All these animals that live like that, benefit
in some way or the other. The remora for example, eats the remaining
food that is left by the shark and the tick bird eats the ticks of the
rhinoceros. The tick bird in return alerts the rhino when danger
approaches.

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___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. Why do different animal species associate themselves?

2. Give another word for “association”?

3. Give some examples of animals that live in groups.

4. What are intra-specific species?

5. What are inter-specific species?

6. Why do you think wild animals tend to behave in this type of association?

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Animals are vertebrates and invertebrates
Vertebrates are the most advanced organisms on Earth. The traits that
make all of the animals in this section special are their spinal cords,
vertebrae, and notochords. It is all about having a series of nerves
along your back (dorsal side). If you are an organism, you cannot just
have the nerves sitting there. You need to give those nerves support and
protection. That need brings us to the backbones and a rod of cartilage
called the notochord.

Fifty thousand species might seem like a lot. Compared to the

invertebrates, there are not that many species of vertebrates. One reason
is that vertebrates are usually larger than invertebrates. Vertebrates need
more space. Another reason is that, even though they are more
advanced, there are many limitations on the environments and natural
ecosystem that may be available to these types of organisms.

If you are smart mammal, would you rather live near the ocean or in the
frozen tundra of the arctic? Many land animals can make that decision
and move to more desirable areas for living. Those nicer areas can only
support so many species of animals, living and eating will eventually
become a problem.

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Vertebrates are smarter than invertebrates. Some of them are very smart,
like human beings. Most vertebrates have very advanced nervous
systems. While a goldfish might not compare to your intelligence, when
you compare a goldfish to a sea anemone, a goldfish is like Einstein.
Octopi are probably the smartest invertebrates and may equal or be
smarter than some vertebrates. Octopi are the exception in the
invertebrate category. Octopus is an invertebrate that belong to the group
mollusks.

Vertebrates have muscles and skeletons. While the materials may vary,
muscles allow vertebrates to move around very efficiently and perform
complex moves. That ability to move and the intelligence to go with it
gives vertebrates such as reptiles and birds an advantage in the natural

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world.
The Animal kingdom
The Animalia Kingdom include any living organism of the kingdom
(Animalia) including many-celled organisms and often many of the
single-celled ones that typically are different from plants in having cells
without cellulose walls; they have no chlorophyll and they do not have
the capacity for photosynthesis. They require more complex food
materials. They have the capacity to move quickly if necessary.

Unlike plants, animals must move around to find food. The animal
kingdom is made up of multicellular organisms mostly which move
using a combination of the skeletal, muscular and nervous systems.

The animal kingdom is made up of two main groups: vertebrates and

invertebrates. Each of these has sub-groups that make them up.

Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals that have a skeletal structure. They have a
spinal cord protected by a backbone. The skeletal structure of
vertebrates is made up of bones and cartilages.

Vertebrates have a body structure divided into special parts: the head,
the trunk and the extremities. The extremities include hands, feet and
sometimes a tail that are joined to the trunk.

The bodies of vertebrates are externally covered with skin. In some

animals the skin is covered by a protective external layer, while others
are covered with hair, feathers or scales.

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As we have seen the there are five main groups of vertebrates: fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Fishes, birds, reptiles and
amphibians are oviparous. Mammals are the only vertebrates that are
viviparous.

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Invertebrates
Invertebrates do not have backbones. Both vertebrates and
invertebrates are part of the Kingdom Animalia, but their bodies are
organized differently. What makes invertebrates different? All
invertebrates share common traits. At the bottom of the invertebrate
world are the sponges. Sometimes they seem not to fit in but they are
still part of the group. Here are the characteristics of invertebrates:

(1) They are multicellular. This means that they are made up of more
than one cell, a colony of individual cells. The cells work together for
the survival of the organism. All of the cells have specific duties and
responsibilities.

(2) No backbone. This means that they have no bones. They have no
vertebrae.

(3) No cell walls. Plant cells have cell walls. Invertebrates do not have
them. Even if none of them look like animals, they are. Being an animal
means they have no cell wall.

(4) Most invertebrates have tissues (not sponges) that are a specific
organization of cells. Most of them reproduce sexually (not asexually).
That means two gametes combine to form a new organism. Those
gametes come from separate organisms (male and female).

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Most invertebrates can move. Even sponges move when they are very
young and very small. Once they settle down they do not move
anymore. Other invertebrates like lobsters and insects move around their
whole lives. Most invertebrates are organized in a way called
symmetrical.
Symmetrical organization means when you can draw a line down the
middle of the organism and the two sides look like mirror images. If you
draw a line down the middle of an octopus you would find two sides
with equal parts. This applies to most of the invertebrate organisms.
Sponges and some coral are not symmetrical.

(5) Invertebrates cannot make their own food. Scientists use the word
heterotrophic. Heterotrophs feed off other things to get their energy.
Plants are autotrophic. They make their own food. Being heterotrophic is
one of the main characteristics of being an animal. They eat things,
whether it is plants or other animals.

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___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Colour the following vertebrates. Can you name them; and tell if they
are vertebrates or Invertebrates?

1. Classify the above vertebrates in the group they belong.

Vertebrates Invertebrates

2. Can you say what vertebrate group is missing?

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3. To what vertebrate group does the bat belong? Draw and colour a
bat.

4. Circle all the invertebrates and draw a square around the vertebrates

5. Name the above living things. Then place the names in the correct

column.

Vertebrates Invertebrates

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___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science

Select the correct name for the following living things

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Plant Kingdom
The plant kingdom is also known as the Flora kingdom. Flora is the term
used to call a great number and a variety of plant species.

We can group plants into many different groups. One of the easier ways
is grouping is if they have or do not have flowers and seeds.

The two main groups of flowering plants are gymnosperms and

angiosperms.

In order for plants to reproduce

they must pollinate. Pollination
is the process through which
the mature pollen grains reach
the stigma.

The petals which are the

coloured parts of the flower are
also called the corolla. The
sepals are also called the calyx.

The stamen is the male

reproductive part of the flower
whilst the pistil is the female
reproductive part of the flower.

Animals and people can help in

plant pollination.

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Plants
A plant is referred to as any member of the kingdom: Plantae, made up
of multicellular organisms that typically produce their own food from
inorganic matter by the process of photosynthesis and that have more
or less rigid cell walls containing cellulose, including vascular plants,
mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

A group of plants in a certain area is called the flora. Plants are living
things, they need to eat and breathe in order to live. Plants are
important for the water cycle to occur. Plants give animals and humans
oxygen. Plants are a natural renewable source.

There are three main reasons why flora is important to us.

Oxygen Source of food Medicine
Plants are important for Plants help to stop Scientist and researchers
animals and humans landslides and erosion. use parts of the plant to
because they give us They do this because make medicine for many
oxygen. We need they absorb the water in illnesses.
oxygen in order to the ground.
breathe. Your grandparents may
Plants produce fruits, still use certain leaves,
The more plants are leaves, seeds, stems and roots or seeds to prepare
available the less roots for us to eat. homemade remedies for
amount of carbon certain illnesses.
dioxide there will be in Many foods that we eat
the atmosphere. come from plants. The tobacco leaf, for
These can be: flour, rice, example, can be used for
Plants are habitats for barley, cereal, corn, calming down ear pain
many animals, birds, etc… and the aloe-vera is also
insects, fungi and other used for skin burns.
living things.

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Pollination (Natural and Artificial)
When animals such as insects and hummingbirds or air or water carry
out pollination it is called Natural pollination.

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Artificial pollination is carried out by people.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Answer the following questions

1. Give another name for the plant kingdom?

2. How do we group plants?

3. Name the two main groups of flowering plants.

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4. What are plants?

5. Why are plants important to humans?

6. What is pollination?

7. What organisms help to carry out pollination?

8. What is artificial pollination?

Flowering and Non-flowering plants

Flowering plants
Flowering plants are those plants that have flowers. Flowering plants
have flowers in many different colours. The fruit of a plant comes from
the flower.

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Non-Flowering plants
Non-flowering plants are plants that do not produce flowers. Some
plants like the pine do not have flowers instead they have cones.

Non-flowering plants are plants which do not

have any flowers. They are different from
other flowering plants. They only have leaves
and cannot have fruits. There are some
familiar non-flowering plants, such as algae,
ferns, pines and mosses.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Colour and label the following

petal filament stigma ovary flower-stalk anther

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1. What is natural pollination?

2. How does natural pollination occur?

3. How does artificial pollination occur?

4. Name 5 flowering plants.

5. Name 3 non-flowering plants.

An ecosystem
When living things and non-living things live in the same surroundings
and interact with one another, the area is called an ecosystem. An
ecosystem must have the following parts to be called an ecosystem.

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Parts of an ecosystem
An ecosystem is divided into parts in order for us to understand it:

1. The living things

2. The non-living things
3. The relationship that exist among them
4. The conditions of the ecosystem

Ecosystems vary in sizes. They can be as small as a burrow or as big as

the earths’ biosphere. The Earth’s biosphere is the place where life is
possible. Your backyard and your mother’s garden are examples of a
small ecosystem. Depending on where the ecosystem is located they
are divided into groups.

Ecosystems are divided into two major groups:

1. Terrestrial ecosystems (found on land)

2. Aquatic ecosystems (found in water)

Types of Terrestrial ecosystems

A terrestrial ecosystem refers to the entire ecosystems that exist on
land. Terrestrial ecosystems are divided into five types:

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 Desert Ecosystems
A desert ecosystem receives less than 25
centimeters (about 10 inches) of rain per year. The
soils contain high mineral content with little organic
matter. The vegetation ranges from nonexistent to
including large numbers of highly adapted plants.

Forest Ecosystems
About one third of the Earth's land is covered in
forest. The primary plant in this ecosystem is trees.

Taiga Ecosystems
Another type of forest ecosystem is the taiga, also
known as northern coniferous forest or boreal forest.
It covers a large range of land stretching around the
northern hemisphere. It is lacking in biodiversity,
having only a few species. Taiga ecosystems are
characterized by short growing seasons, cold temperatures, and poor soil. They
have long summer days, and very short winter days. Animals found in the taiga
include lynx, moose, wolves, bears and burrowing rodents.

Grassland Ecosystems
Temperate grasslands include prairies and steppes.
They have seasonal changes, but don't get enough
rainfall to support large forests. Savannas are tropical

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grasslands. Savannas have seasonal precipitation differences, but temperatures
remain constant.

Tundra Ecosystems
Two types of tundra exist: Arctic and Alpine.
The Arctic tundra is located in the Arctic Circle,
north of the boreal forests. Alpine tundra
occurs on mountain tops. Both types
experience cold temperatures throughout the
year. Because the temperatures are so cold,
only the top layer of soil thaws during the
summer; the rest of it remains frozen year round, a condition known as
permafrost. Plants in the tundra are primarily lichens, shrubs, and brush. Tundra
does not have trees. Most animals that live in the tundra migrate south or down
the mountain for the winter.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

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 1. Name the main types of terrestrial ecosystems
________________ , _______________, _________________,
________________, _______________ .

2. Label: forest, mangrove or coral reef.

Aquatic Ecosystems
An aquatic ecosystem refers to the entire ecosystems that exist in the
water. Aquatic ecosystems are divided into two types:

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 Salt water or marine
ecosystems: are those that
are found in seas and oceans.
The majority of the seafood
used for commercial
purposes come from marine
ecosystems. An example of a
marine ecosystem is the reef
that exists around Roatanand
the other Bay Islands of
Honduras. The island of
Roatan is surrounded by a
barrier reef filled with
thousands of corals and fish.

Freshwater ecosystems: are

those ecosystems that are
found in rivers, lakes, ponds, gullies and streams. 41% of the known
species of fishes are found in this type of ecosystems. This type of
ecosystem serves as water sources for many human communities.
Because the water is fresh it is an easy source of potable water, mainly
used for house chores and the basic necessities for a home.

Characteristics of an ecosystem
All ecosystems have specific characteristics. All ecosystems both
terrestrial and aquatic are made up of common factors. These factors
are called the biotic and abiotic.

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The abiotic factors are those factors that are non-living. These include
sunlight, water, air, soil, temperature, pressure, humidity, rain, etc…

The biotic factors are those factors that are living. The biotic factors
include: animals and plants.

There is a difference between an ecosystem and the environment. The

ecosystems as we know refer to the group of living and non-living
things that live in a specific area.

The environment refers to the factors that allow the living things to
compete, survive, reproduce and live together.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

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1. What type of ecosystem is shown in this aquarium?

2. What are the main parts of an ecosystem?

3. Name the two main groups of an ecosystem?

4. How many types of terrestrial ecosystem exist? Name them.

5. How many aquatic ecosystems are there? Name them.

6. Give the name of the terrestrial ecosystems and a brief definition of

each.
7. Name the two types of tundra and a brief definition.

8. Where are salt water ecosystems found?

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9. Where are freshwater ecosystems found?

10. Name some benefits of:

- Salt water ecosystems

- Freshwater ecosystems

11. What are the main characteristics of an ecosystem?

12. What are biotic factors?

13. What are abiotic factors?

14. Give examples of biotic factors.

15. Give examples of abiotic factors.

Water
Water is an essential part of all ecosystems. It is important for plants,
animals and humans. The water around the earth is referred to as the

36
hydrosphere. Water is the substance that is most abundant on Earth.
Water can be found in three states on earth. In these three states
water serves as a purpose for the benefits of life on Earth. Liquid, solid
and in the air it can be as a gaseous state or as water vapour.

Among the three states it can change to the other states. Solid water
can change to its liquid state; this change is called melting or fusion.
When water in the liquid state changes to its gaseous state this change
is called evaporation. In the gaseous state water can change to its liquid
state; this is called condensation. Water
in its liquid state can also change again
to its solid state, this is called
solidification. When water changes
from a solid state immediately to its
gaseous state to its solid state we call
this change sublimation. Whenever
water changes from its solid state
directly to its gaseous state we call it
deposition.

Water is made up of two molecules

hydrogen and oxygen in a 2 to 1
mixture. H2O. Two molecules of
hydrogen mixed with one molecule of
oxygen.
This diagram shows the changes that occur in water in its three states. These
three states are found on earth.

States of water and its changes

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As we have seen, water can be available to humans in the different
states. Water can change to another state depending on the
environmental factors.

Solid water for example can be found in cold environments. Water

solidifies or turns into a solid. When this occur the water particles
expand.

Liquid water is the state in which water is mostly used by all living
organisms. The water particles are normal and it can be used by all
organisms. Water is drunk in this state.

Gaseous state in water occurs when water is exposed to a hot

environment. The water then evaporates. This occurs when clothes are
washed and hanged outside to dry. Water eventually evaporates and
then the clothes become dry.

___________________________ ______________________________

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___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. How do we call the water that is around us?

2. In what states can we find water on earth?

3. What is:
- Solidification

- Evaporation

- Fusion

- Condensation

- Sublimation

- deposition

4. Complete the following diagram

Energy

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As the objects on earth change or move from place to place they
require energy to do so. It is impossible to see energy; we can only see
the changes that occur because of energy. A simple definition for
energy is the capacity to do work.

There are many forms of energy. Some of the commonly known types
of energy are:

- Kinetic energy
- Chemical energy
- Electrical energy
- Heat energy

Kinetic energy is produced when things move.

Chemical energy is produced in our bodies when we eat. The food that
we eat has the energy to operate all the vital functions in the body.

Electrical energy is produced by a source such as a battery, the wind,

the sun or a fuel.

Heat energy is produced by the sun.

Light and heat emitted by the sun are also another source of energy.

Kinetic Energy
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Kinetic Energy is energy that is in motion (moving energy). Moving
water and wind are good examples of kinetic energy. Electricity is also
kinetic energy because even though you cannot see it happen,
electricity involves electrons moving in conductors.

Potential Energy

Energy is measured in the amount of "work" it does. Potential Energy is

stored energy. Examples of potential energy are oil sitting in a barrel, or
water in a lake in the mountains. This energy is referred to as potential
energy, because if it were released, it would do a lot of work.

Energy can change from one form to another. A good example is a

Roller Coaster. When it is on its way up, it is using kinetic energy since
the energy is in motion. When it reaches the top it has potential (or
stored) energy. When it goes down the hill it is using kinetic energy
again.

Other Types of Energy

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Mechanical Energy is the energy of motion that does the work. An
example of mechanical energy is the wind as it turns a windmill.

Heat energy is energy that is pushed into motion by using heat. An

example is a fire in your fireplace.

Chemical Energy is energy caused by chemical reactions. A good

example of chemical energy is food when it is cooked.

Electrical Energy is when electricity creates motion, light or heat. An

example of electrical energy is the electric coils on your stove.

Gravitational Energy is motion that is caused by gravity. An example of

gravitational energy is water flowing down a waterfall.

Label the following drawings with the type of energy it shows:

________________ _______________ _____________

_____________________ _________________
___________________________ ______________________________

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___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. What is energy?

2. Name the most common known types of energy.

3. Define “Kinetic” and “Potential” energy.

4. What is the main difference between kinetic and potential energy?

5. Which type of energy is made by humans when we eat?

6. Complete the following chnages of energy using the words provided:

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Atmosphere- Air
The air that exists on earth is a mixture of gases. Humans, animals and
plants benefit from the air that circulates around the world. The air-
part of the earth is called the atmosphere. Air is found in this
proportion on Earth:
Nitrogen (N2): 78 %

Oxygen (O2): 21 %

Argon (Ar): 0.9 %

All Others: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Neon (Ne), Helium (He), Hydrogen (H2) etc. 0.1 %

Water vapour is one of the main components of air. In Roatan the

water vapour changes all the time. The amount of water in the
atmosphere depends on the sunlight, heat, wind and other factors.

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Atmospheric Pollution
Our air can become contaminated to the extent that is can become
non-useful to living organisms. Some of the factors that pollute the
atmosphere are: dust, smoke, pulverization and combustion.
Dust: small particles that make up
dust in excess quantities can
accumulate as parts of clouds and
damage precipitation.

Smoke: this type of pollutant can come

from different sources. Factories, forest
fires and large circulation of vehicles can
contribute to a contaminated atmosphere.

Vehicular contamination in big cities, like in

Tegucigalpa, causes what is called
combustion contamination. This problem is
also referred to as smog.

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 Pulverization: occurs
in stone crushers.
This is the process of
turning a rock for
example into sand or
dust. This causes
small particles of the
product to go into
the atmosphere and contaminating precipitation.

Atmospheric Movements
The atmosphere is never still, it is in constant movement. These air
movements are called winds and aerial current.

Wind is when air move horizontally. Aerial currents happen in the

upper layers of the atmosphere and there the air moves vertically.

Winds and aerial currents are factors that contribute to the weather on
earth. They are responsible for temperature and humidity. Winds carry
the heat from hot areas to the cold areas and the cold from cold
regions to the hot regions. In other words the winds and aerial currents
distribute the heat and the cold on earth.

The winds and aerial currents also do the same with humidity they pick
up from the oceans and bring to the lands.

Our atmosphere has a permanent

tendency to distribute temperature.
As hot air rises the atmosphere
normally distributes it.

46
This diagram shows the air movements seen from space with a satellite.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. How do we call the air that surrounds the earth?

2. What gases make up the air? In what percentage?

3. What component of air changes all the time?

4. What causes these changes in water vapour?

5. What are atmospheric pollutions?

6. What factors causes atmospheric pollution?

7. Explain these atmospheric contaminants.

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8. How do we call the movements in the atmosphere?

9. What is the difference between the movements of winds and aerial

current?

10. What are the roles of air movements?

Food Chain
A food chain is the way in which living things feed among each other. In a
food chain what is actually happening is energy being transferred from one
living thing to another. According to what the organism eats, it is placed
under a specific level called the trophic levels. There are three main trophic
levels: producers, consumers and decomposers.

Producers
The producers are the first link in every food chain. Producers can be plants,
algae and some bacteria. Plants, for example, gather solar energy and
convert it to chemical energy. Chemical energy is the type of energy that
living things require in order so that they can perform their vital functions.

48
Through photosynthesis plant take in solar energy and convert it to chemical
energy. So without sunlight the food chain will not be possible. Plants use
this chemical energy and convert it into nutrients. Because plants feed
themselves, they are called autotrophic organisms.

Consumers
Consumers are divided into three main groups, according to what they
consume or eat. They are mostly called Primary, secondary and tertiary
consumers; or herbivores, carnivores and omnivores, respectively.

Primary consumers-Herbivores

Animals that eat plants are called herbivores. Living things that cannot feed
themselves as plants do; are called autotrophic organisms. Herbivores are
heterotrophic organisms. Heterotrophs need to find a source of food.
Herbivores eat plants only. Some examples of herbivorous heterotrophs are
rabbits, horses, cows, deer, elephants and most insects. Because they eat
only plants and are the first to start the food chain herbivores are also
known as primary consumers.

Secondary consumers- Carnivores

Animals that eat herbivores are called carnivores. Carnivores are

secondary consumers. These carnivores are called small carnivores.
These carnivores only eat herbivores. Some examples of carnivores are:
frogs, snakes, spiders, small fishes, turtles, etc…

Tertiary consumers- Omnivores

Omnivores or animals that eat both plants and animals belong to the
third level of consumers. Some scientists also place the real-carnivores
into this group. Real carnivores are those carnivores that eat other

49
carnivores. Real carnivores are eagles and hawks, sharks, lions and
tigers.

Chickens, bears, pigs, cockroaches, monkeys and humans are examples

of omnivores.

Example of a food chain with the trophic levels

Decomposers
Decomposers are those organisms that end the food chain. They are
organisms that help in eating the remains of the dead organism. They
are mainly made up of bacteria and fungi. As part of their function they
return to nature all the substances that formed part of the living
organisms’ body.

50
The fungi and bacteria return substances like oxygen, nitrogen, oxygen
and carbon to the soil. These substances in turn become part of the soil
and the atmosphere and become part of plants. Hence, we have the
cycle of life happening over again.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. What is a food chain?

2. What is actually happening during the process of the food chain?

3. Into how many levels is the food chain divided? Name them

4. What are producers?

51
5. Why are these organisms called producers?

6. What are autotrophic organisms?

7. What are consumers?

8. What are heterotrophic organisms?

9. Into how many groups are consumers grouped?

10.Name the different type of consumers.

11.Differentiate among the different types of consumers.

12.Give examples of each type of consumers.

13.What two groups are placed into tertiary consumers?

14.What are decomposers?

52
 15.Why are decomposers important in a food chain?

16.Draw an example of your own food chain.

Systems in the Human Body

The human body is made up of a head, neck, torso, two arms and two
legs. The average height of an adult human is about 5 to 6 feet tall. The
human body is made to stand erect, walk on two feet, use the arms to
carry and lift, and has opposable thumbs (able to grasp). These are
some relevant facts about the human body:

 The adult body is made up of: 100 trillion cells, 206 bones,
over 600 muscles, and 22 internal organs.

There are eleven main systems in the human body:

 Circulatory System (heart, blood, vessels)

 Digestive System (mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines)

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 Endocrine System (glands)
 Immune or Lymphatic System (many types of protein, cells, organs, tissues)
 Nervous System (brain, spinal cord, nerves)
 Muscular System (muscles)
 Reproductive System (male and female reproductive organs)
 Skeletal System (bones)
 Respiratory System (nose, trachea, lungs)
 Excretory or Urinary System (bladder, kidneys, urethra, ureters)
 Integumentary System (skin, hair and nails)

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Can you name the following systems in the human body?

54
Body systems
Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific
functions necessary for everyday living.

55
The function of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart,
blood, blood vessels, arteries and veins.

The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together,

allow the body to break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It
includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play a role in the digestive
system because they produce digestive juices.

The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones
into the blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and
regulate various bodily functions, such as metabolism, growth and sexual
function.

The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and
other pathogens that may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen,
bone marrow, lymphocytes (including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and
leukocytes, which are white blood cells. The Immune system is sometimes
called the Lymphatic system which also includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts
and lymph vessels, and also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job
is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid that contains white
blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system also
removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.

The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious

movement) and involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends signals to
different parts of the body. The central nervous system includes the brain
and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that
connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system.

The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in
movement, blood flow and other bodily functions. There are three types of

56
muscle: skeletal muscle which is connected to bone and helps with
voluntary movement, smooth muscles which is found inside organs and
helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscles which is
found in the heart and helps pump blood.

The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male

reproductive system includes the penis and the testes, which produce
sperm. The female reproductive system consists of the vagina, the uterus
and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell fuses
with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in
the uterus.

Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206
bones that are connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton
helps us to move, but it is also involved in the production of blood cells and
the storage of calcium. The teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but
they are not considered bones.

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon
dioxide in a process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the
diaphragm and the lungs.

The excretory or urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea
from the body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The
whole system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter
muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the
ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects

us from the outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses
and other pathogens. Our skin also helps regulate body temperature and
eliminate waste through perspiration. In addition to skin, the integumentary
system includes hair and nails.

57
Classwork: Label the systems shown below:

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Which system is responsible?

58
 1. Responsible for breaking down food and absorbing its nutrients and getting
rid of the waste product: _____________________________________.

2. Allows us to intake oxygen and release carbon dioxide in order to breath and
live: ________________________________________

3. System that moves blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones,
around the body: ___________________________________

4. Consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the blood:
_____________________________________

5. Body's system responsible of defending against bacteria, viruses and other

pathogens that may be harmful:__________________________________

6. Its main job is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid that contains white
blood cells, which help the body fight infection:
____________________________________

7. Helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is
produced when certain foods are broken down: _______________________

8. ________________________________ is the body's largest organ.

9. Consists of 206 bones that are connected by tendons, ligaments and

cartilage: _____________________________

10. ________________________________ allows humans to reproduce.

Common illnesses of the human systems

The Circulatory system

One of the most common diseases of the circulatory system is

arteriosclerosis, in which the fatty deposits in the arteries causes the walls

59
to stiffen and thicken the walls. The causes are a buildup of fat, cholesterol
and other material in the artery walls. This can restrict blood flow or in
severe cases stop it all together, resulting in a heart attack or stroke.

Another circulatory disease, hypertension — commonly called high blood

pressure — causes the heart to work harder and can lead to such
complications as a heart attack, a stroke, or kidney failure.

The Digestive System

Many symptoms can signal problems with the GI (Gastro Intestinal) tract,
including: abdominal pain, blood in the stool, bloating, constipation,
diarrhea, heartburn, incontinence, nausea and vomiting and difficulty
swallowing.

Among the most widely known diseases of the digestive system is colon
cancer. While CRC (colon-rectal cancer) gets a great deal of attention, many
diseases and conditions of the digestive system — including irritable bowel
syndrome, diverticulitis, GERD (acid reflux) and Crohn’s disease — can be
chronic and are difficult to diagnose and treat.

The Respiratory System

Diseases and conditions of the respiratory system fall into two categories:
Viruses and bacteria such as influenza, bacterial pneumonia and the new
enterovirus respiratory virus that has been diagnosed in children; and

60
chronic diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD).
Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the lung airways that causes coughing,
wheezing, chest tightness or shortness of breath. These signs and symptoms
may be worse when a person is exposed to their triggers, which can include
air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes, cleaning solvents, infections,
pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and medications; which can
eventually lead to lung cancer.
The Nervous System

The Mayo Clinic says that patients with nerve disorders experience
functional difficulties, which result in conditions such as:
Epilepsy, in which abnormal electrical discharges from brain cells cause
seizures
Parkinson's disease, which is a progressive nerve disease that affects
movement
Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is
attacked by the body’s immune system
Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve
cells in the brain to degenerate
Stroke, which occurs when there, is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow
to the brain is obstructed;
Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which is mini-type strokes that last a shorter
period of time but mimic stroke symptoms.
Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can
also affect the nervous system.
___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test
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 1. Name one illness associated with:
- the circulatory system

- the digestive system

- the nervous system

- the respiratory system

2. What is the common name for hypertension?

3. What is COPD?

4. Name the two categories into which the diseases of the respiratory system
are grouped?

5. What is the influenza virus?

6. What factors can be damaging to a person that suffers from asthma?

Alcohol and the Human Body

Alcohol is a drug (a chemical that has an effect on the body, and is not a food).

There are different kinds of alcohol. The kind that people drink is called ethyl
alcohol. This is made by fermenting different things with yeast and water.
62
What is used and the way this is done depends on what kind of drink is being
made.

Grain makes whisky and beer.

Potatoes make vodka.

Grapes make wine and brandy.

Honey makes mead.

Sugar makes rum.

How does alcohol affect people?

A small amount of alcohol can make the person feel relaxed.

With more alcohol, people cannot control their behaviour (they may do silly things
or be violent), and their movements are more clumsy (uncoordinated).

What happens to alcohol in the body?

Alcohol goes from the mouth to the stomach and small intestine.

It passes through the walls of the stomach and small intestine into the bloodstream.

The blood takes the alcohol to the brain where it slows down the messages in the
brain (alcohol is a depressant drug).

The blood also takes the alcohol to the liver, which starts to take out the alcohol
from the blood. The more alcohol that is drunk the longer it takes for the liver to
clean it all out.

Did you know?

Alcohol is the second biggest cause of death in many countries. (Road accident)

Even people who have never had any alcohol can still die from its effects.

63
Alcohol can cause damage to the brain, liver and stomach.

People can become alcohol-dependent because it is addictive.

Many car accidents involving young drivers are caused by alcohol and
unfortunately many of the drivers and their passengers end up disabled or dead.

People can die from alcohol poisoning when they drink too much alcohol.

Poem on Alcohol

Alcohol's not really cool,

It can make you look a fool.
Alcohol can change your life,
Breaking up a man and wife
Children hurt or even homeless,
Alcohol can make life hopeless.
When you grow up
You can choose
To stay drug-free
And away from 'booze'

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

64
 1. What is alcohol?

2. Complete the following:

- ____________ makes whisky and beer.
- ____________ make vodka.
- ____________make wine and brandy.
- ____________ makes mead.
- ____________ makes rum.
3. What is mead?

4. Where does the blood take the alcohol when it enters your body?

5. What organs of the body does alcohol damage?

6. What happen to many people after drinking too much alcohol?

Measurements
What is the definition of Density?

65
Basically, density is how compact an object is.

Put another way, density is the mass of an object divided by its volume

How do you find Density?

In order to find out the density of an object, you need to know two other things
about the object: its volume, and its mass.

You would then divide the mass of the object by its volume to find its density .

Volume
Volume is the amount of space that something takes up.

For example, if you have been given a box containing a present, then you could
find the box’s volume by measuring its length, its width and its height.

You would then multiply the length by the width, and then multiply this figure by
the height.

This would give you the box’s volume.

If the box was very heavy, your present would be very dense.

If you could pick the box up easily, then your present would not be very dense.

Mass

66
Scales actually measure weight, rather than mass. However, they can still be used

to find out density.

The other thing you need to know when finding out the density of an object is its
mass. Mass is actually quite difficult to explain, and the best way to think of it (for
the time being) is how heavy something is.

Mass is slightly different than weight. Weight is a force, and is affected by gravity.
An object would weigh less on the moon than on the Earth, because there is less
gravity there.

Mass stays the same wherever you are: the earth, the moon, or floating in outer
space.

Density
So once you know the object’s volume, and the object’s mass, you can find out its
density.

This is done by dividing the object’s mass by its volume.

The formula for density is: Density = Mass / Volume (Mass ÷ volume)

This equation can also be written: D=m/v (mass ÷ volume)

In the formula, d is the symbol for density. Scientists measure density in kilograms
per cubic metre (kg/m3).

m is the symbol for mass. Scientists measure mass in kilograms (kg).

V is the symbol for volume. Scientists measure volume in cubic meters (m3).

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

67
 Science Test

1. What is mass?

2. What is Density?

3. What is Volume?

4. What is the formula used to calculate Mass?

5. What is the formula used to calculate Density?

6. What is the formula used to calculate Volume?

7. What is the real purpose of using a scale?

8. Can a scale be used to calculate Mass?

SIMPLE MACHINES
Once upon a time a person needed to move
something heavy. He or she picked up a long stick
68
and stuck it under the edge of the heavy object and then pushed down on the
other end of the stick; and the first simple machine was invented. Simple
machines are just that. The simplest form of using one thing to accomplish
something faster or better is a tool. They were the first ones created and we still
use them today.

There are 6 basic simple machines; the lever, the wheel and axle, the inclined
plane, the wedge, the pulley, and the screw. Several of these simple machines
are related to each other. But, each has a specific purpose in the world of doing
work.
What is work? Work is the amount of energy necessary to move an object. The
further you move it, the more work is required. Work is measured in Newton.

The Lever
The lever is a long tool such as a pole or a rod
put under an object to lift it. The lever is more
efficient when combined with a fulcrum. The
fulcrum is another object, perhaps a rock, used
to brace under the long tool. This gives the long
pole something to push down against. The
location of the fulcrum helps determine how well the lever will perform work. The
closer the fulcrum is to the object being lifted, the higher the person can lift the
object. The longer the lever, the higher the object can be lifted. Do the math —
it's really all in the distance between the object, the fulcrum and the lever.
Levers are all around us. Some examples of levers are: door
handles, the claws of a hammer (for removing nails), crowbars,
light switches, bottle openers and hinges.

The Wheel & Axle

The wheel has always been considered a major invention
in the history of mankind. But it really would not work as
well as it does had it not been for the axle. An axle is a
rod or pole centered in the wheel that allows the wheel
to turn around it. The wheel then spins in a balanced

69
circle to be used as transportation on a bike or to turn the hands of a
clock. Gears are a form of the wheel and axle.
Wheels are found where things turn in a circle such as an electric fan, a motor, a
revolving door, a merry go round, and any wheel — on the car, on your
skateboard, or on a bicycle.

The Inclined Plane

The inclined plane is simply a ramp. One end is higher
than the opposite end. This allows things to go from a
low place to a higher place or vice versa. It takes less
work to move an object up a ramp then it does to lift
that object up the vertical distance. Gravity makes it
easier to move an object down a ramp than up that
ramp.
Ramps are used in skateboard parks, wheelchair ramps
and to get heavy equipment in and out of the back of trucks. But a modified
version of a ramp is also found in stairs, escalators, ladders, walking paths, even
chutes used for dropping your mail into the mailbox
Examples of other inclined planes

The Wedge
Some people might see the wedge as just
an inclined plane, although it is actually
two inclined planes. However, the use of a

70
wedge is actually different in nature. The wedge is used to separate an object
apart. This is needed to cut, tear or break something in two. A wedge can also be
used to keep things together or secure things from movement.

Some examples of wedges that are used for separating might be a shovel, a knife,
an axe, a pick axe, a saw, a needle, scissors, or an ice pick. But wedges can also
hold things together as in the case of a staple, push pins, tack, nail, doorstop, or a
shim.

The Pulley
The pulley is actually a version of a wheel
and axle that is combined with a rope, chain or other cord to allow
moving something up and down or back and forth. The pulley can be
combined with other pulleys to reduce the amount of work necessary
to lift huge amounts of weight or to lower them down. It can also
make moving something such as a flag up the pole convenient to do
from the ground. It changes the direction of the force necessary to do the
work. I pull down on the rope, but the flag goes up.

Pulleys are used in window blinds and drapery to move them up and down or
back and forth. Pulleys are also used on ships to raise and lower sails. In
industry it is used to raise and lower heavy cargo, or on cranes for use in moving
construction equipment. Elevators also use pulleys to move the car up and down
from floor to floor.

The Screw
The screw is really a twisted inclined plane. It allows
movement from a lower position to a higher position but at the same time
it moves it in a circle. That makes it take up less horizontal space. A screw
can also act to hold things together in some cases.

71
Some examples of the uses of a screw are in a jar lid, a drill, a bolt, a light bulb,
faucets, bottle caps and ball point pens. Circular stairways are also a form of a
screw.

Another use of the screw is in a device known as a screw pump. A huge screw
shape is lowered into the water and by turning the screw the water is moved up
the twisted shaft and lifted to where it is needed. Screw pumps are often used
in agricultural settings such as farms and for irrigation.

Examples of screws

Measuring Work
Work is the amount of energy necessary to move an object. A person can push
against a brick wall until they sweat. But unless they moved the wall — even a
tiny bit — they did no work. But at the same time, if you scoot the computer
mouse even a part of an inch, you have done work; work in the scientific sense.

Work can be measured. It is measured by the amount of distance that a force

moves an object. Sir Isaac Newton was a very famous scientist who had a
wonderful understanding of the relationship between force and motion. For this
reason, the measurement is known as a Newton. It is abbreviated with a capital
N. The term joule is often used to measure work as Newton per meter. If it takes
1 Newton to move any object 1 meter, then that is equivalent to a joule.
There are special tools for measuring the force
necessary to move an object. These are known as
force meters. They use a spring and a hook to
determine how much pull is required to slide an
object up an inclined plane.

72
Two or more simple machines make a Compound Machine
Simple machines can be combined together to form compound machines. Many
of our everyday tools and the objects we use are really compound machines.
Scissors are a good example. The edge of the blades; are wedges. But the blades
are combined with a lever to make the two blades come together to cut.
A lawnmower combines: wedges (the blades) with
a wheel and axle that spins the blades in a circle.
But there is even more.

The engine probably works in combination of

several simple machines and the handle that you
use to push the lawnmower around the yard is a
form of a lever. So even something complicated;
can be broken down into the simplest of machines.

In our modern times, many things rely on electronics and light waves to function
and are not made of simple machines. But even then, you may be surprised. The
turntable in your microwave oven is a wheel and axle. The lid to the laptop is
connected to the pad by a hinge or lever.

73
Take a look around you — can you figure out what simple machines make up a
can opener, the hand cranked pencil sharpener, the ice dispenser in the
refrigerator or the stapler?

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

Which simple machines are shown in the following pictures?

74
75
POLLUTION
(CONTAMINATION)
Pollution happens when land, water, air or other parts of the environment
become dirty and unsafe or unsuitable to use. This happens when contaminants
are introduced into a natural environment, but the contaminant does not need to
be tangible. Things as simple as light, sound and temperature can be considered
pollutants when introduced artificially into an environment.

Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, babies are born
with birth defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy may
be as low as 45 years because of cancers and other diseases, in some of the
world’s worst polluted places.

Land Pollution
Land can become polluted by
household garbage and by industrial
waste. Garbage may include:
product packaging, grass clippings,
furniture, clothing, bottles, food
scraps, newspapers, appliances,
paint and batteries.
Other pollutants are: construction
material (wood, concrete, bricks,
glass, etc.) and medical waste
(bandages, surgical gloves, surgical instruments, discarded needles, etc.).

Hazardous waste can be any liquid, solid or sludge waste that contain properties
that are dangerous or potentially harmful to human health or the environment.
Industries generate hazardous waste from mining, petroleum refining, and
pesticide manufacturing and other chemical production. Households generate
76
hazardous waste as well, including paints and solvents, motor oil, fluorescent
lights, aerosol cans, and ammunition.

Water Pollution
Water pollution happens when chemicals or
dangerous foreign substances are introduced
to water, including chemicals, sewage,
pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural
runoff, or metals like lead or mercury.
According to the UN, 783 million people do
not have access to clean water and around
2.5 billion do not have access to adequate
sanitation. Adequate sanitation helps to keep
sewage and other contaminants from
entering the water supply.
Nutrient pollution, also called eutrophication, is another type of water pollution.
It is when nutrients, such as nitrogen, are added into bodies of water. The
nutrient works like fertilizer and makes algae grow at excessive rates, blocking
light from other plants. The plants die and their decomposition leads to less
oxygen in the water. Less oxygen in the water kills aquatic animals.

Air Pollution
The air we breathe has a very exact chemical composition; 99 percent of it is
made up of nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapor and inert gases. Air pollution
occurs when things that are not normally
there are added to the air. A common
type of air pollution happens when
people release particles into the air from
burning fuels. This pollution looks like
soot, containing millions of tiny particles,
floating in the air.

77
Another common type of air pollution is dangerous gases, such as sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and chemical vapors. These can take part in
further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, creating acid rain and
smog. Other sources of air pollution can come from within buildings, such as
secondhand smoke.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. Where in Roatan can we see:

- Land pollution

- Water pollution

- Air pollution

78
 2. How do you think we can prevent or lessen pollution in our island?

Taste and Smell

Tastes and smells are the perception of
chemicals in the air or in our food.
Separate senses with their own receptor
organs, taste and smell are nonetheless
intimately entwined.

As anyone with a head cold can tell, food

“tastes” different when the sense of smell
is impaired. Actually, what is really being
affected is the flavor of the food, or the
combination of taste and smell. That is because only the taste; not the food
odors, are being detected. Taste itself is focused on distinguishing chemicals that
have a sweet, salty, sour, bitter, or umami taste (umami is Japanese for “savory”).
However, interactions between the senses of taste and smell enhance our
perceptions of the foods we eat.
Tastants; chemicals in foods, are detected by taste buds,
special structures embedded within small protuberances on
the tongue called papillae. Other taste buds are found in the
back of the mouth and on the palate. Every person has
between 5,000 and 10,000 taste buds. Each taste bud
consists of 50 to 100 specialized sensory cells, which are
stimulated by ‘tastants’ such as sugars, salts, or acids. When
79
the sensory cells are stimulated, they cause signals to be transferred to the ends
of nerve fibers, which send impulses along the cranial nerves to the taste regions
in the brainstem. From here, the impulses are relayed to the thalamus and on to a
specific area of the cerebral cortex, which makes us conscious of the perception
of taste.
Airborne odor molecules, called “odorants’’, are detected by special sensory
neurons located in a small patch of mucus membrane lining the roof of the
nose. Axons of these sensory cells pass through perforations in the overlying bone
and enter two elongated olfactory bulbs.
Odorants stimulate receptor proteins found on hair like cilia at the tips of the
sensory cells, a process that initiates a neural response. An odorant acts on more
than one receptor, but does so to varying degrees. Similarly, a single receptor
interacts with more than one different odorant, though also to varying degrees.
Therefore, each odorant has its own pattern of activity, which is set up in the
sensory neurons. This pattern of activity is then sent to the olfactory bulb, where
other neurons are activated to form a spatial map of the odor. Neural activity
created by this stimulation passes to the primary olfactory cortex at the back of
the underside, or orbital, part of the frontal lobe. Olfactory information then
passes to adjacent parts of the orbital cortex, where the combination of odor and
taste information helps create the perception of flavor.
How does it taste?

______________________________________________________________

80
_______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. What two organs combine to perceive the sense of flavor in our food?

2. What are the four (4) main tastes of the tongue?

3. What is umami?

4. What are tastants?

5. How are ‘tastants’ detected?

6. How many taste buds does an average person have?

7. What are odorants?

8. Colour the tongue according to the sections that define the taste and name
them.

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Hurricane Mitch

A hurricane is the name given to a tropical cyclone in some parts of the world. In
other places these cyclones are called typhoons.
The only difference between a hurricane and a typhoon is the location where the
storm occurs. In the North Atlantic, central North Pacific, and eastern North
Pacific, the term hurricane is used. The same type of disturbance in the Northwest
Pacific is called a typhoon.

In late October 1998, Hurricane Mitch struck Central America, leaving more than
11,000 people dead, destroying hundreds of thousands of homes and causing
more than $5 billion in damages. It was the deadliest hurricane to hit the Western
Hemisphere in more than 200 years.

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Hurricane Mitch began as a tropical depression on October 22nd and by October
26th had intensified into a Category 5 hurricane. Sustained winds reached 180
mph, while gusts were more than 200 mph. After making landfall in Honduras on
October 29, Hurricane Mitch moved through Central America before reaching
Florida as a tropical storm on November 4-5.

Honduras and Nicaragua were especially hard hit by the hurricane. In Honduras,
floods and mudslides brought on by heavy rainfall washed away entire villages,
and the majority of the country’s crops and infrastructure were destroyed. The
hurricane also took a major toll on Nicaragua. In one area alone, Posoltega, more
than 2,000 people perished in a huge mudslide. The other Central American
nations (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Panama) also were
affected by Hurricane Mitch, although the death tolls in these locations were
significantly lower than Honduras and Nicaragua.

In total, more than 11,000 people (some estimates put the figure as high as
18,000) died because of the hurricane, making Mitch the most deadly storm in
the Western Hemisphere since the Great Hurricane of 1780 in the eastern
Caribbean, in which more than 20,000 people perished. Additionally, several
million people were made homeless or severely impacted by Hurricane Mitch,
which is estimated to have caused more than $5 billion in damages.

In the aftermath of the disaster, the World Meteorological Organization retired

Mitch from its list of Atlantic Ocean hurricane names, due to the storm’s
devastating impact.

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How are Hurricanes measured and classified?

A hurricane may be classified as category one if they have their usual speeds of up
to 74mph. Going up to category five, they may carry extreme speeds and power,
with much more destructive ability.

Hurricane winds are measured using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale. This scale
was first developed in the late 1960s and was further developed in the early
1970s. It uses measurements in pressure, wind speed, storm surge and damage
potential to put hurricanes into 5 categories.

Sometimes even tropical storms can cause a lot of deaths than category 3 and 4
hurricanes. At other times, category 3 hurricanes can cause more damage than
category 5 hurricanes.

It all depends on the area that they make the landfall. If the coastal area is heavily
populated and a lot of people use the beach
for residential and business purposes, there is
a high chance that the death toll will be high if

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a hurricane visits. In many cases the landfall is far from where people live and that
makes the impact less destructive, even though it can affect wildlife, vegetation
and other biotic and abiotic factors.

___________________________ ______________________________

___________________________ ______________________________

Science Test

1. What is a hurricane?

2. What is the difference between a hurricane and a typhoon?

3. When did hurricane Mitch affect Honduras?

4. Which countries were affected by hurricane Mitch?

5. How many people died in the following countries:

Honduras:
Nicaragua:
El Salvador:
Guatemala:
6. How many people were affected in the following countries:
Honduras:
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 Nicaragua:
El Salvador:
Guatemala:
7. How many people disappeared after the hurricane in these countries:
Honduras:
Nicaragua:
El Salvador:
Guatemala:
8. How do we measure the strength of a hurricane?

9. Draw and colour the Saffir-Simpson scale.

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