OSI MODEL:

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization for Standardization, in the year 1984. It is a 7layer
architecture.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into
0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together.
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 The functions of the physical layer are as follows:
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):

 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from
one node to another, over the physical layer.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit
it to the Host using its MAC address.
 Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
 Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
 The functions of the Data Link layer are:
1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way
for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3):
 The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e., selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
 The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.
 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
 The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely,
the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

 The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
 It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
 Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
 Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure
proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its
header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs
sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
 The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address
or port address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure
that the message is delivered to the correct process.

 The services provided by the transport layer:

A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

 This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication, and also ensures security.
 The functions of the session layer are:
1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer
allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
which are considered synchronization points into the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

 The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
 The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per
the required format to transmit over the network.
 The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

 The Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
 These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the
network.
 This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
 Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
 The functions of the Application layer are:
1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
TCP/IP MODEL:
It was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is
based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
The TCP/IP model contains four layers. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

1. Network Access Layer:

 This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical
Layer of the OSI model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols
present in this layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a
conflict about declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access
layer. It is described as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2
protocols.
2. Internet Layer:
 This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire
network.
 The main protocols residing at this layer are:
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses
 in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited
in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated
within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with
information about network problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Host-to-Host Layer:
 This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model.
 It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data.
 It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.
 The two main protocols present in this layer are:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): It is known to provide reliable
and error-free communication between end systems. It performs
sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment
feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due
to such features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): On the other hand does not provide
any such features. It is the go-to protocol if your application does not
require reliable transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which
is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
3. Stream control Transmission Protocol (SCTP):
TCP:
 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol
that facilitates the transmission of packets from source to destination.
 It is a connection-oriented protocol that means it establishes the connection
prior to the communication that occurs between the computing devices in a
network.
 The following are the features of a TCP protocol:
 1. TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control
mechanism.
2. TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control
mechanism.
3. This protocol ensures that the data reaches the intended receiver in the
same order in which it is sent. It orders and numbers each segment so
that the TCP layer on the destination side can reassemble them based on
their ordering.
4. It is a connection-oriented service that means the data exchange occurs
only after the connection establishment. When the data transfer is
completed, then the connection will get terminated.
5. It is a full duplex means that the data can transfer in both directions at the
same time.
6. TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender to send the data
in the form of a stream of bytes and also allows the receiver to accept the
data in the form of a stream of bytes.

Working:
Step 1: Establish connection- When two computers want to send data to each other
over TCP, they first need to establish a connection using a three-way handshake.
The first computer sends a packet with the SYN bit set to 111 (SYN =
"synchronize?"). The second computer sends back a packet with the ACK bit set
to 111 (ACK = "acknowledge!") plus the SYN bit set to 111. The first computer replies
back with an ACK.

Step 2: Send packets of data-When a packet of data is sent over TCP, the recipient
must always acknowledge what they received.

The first computer sends a packet with data and a sequence number. The second
computer acknowledges it by setting the ACK bit and increasing the acknowledgement
number by the length of the received data. These two numbers help the computers to
keep track of which data was successfully received, which data was lost, and which
data was accidentally sent twice.
Step 3: Close the connection-Either computer can close the connection when they no
longer want to send or receive data.

A computer initiates closing the connection by sending a packet with the FIN bit
set to 1 (FIN = finish). The other computer replies with an ACK and another FIN.
After one more ACK from the initiating computer, the connection is closed.

UDP:
 It offers connectionless communication
 Unreliable-It doesn’t guarantee the delivery of packets.
 UDP base applications transmits only small amount of data at a time, the
reliability of the delivery depends on the application.
 UDP characteristics include the following:
o It is a connectionless protocol.
o It is used for VoIP, video streaming, gaming and live broadcasts.
o It is faster and needs fewer resources.
o The packets don't necessarily arrive in order.
o It allows missing packets -- the sender is unable to know whether a
packet has been received.
o It is better suited for applications that need fast, efficient transmission,
such as games.
SCTP:
 SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol.
 It is a connection- oriented protocol in computer networks which provides a
full-duplex association i.e., transmitting multiple streams of data between two
end points at the same time that have established a connection in network.
 Characteristics of SCTP:
1. Unicast with Multiple properties: It is a point-to-point protocol
which can use different paths to reach end host.
2. Reliable Transmission: It uses SACK and checksums to detect
damaged, corrupted, discarded, duplicate and reordered data. It
is similar to TCP, but SCTP is more efficient when it comes to
reordering of data.
3. Message oriented: Each message can be framed, and we can
keep order of DataStream and tabs on structure. For this, In TCP,
we need a different layer for abstraction.
4. Multi-homing: It can establish multiple connection paths
between two end points and does not need to rely on IP layer for
resilience.
 Disadvantage: If there is a loss at any point the whole data stream gets blocked.

4. Application Layer:
 This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model:
Application, Presentation and Session Layer.
 It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-
interface specifications.
 Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP,
TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X
Window, LPD.
HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure
Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign
in, authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the
encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.

NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks
on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose
you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the
server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI):

 It is a unique number, usually fifteen digits, associated with Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS) network mobile phone users.
 The IMSI is stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) inside the phone
and is sent by the phone to the appropriate network.
 The IMSI is used to acquire the details of the mobile in the Home Location
Register (HLR) or the Visitor Location Register (VLR).
 The IMSI is stored as a 64-bit field in the phone's SIM. The three components
within IMSI are mobile country code, mobile network code and mobile
subscriber identification number. The mobile country code of IMSI has a
similar meaning and format to the location area identifier. The mobile network
code has the same format and meaning as the location area identifier and is
assigned by the government of each country. The mobile subscriber
identification number identifies the mobile subscriber and is assigned by the
operator.

International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI):

 It’s a 15-digit number unique to each device.
 Phone carriers and manufacturers share IMEI numbers to enable tracking of
smartphones that may be stolen or compromised.
  The IMEI (15 decimal digits: 14 digits plus a check digit) or IMEISV (16
decimal digits: 14 digits plus two software version digits) includes information
on the origin, model, and serial number of the device. The model and origin
comprise the initial 8-digit portion of the IMEI/SV, known as the Type
Allocation Code (TAC)

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI):

 It is the identity that is most commonly sent between the mobile and the
network.
 TMSI is randomly assigned by the VLR to every mobile in the area, the moment
it is switched on. The number is local to a location area, and so it has to be
updated each time the mobile moves to a new geographical area.
 The Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is a temporary
identification number that is used in the GSM network instead of the IMSI to
ensure the privacy of the mobile subscriber.
 The TMSI prohibits tracing of the identity of a mobile subscriber by
interception of the traffic on the radio link.
 The TMSI is assigned to a mobile subscriber by the Authentication Centre
(AUC).
 The TMSI is assigned for the duration that the subscriber is in the service area
of the associated Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).

MSISDN (Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory

Number)
 An MSISDN is a number that uniquely identifies a subscription in a GSM or a
UMTS mobile network.
 An MSISDN is the phone number associated with a single SIM card and is the
number to which you call or send an SMS message. The MSISDN is used to
identify a mobile user when they make a call or send an SMS.
 MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN
CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code, identifies one or part of a PLMN
SN = Subscriber Number
How is a call connected? https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=1JZG9x_VOwA&list=RDCMUCqZQJ4600a9wIfMPbYc60OQ&start_radio=1&t=9
s

How does the INTERNET work? https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=x3c1ih2NJEg&list=RDCMUCqZQJ4600a9wIfMPbYc60OQ&index=6

1G:
 It is the first generation of wireless mobile communication where analog signals
were used to transmit the data.
 Characteristics:
o Only Voice calls
o Maximum data speed of 2.4kbps
o Data transmissions at 150MHz
o Poor voice quality
o Large phone with the limited battery life
o No data security.
o Frequent Call Drop

2G:
 It is a second generation of wireless mobile communication where digital
signals were used to transmit the data.
 It uses GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) Technology
 It uses digital modulation techniques-TDMA and CDMA
 Characteristics:
o Maximum data speed of 64kbps
o Phone conversations were digitally encrypted.
 o Enables services such as SMS and MMS
o Has bandwidth of 30 to 200KHz.
 Drawbacks:
o GSM does not support high data rates
o Inefficient usage of bandwidth and resources
o Unable to handle complex data
o Reduced range of sound
o Weaker digital signal
 2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS (General Packet Radio
service). Streaming was also introduced and mail services too. Then
came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services than 2.5G. It
gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge connection.

Architecture:
The GSM network architecture is defined in the GSM specifications, and it can be
grouped into four main areas:
 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

1.Mobile Station (MS):

  The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver,
display and digital signal processors, and the SIM card.
 The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to
toggle between the voice and data use.
2.Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
 It is responsible for handling traffic and signalling between a mobile phone and
the network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech
channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile
phones, paging, transmission and reception over the air interface and many other
tasks related to the radio network.
 The base station subsystem element of the GSM network utilised the radio
access technology to enable a number of users to access the system concurrently.
 The BSS uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC
 The BSS is composed of two parts −
1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network
comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas
that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The
BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with
the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um
interface with its associated protocols.
2. Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back
into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs and is often co-
located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources
and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates
channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is
termed the Abis interface.

3.Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

 It performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile
network users, as well as the management of mobile services such as
authentication.
 The major elements within the core network include:
1. Home Location Register (HLR)
 The HLR is a database used for storage and management of
subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores
permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile,
location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a subscription
in the form of SIM, then all the information about this subscription is registered
in the HLR of that operator.
2. Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC):
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC
performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile
network users, as well as the management of mobile services such as
registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call routing to a
roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is identified by
a unique ID.
3. Visitor Location Register (VLR):
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about
subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers.
The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into
a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the
mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the
HLR each time.
4. Authentication Center (AUC):
The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of
the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for
authentication and ciphering of the radio channel. The AUC protects network
operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.
5. Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a
list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, where its International
Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked
as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.
4.Operations and Support System:
  The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in
the switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the
operation and support system (OSS).
 It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to
control the traffic load of the BSS.
 OMC functions:
 Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals,
charging, and statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.

Control channels: These are main control channels in GSM:

1. BCH (Broadcast Channel): It is for down-link only. It has following types:
1. BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel): It broadcasts information about the
serving cell.
2. SCH (Synchronization channel): Carries information like frame number
and BSIC (Base Station Identity Code) for frame synchronization.
3. FCCH (Frequency Correction Channel): Enable MS to synchronize to
frequency.
 CCCH (Common Control Channel): It has following types:
1. RACH (Random Access Channel): Used by MS when making its first
access to network. It is for up-link only.
2. AGCH (Access Grant Channel): Used for acknowledgement of the access
attempt sent on RACH. It is for down-link only.
3. PCH (Paging Channel): Network page the MS, if there is an incoming call
or a short message. It is for down-link only
 DCCH (Dedicated Control Channel): It is for both up-link and down-link. It
has following types:
1. SDCCH (Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel): It is used for call setup,
authentication, ciphering location update and SMS.
2. SACCH (Slow Associated Control Channel): Used to transfer signal while
MS have ongoing conversation on topic or while SDCCH is being used.
3. FACCH (Fast Associated Control Channel): It is used to send fast message
like hand over message.
Call Flow: Video link - https://youtu.be/ibXwC4FsvoY
 In GSM network the MS need to connect to the radio network. The radio
network is mainly responsible for connecting the device and the core network.
 The BSS transfers the request of MS for radio resource allocation to the MSC.
The BSS assigns a channel to the MS with the given frequency and the timeslot
for establishing the communication route between MS and BSS.
 Based on the confirmation from the MS, BSS initiates connection to MSC.
Once the subscriber is connected then the authentication happens based on the
IMSI. After successful authentication the MS and MSC starts the
communication.
 In order to set up the calls successfully, the subscriber data is loaded into the
VLR along with the parameters like if there are any restrictions on the SIM
cards and whether the calls are allowed or not. This process is completed during
the location update. Once the VLR confirms the subscriber data then the call
setup process starts between MS and MSC.
 For particular call the channel is established, and this voice channel is allocated
by MSC between MSC and BSS. After the channel is established MSC routes
the call to the B number which is dialled. In the process when call is received in
PSTN network MSC will be notified with the alert that subscriber is being
alerted after which MS receives a ring notification and the call is connected.
Voice Call Flow when A and B are in same MSC:

1. CM Service Request – Message contains Global Cell Identity, Kind of Service

required by subscriber e.g., Voice, SMS, Fax, USSD. Mobile Identity e.g.,
TMSI/IMSI.
2. CM Service Accept – Message is in response of CM Service Request.
3. Set Up - Message contains dialed number from Mobile A (i.e., Mob B number)
and speech Codec.
4. Send Routing Info-Request (SRI) - After analysis of dialed numbers received
from A in set up message, MSC recognizes its own MSISDN series and send
SRI to HLR to get the Mobile station roaming number (MSRN). This message
contains B MSISDN, Interrogation type e.g., Basic Call etc.
5. Assignment Request - Message is to seize a channel for voice call for Mob A
between MSC and BSC. Message contains Circuit Identification Code (CIC).
6. Assignment Complete - Acceptance from BSC end that same CIC has been
seized.
7. Provide Roaming Number Request (PRN)- HLR checks in its database to
which VLR, Mob B is registered & ask for roaming number from that VLR.
Message contains IMSI, MSISDN, VLR ID of Mob B.
 8. Provide Roaming Number Response - Message is response of roaming no.
request and contains roaming number of Mob B. This message is for HLR. In
this VLR checks its database & allocate one free MSRN from its MSRN pool
for B number.
9. Send Routing Info-Response - In this HLR forward same roaming number
which it receives in above message to MSC.
10. Paging Request - In this VLR checks the Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number
(MSRN) received from HLR & search which MSISDN is against that MSRN,
now MSC checks the VLR database of that MSISDN to get the LAC &
TMSI/IMSI of that MSISDN (Mob B) & initiates the paging request message to
that particular LAC on the basis of TMSI/IMSI in that BSC. BSC now page to
that LAC on the basis of IMSI/TMSI of Mob B. Message contains LAC,
IMSI/TMSI, DPC of BSC.
11. Paging Response - Mob B response to that paging with GCI (Global Cell
Identity) to BSC that in turn forwarded to MSC.
12. Assignment Request - Message is to seize a channel for voice call for Mob B
between MSC and BSC. Message contains Circuit Identification Code (CIC).
13. Assignment Complete - Acceptance from BSC end that same CIC has been
seized.
14. Set Up - It is used to display Mob A number on Mob B handset.
15. Alert - This message indicates Mob A that Mob B is connected & its ringing.
The Ring Back Tone is sent from MSC to Mob A.
16. Connect - Mob B answers the call & connect message from Mob B is send to
MSC, in turn MSC sends connect message to Mob A indicating that phone has
been answered & connects those 2 voice channels which were seized during the
assignment complete message.
17. Connect Acknowledge - To acknowledge the connection.

3G:
 Uses TDMA and CDMA
 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third
generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard.
 Characteristics:
o Offering faster data transfer, and better voice quality
o Data speed of 144kbps to 2mbps
o Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates
o Better security
o High speed web browsing
o Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
o Helps in using web-based applications like video conferencing,
multimedia emails,3D gaming, GPS etc.
 Drawbacks:
o High infrastructure cost like licensing fees and base stations needs to be
closer.
o Expensive mobile phones
o Power consumption is high
4G:

 Improved speeds, reduced latency, and crystal-clear voice calls.

 It is an end-to-end Internet Protocol connection
 Provides mobility, it is more flexible, it is more reliable, It is easier to
standardize and it offers affordability.
 Drawbacks:
o Obtaining the information from the people illegally becomes easier
o is capable of being attacked (jamming frequencies) and the invasion of
the privacy increased.
Cellular Network(A cellular network or mobile network is a communication
network where the link to and from end nodes is wireless.)
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) standard

LTE:Long Term Evolution

Why do we use LTE Network? LTE provides a maximum speed of data transfer and
makes the life of mobile and internet users more convenient and also increases the
productivity of a person or enterprise.
 The LTE specification provides downlink peak rates of 300 Mbit/s, uplink peak
rates of 75 Mbit/s and QoS provisions permitting a transfer latency of less than
5 ms in the radio access network.

Goal of LTE:
 Enable better spectral efficiency
 Implement flat network architecture (to minimize the cost of HW).
 Reduce the power consumption
  Reuse the existing the Hardware
 Enable flexible spectrum usage and refarming of already allocated spectrum.
 increase the capacity and speed of wireless data networks using
new DSP (digital signal processing) techniques and modulations.
LTE’s main advantages
 increased carrier capacity of subscribers and coverage within a few decibels
of the Shannon limit
 high-speed data rates
 reliable connectivity
 cost-effectiveness

LTE Architecture:

 eUTRAN is a radio access network.

 eUTRAN consists of eNodeB, eNodeB is connected with mobile phone network
and communicates directly with mobile handsets or UE.
 eNodeB is used to maintain and allocating the resources for effective
communication over the wireless channel.
 The eNB sends and receives radio signals to and from all the mobile devices
using the analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air
interface.
 The eNB sends handover commands to all of its mobiles at a low level,
controlling their operation.
 eNB shall compress the IP header and encrypt the data stream.
 EPC consists of MME (Mobile Management Entity), PGW (packet data
network Gateway), SGW (Serving Gateway) and PCRF (Policy and Charging
Rules Function).
 EPC separates Control Plane functionality from Data/User Plane functionality.
 User Plane function provides bearer (bearers are the tunnels used to connect
user equipment to Packet Data Networks (PDNs) such as internet function and
carries user data packets.
 Control Plane carries signalling and control data

 LTE MME is responsible for initiating paging and authentication of the mobile
device. (Paging: It is used to indicate the subscriber’s position in order to
establish a connection with another user.)
 MME retains location information at the tracking area level for each user and
then selects the appropriate gateway during the initial registration process.

 ME connects to the evolved node b (eNB) through the S1-MME interface and
connects to S-GW through the S11 interface.
 Multiple MMEs can be grouped together in a pool to meet increasing signaling
load in the network.
 MME also plays a vital part in handover signaling between LTE and 2G/3G
networks. (Handover in LTE occurs when a device moves from the cell
coverage serving it towards another; a process where the user established
session must not be interrupted due to this cell change.)
 Lawful interception of signaling is also supported by the MME.
 Mobility management – allows the subscriber’s mobility within the network
or across networks.
 The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the
base station and the PDN gateway.
 The SGW resides in the user plane where it forwards and routes packets to and
from the eNodeB and packet data network gateway (PGW).
 The SGW also serves as the local mobility anchor for inter-eNodeB handover
and mobility between 3GPP networks.
 It is also responsible for inter-eNB handovers in the U-plane and provides
mobility between LTE and other types of networks, such as between 2G/3G and
P-GW.
 The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the
outside world ie. packet data networks PDN, using SGi interface. Each packet
data network is identified by an access point name (APN).
 The Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN Gateway, also PGW) provides
connectivity from the User Equipment (UE) to external packet data networks
(PDNs) by being its point of exit and entry of traffic.
 Allocation of the IP address for a specific device is handled by the P-GW, as
well as quality-of-service (QoS) enforcement according to the policy controlled
by the PCRF
 Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) It is the node designated in real-
time to determine policy rules in a multimedia network.
 With the increase in transparency into data policy, charging operators will be
able to more accurately charged services, thus reducing data delivery cost.
 It enables operators to simplify the network by making functions and services
more easily integrated and flexible.
  The ability to efficiently and dynamically route and prioritize network traffic.
 Service providers can use PCRF to facilitate for charging of subscribers based
on their volume of usage of high-bandwidth applications and charging based on
QoS guarantees, limit app usage while a user is roaming, or lower the
bandwidth of wireless subscribers using heavy-bandwidth apps during peak
usage times.

VOLTE Architecture:

 The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia Core Network

Subsystem (IMS) is a standardised architectural framework for delivering
IP multimedia services to mobile users.
 IMS network supports voice traffic using a SIP protocol with either a 4G device
or a Volte UE.
Home Subscriber Server (HSS)

 The HSS is the database of all subscriber and service data

 HSS contains the subscription-related information (user profiles), used by the control
layer
 HSS is the master user database that is used for Registration & Authentication in both
LTE Network & IMS
 This allows the user to access the packet and circuit domains of the network initially,
via IMSI authentication.
 HSS Communication is via Diameter protocol
 For super easy understanding, HSS is used as profile or database of User where all
information is saved. This HSS will decide whether you are allowed to use VoLTE or
Not, Whether You are allowed to Latch on LTE Network or Not? Etc.

Call Session Control Function (CSCF):

 The CSCF performs all the signaling operations, manages SIP sessions and
coordinates with other network entities for session control, service control and
resource allocation. It consists of three different entities:
 The role of this CSCF is to function as a proxy by accepting incoming requests
and forwarding them to the entity that can service them.

1.Proxy-CSCF(P-CSCF)

 It controls SIP Sessions including authentication, call routing and generating

CDR (Call Data Records) for accounting purpose.
 The P-CSCF functions as a proxy server for the user equipment; all Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP) signalling traffic to and from the user equipment must
 go through the P-CSCF. The P-CSCF validates and then forwards requests from
the user equipment and then processes and forwards the responses to the user
equipment.
 It can be located either in the visited network (in full IMS networks) or in the
home network (when the visited network is not IMS compliant yet).
 It increases network efficiency by avoiding useless traffic transport and
reducing latency.
 The P-CSCF is also capable of handling emergency call sessions.
 Authenticates and asserts an identity to the UE
 Protect user privacy
 Manages QoS, resource allocation, and controls charging function

2.Interrogating CSCF(I-CSCF):

 When a user tries to register with an IMS network, it sends a REGISTER

request to its P-CSCF. Since the REGISTER does not contain any Service-
Route header (indicating the S-CSCF), the P-CSCF doesn’t know which S-
CSCF to forward the message to (which S-CSCF is assigned to the UE). Hence
it forwards the REGISTER to the I-CSCF. Once the I-CSCF receives this
REGISTER request it queries the HSS in order to obtain the address of the
relevant S-CSCF a particular subscriber has been assigned to process the SIP
initiation request.
 It enables requests to be routed to the correct S-CSCF.
 Determines UE location by communicating with the HSS
 Performs load balancing
 Hide some information such as server amount, DNS (Domain Name
System, translates human readable domain names (for example,
www.amazon.com) to machine readable IP addresses (for example, 192.0.
2.44).) name by encrypting SIP message called THIG (Topology hiding
Interface Gateway)

3. Serving CSCF(S-CSCF)
  the S-CSCF will download a subscriber profile from the HSS (Home Subscriber
Server) at the time of registration, which allows the S-CSCF to ascertain which
Application Server any service requests should be sent to.
 Responsible for all session management activities
 Retrieves user profile and authentication information from the HSS
 Finds the appropriate AS
 Provides SIP routing

Breakout Gateway Control Function (BGCF)

 Border Gateway Control Function BGCF determines which Media Gateway
Control Function (MGCF) a call should go through to reach the local Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
 A BGCF is used for calls from the IMS to a phone in a Circuit Switched
network, such as the PSTN or the PLMN.
 The Breakout Gateway Control Function is an IMS element that chooses the
network where PSTN breakout happens. If the breakout is to occur in the same
network as the BGCF then the BGCF selects a MGCF (Media Gateway Control
Function) which will be responsible for the interworking with the PSTN. The
MGCF then receives the SIP signalling from the BGCF. If the breakout is in
another network, the BGCF will forward this session signalling to another
BGCF, or an MGCF, depending on the configuration in the selected network.

Media Gateway Control Function (MGCF):

 It is responsible for call signalling and call processing.
 The MGCF facilitates call control, interfacing the PS domain to the CS
domain when interworking between the IMS and PSTN is required.

Media Gateway (MGW):

 A media gateway is a device used in the core network of a telecom network
operator to provide transformation and interworking between media streams that
use different network standards, communication protocols, codecs and physical
connections, so that phone calls work properly between networks using different
technologies.
  The major function of media gateways is analog-to-digital conversion of voice
and creation of voice IP packets (CODEC functions).
 media gateways have optional features, such as voice (analog and/or digital)
compression, echo cancellation, silence suppression, and statistics gathering.

Telephony Application Server (TAS)

 Some of the services it provides are:
1. Call waiting
2. Call Hold
3. Lawful Interception
4. Call-ID
5. Conference Calls
6. SMS
 Caller ID display/display limiting service: Displaying the caller’s number on the
receiving terminal or limiting this display
 Lettering service: The information specified by the caller, such as a nickname, is
displayed to the receiver when the call is connected.
 Ring back tone service: The information specified by the receiver is displayed to
the caller.
 Call waiting service: When the receiver is talking on the phone, this service
enables the receiver to receive another call.
 Call hold service: This service temporarily puts a call on hold.
 Call forwarding unconditional/conditional: This service forwards the call to a
third terminal specified by the receiver.
 Origination/termination-denial service (international call origination denial,
anonymous call
termination denial): This service prohibits call origination or termination.
 Voice message service: If the receiver cannot answer a call, he/she can leave a
voice message.
 Missed call reminder service: If the receiver cannot answer a call, this service
reminds the receiver of the missed calls.
 Call waiting status notification service: If the receiver cannot answer a call, when
the receiver is now able to answer a call, this service informs the caller.
Media Resource Function (MRF):
 It provides media services like announcements, tones, and conferencing for
VoLTE, Wi-Fi calling, and fixed VoIP solutions.
 Media Resource Function (MRF) provides media resources for the home network,
and logically/physically consists of the following two features:
1. Media Resource Function Controller (MRFC): Communicates with
the application server and controls the media resources of the MRFP.
2. MRFP (Media Resource Function Processor): Directly processes all
media resources and performs the following functions.
ㆍ Mixing of incoming media streams (multiple parties)
ㆍ Media stream source managing (multimedia announcements)
ㆍ Media stream processing (audio transcoding, media analysis)

Session Border Controller (SBC):

 It is located on the signalling and the media planes of VoIP networks. It is usually
deployed at the network edge as an independent device.
 The SBC supports VoIP communication between end users as well as between
carrier networks.
 It governs the manner in which phone calls are initiated, conducted, and terminated
on a voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) network.

Interconnect Border Control Function (IBCF):

 It offers boundary control between various service provider networks, providing
IMS network security in terms of signalling information.

LTE ATTACH: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zk03Zh23jqM

  It is the procedure in which the UE registers to the network and creates the EPS
Bearer between the UE and the PGW, in order to be able to send and receive
data, to and from the PDN.

Step-1:
 UE powers on and initiates LTE attach procedure.
 The eNodeB signals the MME over s1-interface to establish the connection.
Step-2:
  The MME quires the HSS for the subscription profile over the S6a-interface and
update the user location with HSS, the HSS will act as a data base and responds
back to the MME with the user information.
Step-3:
 MME will then select SGW and PGW according to the UE information.
Step-4:
 A default bearer (bearers are the tunnels used to connect user equipment to
Packet Data Networks (PDNs) such as internet function and carries user data
packets) is set up between UE, eNodeB, SGW and PGW.
Step-5:
 PGW returns PCSCF, DNS and PDN address and so on to the UE through SGW
and MME if this is the default address to the UE.
Step-6:
 Several messages are sent between MME, eNodeB & SGW that the attach
process is successful. The UE is then attached to EPS (Evolved Packet System -
EPS is combination of E-UTRAN, EPC and UE)
 If the IMS is not the default PDN then internet default PDN bearer may be
established 1st during the attach procedure, after that LTE UE would request
IMS PDN default bearer.
Step-7:
 After the UE has IMS default bearer, then the UE can start IMS registration
procedures through Gm interface to PCSCF.

EPS Bearer: (Radio Bearer+S1 Bearer+S5/S8 Bearer)

It is the logical association between UE and PGW and it is used to provide the
continuous connectivity.
It is a pipeline connecting two or more points in the communication system in which
data traffic flows through
 A radio bearer b/w UE and eNodeB is connected internally with the associated
S1 bearer on the S1-U interface. The eNodeB is responsible for mapping these
radio bearers to the physical resources over the air interface.
 The S1bearer between the eNodeB and SGW is implemented using GTP
Protocol which builds GTP Tunnel between network elements. The setup of this
S1 bearer is managed by MME.
 The S5/S8 bearer between the SGW and PGW is usually a GPRS Tunnelling
Protocol between the 2 network elements.

Default Bearers:
 An EPS bearer that is established when the UE initially attaches to the
network and connects to the PDN (Packet Data Network) is called Default
Bearer.
 It is established during LTE attach process.
 It allocates IP address to the user.
 It is used for always connected bearers like internet connectivity, SIP
Signalling connectivity.
 MME initiates the default bearer creation based on the subscription
information provided by HSS.
Dedicated Bearer:
 It is a child bearer established during a call, it may be voice or the video call
 No IP address is allocated to the bearer, it uses the IP address allocated to the
parent bearer which is, the IP allocated to the default bearer.
 It is used for on-demand bearers such as voice call or video call.
 They are used to carry data for specific applications.
 Dedicated bearer allows certain types of data traffic to be isolated from all other
traffic.
 Dedicated bearer is always associated with default bearer.
IMS Registration Process:
 It occurs after LTE attach.

Step-1: After initial LTE attach & IMS default PDN bearer creation, the UE sends
separate SIP register request over the Gm-interface.

Step-2: P-CSCF forwards the register request to ICSCF according to the subscriber’s
home domain I-CSCF. I-CSCF queries S-CSCF address capability from HSS through
Cx- interface, then forwards the SIP register message to S-CSCF through Mw-
interface.

Step-3: S-CSCF authenticates the subscriber with HSS over Cx interface. The S-CSCF
send SIP 401 to I-CSCF which forwards it on to P-CSCF and then to UE to trigger
subscriber authentication.

Step-4: An authentication response is then generated by UE, the UE sends SIP register
request to the P-CSCF again with the authentication response.

Step-5: The register request with authentication response is forwarded to S-CSCF

through I-CSCF.

Step-6: If the UE passes the authentication, then S-CSCF downloads the subscriber
information from HSS and then sends SIP 200: OK message to UE through I-CSCF
and P-CSCF.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMPGH4Ag5b4

SIP Protocol:
SIP is a signalling protocol designed to create, modify, and terminate a
multimedia session over the Internet Protocol. It is an application layer protocol that
incorporates many elements of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

SIP - Basic Call Flow

  An INVITE request that is sent to a proxy server is responsible for initiating a
session.
 The proxy server sends a 100 Trying response immediately to the caller (Alice)
to stop the re-transmissions of the INVITE request.
 The proxy server searches the address of Bob in the location server. After
getting the address, it forwards the INVITE request further.
 Thereafter, 180 Ringing (Provisional responses) generated by Bob is returned
back to Alice.
 A 200 OK response is generated soon after Bob picks the phone up.
 Bob receives an ACK from the Alice, once it gets 200 OK.
 At the same time, the session gets established and RTP packets (conversations)
start flowing from both ends.
 After the conversation, any participant (Alice or Bob) can send a BYE request
to terminate the session.
 BYE reaches directly from Alice to Bob bypassing the proxy server.
 Finally, Bob sends a 200 OK response to confirm the BYE and the session is
terminated.
 In the above basic call flow, three transactions are (marked as 1, 2, 3)
available.
The complete call (from INVITE to 200 OK) is known as a Dialog.
Circuit Switch Fall Back (CSFB):
 CSFB is a technology whereby voice and SMS services are delivered to LTE
devices through the use of GSM or another circuit-switched network.
 CSFB is needed because LTE is a packet-based IP network that cannot support
circuit switched call.
 When an LTE device is used to make or receive a voice call or SMS, the device
falls back to the 3G or 2G network to complete the call or to deliver the SMS
text message.
 When a call is made, it reaches a mobile switching centre (MSC), which
communicates to a mobility management entity (MME) to identify network
compatibility. If it is an LTE network attempting to connect to a legacy
network, the MME recognises this and subsequently routes the call through a
2G or 3G network.

Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC): It is an LTE feature

that allows a VoIP/IMS call in the LTE packet-switched domain to be transferred to
a legacy circuit-switched domain (GSM/UMTS or CDMA2000).