What is OSI Model?

- Layers of OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of
rules that explains how different computer systems
communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific
functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it
easier for different devices and technologies to work together.
OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and
managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a
reference to understand how network systems function.
Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its
specific role in handling data. All the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical
Layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data,
this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and
1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame
back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This
clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the
transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network
i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how
the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-
duplex and full duplex.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure
data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer
devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided
into frames depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network
Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, "Who
has that IP address?" and the destination host will reply with its
MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It
provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that
are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and
end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data
link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of
the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
  Error Control: The data link layer provides the
mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both
sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel
is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer helps to determine which device has
control over the channel at a given time.
Layer 3: Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one
host to the other located in different networks. It also takes care
of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit
the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and
receiver's IP address are placed in the header by the network
layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as
Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices
such as routers and switches .
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which
route is suitable from source to destination. This function
of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-
network uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and
takes services from the network layer. The data in the transport
layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-
end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also
provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the
formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation,
and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper
data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port
number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.
  Generally, this destination port number is configured,
either by default or manually. For example, when a web
application requests a web server, it typically uses port
number 80, because this is the default port assigned to
web applications. Many applications have default ports
assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number
from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to
the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts
the message from the (session) layer and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to
the correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5: Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the
establishment of connections, management of connections,
terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer
are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and
Termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify
the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and
data loss is avoided.
  Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two
systems to start communication with each other in half-
duplex or full duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a
message through some Messenger application running in their
browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer
which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This
message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted
(if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so
that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The
data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer
are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets
Layer).JPEG, MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for
encoding data, which is part of the presentation layer’s role.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the
data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to
be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7: Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we
find the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window
for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in
the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to
log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This
application allows a user to access files in a remote host,
retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control
files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides
distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model?
When we transfer information from one device to another, it
travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down
through 7 layers from the sender's end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver's end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and
managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for
reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets
and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the
next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and
transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches
its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon
arrival.
We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the
help of an example mentioned below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person
B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application
like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens
at Application Layer).
Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for
data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for
transmission.
Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established
between the sender and receiver on the internet.
Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller
segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking
information to maintain the reliability of the information.
Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in
order to find the best route for transfer.
Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated
into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and
then it checks for error using error detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form
of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like
ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process
will reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will
be shown on Person B email client.
Please refer the below animation for detailed flow.
Protocols Used in the OSI Layers
Protocol
Data
Layer Working Unit Protocols

Establishing
1: Physical
Physical Connections Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer between
Devices.

Node to Node
2: Data
Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Link Layer
Message.

Transmission of
data from one
3:
host to another, IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,
Network Packets
located in etc.
Layer
different
networks.
 Protocol
Data
Layer Working Unit Protocols

Take Service
Segments
from Network
4: (for TCP)
Layer and
Transport or TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the
Layer Datagram
Application
s (for UDP)
Layer.

Establishes
Connection,
Maintenance,
5: Session NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Ensures Data
Layer etc.
Authentication
and Ensures
security.

Data from the

application
layer is
6:
extracted and
Presentati Data TLS/SSL, MIME, etc.
manipulated in
on Layer
the required
format for
transmission.

Helps in
7: identifying the
FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHC
Applicatio client and Data
P, etc.
n Layer synchronizing
communication.

Why Does the OSI Model Matter

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear
structure of "how the data moves in the network?". As the OSI
Model consists of 7 layers, each layer has its specific role, and
due to which it helps in understanding, identifying and solving
the complex network problems easily by focusing on one of the
layers not the entire network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still,
the OSI Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. It
helps people understanding network concepts very easily.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed Package delivery is not

in OSI Model. guaranteed in the TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers

All layers of the TCP/IP model are
1,2 and 3 are necessary for
needed for data transmission.
data transmission.

Layers are integrated; some

Protocols at each layer is
layers are required by other
independent of the other layer.
layers of TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual Widely used in actual networks

framework, less used in like Internet and Communication
practical applications. Systems.

OSI vs TCP/IP
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing
system into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which
makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer
has fixed functions and protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI
model.
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer
can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be
complicated and hard to understand for beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler
model called the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the
OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and
operations, which can make the process more time-
consuming and less efficient.
 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework,
meaning it's great for understanding concepts but not
always practical for implementation.