7.

2 Ingestion
A. different types of teeth in humans
⚫ Function of teeth: chewing and cutting the food into small pieces.

Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

Cutting food Tearing food Grinding and crushing food Grinding and crushing food
→ 1 root → 1 root →1 / 2 roots →2 / 3 roots →larger in size
→ chisel shape → pointed →board top with 2 cusps 尖 →board top with 4 cusps
頭

⚫ Structure of a tooth Enamel

- non-living
Dentine - made up of calcium salt
- living - hardest substance in the body
- bone-like - protects the tooth from wear
- protects inner parts of the
tooth
Cement
Pulp cavity
- bone-like
- living
- binds the tooth to the jaw
- contains blood capillaries and
nerve endings

⚫ Dentition:
◼ the number and arrangement of different types of teeth in the mouth.
◼ expressed as a dental formula

◼ Dental formula for milk teeth:

◼ Dental formula for permanent teeth:

p.2
B. The structure of a tooth

(29) Enamel (琺瑯質)

crown
(30) dentine (牙本質)

neck (31) cement (牙骨質)

(32) Pulp
root cavity (髓腔)

periodontal membrane (牙周膜)

nerve

Structure Features and functions

Enamel  The outermost, hardest layer covering the crown

 A non-living substance, made up mostly of (33) calcium salts

 Protects the tooth from the wear of biting and chewing

Cement  Replaces enamel at the root of the tooth

 Fixes the tooth into the jaw bone through the (34)
, which allows the tooth to move slightly and acts as a
shock absorber
na "

Dentine  The middle layer of a tooth

periodontal
 Amembrane
bone-like, living structure

 Contains extensions of the cells in the pulp cavity

Pulp cavity  The innermost part of a tooth, containing living cells which produce dentine

 Contains (35)
and pressure
nerve
endings which detect temperature

 Contains (36) blood vessels which supply oxygen and

nutrients and remove waste products

p.4
7.3 Digestion in the mouth cavity
Functions Examples
Physical digestion ⚫ The breaking up of food into ⚫ Chewing/mastication by teeth
smaller pieces by physical ⚫ Churning by the stomach
means(方法) ⚫ Peristalsis along the alimentary canal
⚫ Increase the surface area of the ⚫ Emulsification of lipids by bile salt in
food for the enzymatic reactions. small intestine
JUST CUTTING
Chemical digestion ⚫ The breakdown of complex food ⚫ Carbohydrates ------
molecules into small molecules →monosaccharides
by enzymatic reactions. ⚫ Protein ------→ amino acids
NEED ENZYMES !!! ⚫ Lipid -----→ fatty acids and glycerol

⚫ Content of saliva
1. water moisten the food bolus
2. salivary amylase breakdown the starch into maltose
3. mucus stick the food together and easier swallow down
4. mineral salts maintain the slightly alkaline medium (pH 7.5) for the enzyme to work

⚫ Why we need to chewed food before swallowing?

◼ For easier swallowing, increase surface area for speed up the enzyme reaction.
⚫ How is food swallowed?
1. Food is chewed by the teeth.
2. Food is rolled into bolus.
3. The tongue rises
4. The soft palate pushed upward.
5. The epiglottis covers the entrance to the
trachea.

⚫ Peristalsis: food bolus move along the alimentary canal by muscle contractions.

Lumen 細 Lumen 大
Circular muscles → contract Circular muscles → relax
Longitudinal muscles → relax Longitudinal muscles → contract

p.3
7.4 Digestion in the stomach
⚫ Physical digestion: churning
pepsin
⚫ Chemical digestion: protein peptides
⚫ Structure of stomach

Cardiac sphinter → prevents food

from going back to oesophagus

Pyloric sphinter → controls the exit from

the stomach to the duodenum

⚫ Gastric glands secrete gastric juice which contain:

pepsin - For breakdown protein into peptides
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) - Provides an acidic medium(pH 2) for pepsin to work
- kill the bacteria
⚫ Gastric walls secrete mucus for protect the stomach wall from damaging by HCl.
Chapter 7.5 Digestion and absorption in the small intestine
A. Digestion in the small intestine
Liver ➔ produced bile

Gall bladder ➔ stores bile, collect enough

amount of bile and release to duodenum.

Duodenum ➔ receive bile, bile salt

emulsify lipid into oil droplet.

⚫ Physical digestion: peristalsis of the small intestine ➔ mix food chyme

⚫ Chemical digestion: refer to the following table about action of different enzyme
⚫ All the digestion of food substances completed in duodenum and upper part of ileum
⚫ Simple food molecules are readily absorbed in lower part of ileum
⚫ Refer to p.7-23 work example !!!!

p.4
 ⚫ Summary for the function of different parts of alimentary canal and the associated glands
Site of action Digestive Components of the Actions
glands and juices
juices
Mouth Salivary glands Salivary amylase Starch → maltose
(Saliva) Mineral salts Provide slightly alkaline medium(pH 7.5) for
amylase to work
Water ⚫ Moisten the food
① Starch ⚫ solvent for dissolving food substances
⚫ as a reactant of hydrolysis
Mucus ⚫ sticks food together
⚫ lubricates the food for easier swallowing
Oesophagus --- --- ⚫ walls are composed of circular and
longitudinal muscle
⚫ peristalsis transports food to the stomach.
Stomach Gastric glands Pepsin Protein → peptides
(gastric juice) Hydrochloric acid ⚫ to provide an acidic medium(pH 2) for
(HCl) pepsin to work
② Protein ⚫ kills most of the bacteria
Stomach wall Mucus ⚫ protect the stomach wall from damaged
by pepsin and HCl
Small intestine Liver Bile salt ⚫ emulsifying fats into oil droplets
(Bile) ⚫ increase surface area for the action of
lipase
Sodium ⚫ neutralizes the acidic chyme from stomach
③ Lipid hydrogencarbonate ⚫ provide pH 7.6-8.6, alkaline medium for
(NaHCO3) the enzymes to work
Bile pigment ⚫ wastes product produced from breakdown
of haemoglobin
Pancreas Pancreatic amylase ⚫ starch → maltose
(Pancreatic Protease ⚫ protein → peptides → amino acid
juice) Lipase ⚫ Lipids → fatty acids + glycerol
Sodium ⚫ neutralizes the acidic chyme from stomach
hydrogencarbonate ⚫ provide pH 7.6-8.6, alkaline medium for
(NaHCO3) the enzymes to work
Intestinal Sodium ⚫ neutralizes the acidic chyme from stomach
glands hydrogencarbonate ⚫ provide pH 7.6-8.6, alkaline medium for
(Intestinal juice) (NaHCO3) the enzymes to work
On the Carbohydrase ⚫ disaccharides → monosaccharides
epithelial cells Protease ⚫ peptides → amino acid

p.5
 ⚫ Summary of the digestion of starch, lipids and proteins in various parts of the alimentary canal:
Parts of alimentary Starch Lipids Proteins
canal (fat / oil)
Mouth Starch → Maltose No change No change
Stomach No change No change Proteins → peptides
Small intestine Starch → Maltose Oil → oil droplets Proteins → peptides
Maltose → Glucose Oil droplets → fatty Peptides → amino acids
acid + glycerol

B. Absorption in the small intestine

小動脈
小靜脈

Structure of small intestine is adapted for absorption

Features Adaptation(適應)
④ Very long Increase surface area and time for absorption
O Highly folded inner wall Increase surface area for absorption
B Numerous villi Increase surface area for absorption

④ Very thin (one-cell thick) Shortens the distance for diffusion

epithelium of villi
Villi contain network of blood 1. carry away absorbed food quickly
⑤ capillaries and lacteals 2. maintains a steep concentration gradient for food
absorption

p.6
⚫ Most of the food substances are carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver

⚫ Transport of absorbed food substances from a villus

Gfrom the
heart
⑥ lung
⑧
5 to the heat

①from
small
intestine
⚫ Route of food absorption and transport
Water-soluble nutrients Fat-soluble nutrients
Route
(e.g. glucose, amino acids, of food
minerals, absorption
vitamin C)
and transport
(e.g. lipids, vitamin A, vitamin D)
↓ ↓
Water-soluble nutrients
Blood capillaries of villus at-solubleLacteal
#

nutrients
of villus
Cglucose, amino acid,↓minerals, vitamic 2) & lipids,
vitamin A, vitaminD)
↓
Hepatic ↓portal vein ↓ Lymph vessels
Hepatic
portal
↓
Liver
vein vacteal of villus↓
↓ ↓
Liver vessels ↓
cymphVena cava(大靜脈)
↓
N (大靜脈)
Vena cava
Vena↘Cava vena cava↙

Heart
Y
-> Heart -
U

p.8
 O
area

( Detoxification)

① Regulation of blood glucose level.

blood
- liver removes excess
glucose from
Ecconverted back toglucoseare
converts it into
->
glycogen. a normal range
in