Volume IV, 2019

The Institution of Engineers (India)

(Established 1920, INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER 1935)

Century of Engineering Development

Annual Technical Volume of

Interdisciplinary Coordination Committee
Century of Engineering Developement

Annual Technical Volume

Interdisciplinary Coordination Committee

The Institution of Engineers (India)

 AN ISO 9001 : 2015 CERTIFIED ORGANISTAION

A Century of Service to the Nation

Chief Editor’s Desk

Dr G Ranganath, FIE
Chairman
Committee for Advancement of Technology and Engineering (CATE), IEI

India’s economic, social infrastructure and environmental growth can be linked to

engineering interventions and technology. IEI was established in 1920 realizing the need
for rapid technological growth and providing necessary technical manpower to handle the
same. Over hundred years of its existence, IEI has witnessed and its members contributed to
national growth. IEI is the only Institution which encompasses all faculties of engineering
discipline and therefore can present a comprehensive view of national growth.

In this backdrop, this technical volume on engineering achievements in different sectors

over the last hundred years has been brought out on the theme ‘Century of Engineering
Development’. It comprises of contributions from eminent engineers from various facets and
disciplines of engineering delving and providing insights on major engineering intervention
of the last 100 years which led to national, economic and social growth and have been
recognized by the government, professionals, academicians and the society.

This book emphasizes the importance of engineering as a profession, multidisciplinary

approach towards problem solving, how engineering shaped and century and transformed
the world and also discusses the ideal pedagogy of future engineering education. This volume
will be of immense value to the entire engineering fraternity from industry, academia and
research community.

Dr G Ranganath
Chief Editor
 AN ISO 9001 : 2015 CERTIFIED ORGANISTAION

A Century of Service to the Nation

Foreword

Mr Pradeep Chaturvedi, FNAE, FIE

Chairman
Interdisciplinary Coordination Committee, IEI

Documentation of Engineering Achievements since Inception of IE (I)

The Institution of Engineers (India) is proud to celebrate the Centenary Year, starting from 13 September
2019 to be completed on 13 September 2020. The Inter Disciplinary Coordination Committee (ICC)
decided to devote its Annual Volume to engineering achievements in India since inception of the Institution.
The Committee members deliberated and observed that though the Institution was set up to fulfill the
national needs of technical education and professional inputs, but has significantly contributed to national
development by application of engineering science and practice; and in developing engineering education,
innovative technologies and engineering practices. And this needs to be documented.
During the last 100 glorious years the Institution has contributed significantly to the rise of India to the
third largest economy of the world on purchase power parity and the sixth largest world economy at US$
2.97 trillion in 2019. Much of this growth and advancement, apart from the vibrant Indian democracy
and India’s leadership, owes to the engineering and technology fraternity that made the agro-industrial
revolution a great success in India; and continues to do so in the global competition propelled by science
and technology innovations in the industrial and service sectors.
The Institution of Engineers (India) with its one million strong memberships caters though 15 engineering
disciplines and stands as an illustrious professional body of great national and global eminence. These
divisions are agricultural, architectural, aerospace, chemical, computer, civil, electrical, environmental,
electronics and telecommunications, mechanical, marine, metallurgical and materials, mining, production,
and textile. Besides these 15 divisions, the Intuition also operates through seven independent foras which
have been set-up with the objective of achieving sustainable development and capacity building through
multifarious social engineering ventures in areas of skill development, water resource management & rural
development in an equitable manner.
Setting up of The Institution of Engineers (India)
The Institution of Engineers (India) came into existence in 1920 which was also the year of establishment
of League of Nations, the pre-runner to the existing United Nations which was considered necessary after
the First World War. Immediately after the First World War most of the Nations realized that science and
technology advances should be utilized towards creating peace, prosperity and an environment of peaceful
coexistence of nations around the world. Coincidently, 1919 also marked the establishment of the first
Academy of Engineering at Stockholm – The Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. Needless to
say that engineering has been considered creative process of designing things under constraints. The main
objective of engineering is to design devices, components and systems to improve the quality of life.
As India embarked on its industrial development, the status of the engineering profession became a matter
of prominence and was recorded in the Report of the Industrial Commission of 1916-18. The Chairman of
the Commission, Sir Thomas Holland, was then the Commerce Member of the Government of India. There
were signs and endeavours to advance an industrial society in India to safeguard and assure the status of
the profession.
In December 1918 and January 1919, there were preliminary general meetings held in Simla, Bombay,
Calcutta and elsewhere. The upshot was the formation in Calcutta of the Organising Committee for the
proposed ‘Indian Society of Engineers’ on January 3, 1919 with Sir Thomas Holland as Chairman. The
Committee was empowered to proceed with the organization and formation of the new society to undertake
collection and administration of funds. The society had its temporary office at the new Customs House,
Bombay. In March 1919, the rules were drafted and a new constitution was drawn up. A substantial guarantee
fund was raised and a subscription was decided at Rs. 15/- per member and Rs.12/- for associate member,
per quarter.
On July 16, 1919 at Simla, a revised code for the proposed body was presented for consideration. The re-
drafted code contained modifications and additions which had been suggested to the Drafting Committee.
The Memorandum of Association, Articles and By-Laws were presented. The name of the Society was
changed to “The Institution of Engineers (India)”. The Memorandum of Association, Articles and By-laws
were finally delivered on November 3, 1919 to a firm of Solicitors, Walker and Graham at Otacamund with
Madras as a province of registration.
Necessary permission was later secured to move the registered office to Calcutta and the office was opened
in a rented room at D-5. Clive Building, Clive Street, Calcutta on November 11, 1919.
It was expected that the Memorandum of Association etc would be registered and incorporation granted
by the Government of Madras, before the end of February 1920, but it was not before September 13, 1920
that the Institution was actually incorporated in the Presidency of Madras under Indian Companies Act of
1913. The Institution was formally inaugurated at an impressive ceremony in the Hall of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal on February 23, 1921, by His Excellency Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy of India. In declaring the
Institution duly inaugurated, the Viceroy emphasized the importance of such a body in India as it embraced
every branch and therefore have a much higher value than one more specialized body in that greater
cooperation between the branches would be obtained. He also expressed his satisfaction that the Institution
remained a strictly unofficial society. The Viceroy said that the Institution would have “unique opportunities
of detecting early the technical needs of each developing community and of advising government and to
consider and where it lies within its power to open the way to whatever innovation the situation called for”.
The Institution had taken upon itself the great social responsibility of ensuring promotion of professional
education among the youth of the country. This moulding of the youth would be the greatest responsibility
of the Institution. When India was entering upon its great industrial future, the status of the engineering
profession had become a matter of highest importance and it was only by Institution like this “that it would
be safeguarded and assured”.
Grant of the Royal Charter in September 1935
The Royal Charter of incorporation was granted to the Institution on September 9, 1935 during the
Presidency of Rai Bahadur B.P. Varma, by his Majesty The King – Emperor, George the Fifth. The grant
of Royal Charter in 1935 was an outstanding event in the history of the Indian professional bodies as it was
the first Royal Charter given to a body, which has its origin and function in India.
The Inter Disciplinary Coordination Committee realized that the Institution and its members have
significantly contributed to national growth; and this contribution should be appropriately documented
at the start of the Centenary Celebration, so that wider community could appreciate the efforts of the
Institution and its members. Accordingly it was decided that the members of the Institution of Engineers
be requested to write about the growth of engineering since the inception of the Institution, that is, last
100 years. Eminent personalities were identified and requested to compile and document achievements of
the last hundred years, which is being now published as a Special Volume of the ICC. These contributions
highlight engineering feat in different sectors as well as the contributions of members of the Institution of
Engineers (India). All papers were circulated to members of the ICC for their views and opinions. These
papers have been further peer reviewed to assure their authenticity and correctness.
Acknowledgement
I must place on record my grateful thanks to all the contributors who have shared their valuable insights about
the developments in the profession of engineering over the last 100 years. I also thankfully acknowledge the
cooperation received from the members of ICC who not only discussed the details but also wholeheartedly
supported the idea and reviewed the papers as they were received. This collective effort only could make it
possible to compile this volume in an authentic manner in one year time.
I would also like to acknowledge gratefully the support of Dr T M Gunaraja, President; Shri Narendra
Singh, President (Elect); Shri Sisir Kumar Banerjee, Immediate Past President; and Shri Navin Vasoya,
Past President for their support and encouragement. Shri Narendra Singh, President (Elect) personally
followed-up at every stage of publication to ensure timely publication of this informative volume. Major
Gen. (Dr.) S. Bhattacharya, VSM (Retd), Secretary and Director General was actively involved throughout
from the concept stage to give guidance and pursuing for timely publication.
I would also like to place on record my grateful thanks to the Technical department of The Institution of
Engineers (India) for their timely action and making this publication possible. I would like to specially
mention about the contribution of Dr. Nilajan Sengupta, Director (Technical); and Shri Tanmoy Chakaraborty,
Asst. Director (Technical) for their continuous involvement with coordinating designing and publication of
this Volume.
Members of ICC assure all readers that this publication presents an overall glimpse of major engineering
achievements over the last century since the Institution of Engineers was established. You will no doubt, be
a proud owner of this publication for any future reference and also be in a position to appreciate the efforts
and contributions of The Institution of Engineers (India) and its members in national development.
We wish all readers an informative and valuable reading and proud ownership of this Centenary Publication.

Mr Pradeep Chaturvedi
Consulting Editor
 Annual Technical Volume of

Interdisciplinary Coordination Committee

President Editor in Chief
Dr T M Gunaraja, FIE Dr G Ranganath, FIE
Chairman, CATE
Secretary and Director General Consulting Editor
Maj Gen (Dr) S Bhattacharya, VSM (Retd), FIE Mr Pradeep Chaturvedi, FIE
Chairman, ICC
Members of the Editorial Board
Mr Chandrashekhar G P Dessai, Mr Janak Raj Garg, Mr N Rao Nadella, Mr D V
Nagabhushan, Mr P R Natarajan, Dr (Ms) G Padmavathi, Mr B S Patel, Prof (Dr) Suresh
R, Dr G Rameshwar Rao, Mr B Brahma Reddy, Dr A K Shrivastava, Mr Jasmail Singh,
Mr Narendra Singh, Prof (Dr) Ms G Thilagavathi, Mr Sandeep B Vasava

Editorial Team
Technical Department, IEI
Mr N Sengupta, Dr S Ghosh, Mr K Sen, Mr T Chakraborty, Ms A Dutta, Mr Partha Mukhopadhyay,
Ms H Roy, Mr S Bagchi, Mr P Chakraborty, Ms P Nath, Mr P Mukhopadhyay, Mr S Misra

Publisher
Maj Gen (Dr) S Bhattacharya, VSM (Retd), FIE
Secretary and Director General for The Institution of Engineers (India)
Publication Office
The Institution of Engineers (India), 8 Gokhale Road, Kolkata 700020
Ph : 2223-8311 /14-16 / 33-34, Fax : (033) 2223-8345
website : www.ieindia.org, e-mail : [email protected]

The Institution of Engineers (India), 8 Gokhale Road, Kolkata 700020 as a body

accepts no responsibility for the statements made by individuals in the paper and
contents of papers published herein

The Institution of Engineers (India) subscribes to the Fair Copying Declaration of

the Royal Society. Reprints of any portion of the publication may be made provided
that reference thereto be quoted.

As per Bye-Law 118, copyright of each paper published in Institution Journals or

Proceedings in full or in abstract at its Centres shall lie with the Institution.

Printed at M/s Sailee Press Pvt. Ltd. 4A Manicktala Main Road, Kolkata 700 054
 Contents
Growth of Aerospace - Aeronautics in India –for Last 100 Years 9
Group Capt. (Retd.) Mr Praveen Khanna
Agricultural Engineering Developments since1700 (Begining) till Today 39
Dr Nutan Kumar Dash
Architectural Engineering 1920 to 2020- A Developmental Review 48
Dr Jitendra Singh
Chemical Engineering & Technology: Path Breaking Developments in the Last Hundred Years 58
Dr M P Sukumaran Nair
Growth and Contribution of Civil Engineering in India since 1920 73
Prof P K Sikdar
Development of Computerization in India right from the First Supercomputer to those being Developed Now 105
Mr Bharat S Patel
Electrical Engineering-Past, Present and Future 110
Prof S S Murthy
Electrical Engineering 100 Years 143
Mr Vijay Kumar Dutt
Transformation in the World of Telecommunication 155
Dr Tara Singh Kamal
Growth and Contribution of Environmental Engineering in India 163
Prof S K Singh
Development in Marine Engineering in Last Few Decades 170
Dr Brijendra K Saxena
Growth and Contribution of Mechanical Engineering in India – Since 1920 177
Prof P B Sharma
Materials Science and Engineering: 100 years of Development Retrospect 193
Dr N R Bandyopadhyay
Growth and Contribution of Mining Engineering in India since 1920 198
Mr R K Sachdev
Development in the field of Production Engineering: 1920 and Beyond 212
Prof (Dr) Deb Kumar Tripathy
Growth and Contribution of Textile Engineering in India since 1920 216
Mr Arunava Kundu
The Architects - Engineers Conundrum 220
Mr A P Mull
An Exhilarating Journey through India’s Fight against Disasters during the Last Century 225
Mr R K Bhandari
Engineering Education in India: Past, Present and Future 246
Mr Raghunath K Shevgaonkar
 Annual Technical Volume

Growth of Aerospace - Aeronautics in India

–for Last 100 Years

Group Capt. (Retd.) Mr Praveen Khanna

Former Principle Director, Air HQ, Ministry of Defence
Former Professor, Aerospace Engineering, Amity University, Noida
 [email protected]

BASIC DEFINITION
Aerospace Engineering is the science involved
with the Study, Design and Manufacturing of
air flight capable machines and the techniques
of operating aircraft, Space-vehicles and rockets
within the atmosphere and outside into the Space.
Aeronautical experts have generally now
identified the aspects of aeronautical, Science &
Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics, as heavier than air Powered object –on 17-Dec-
Aerospace Engineering. 1903 by Orville and Wilbur Wright and they are
accredited for Inventing, building and flying the
While the term originally referred solely to world’s first successful airplane, the Wright Flyer.
operating the aircraft, it has since been expanded
to include technology, business and other aspects Wilbur piloted the record flight lasting 59 seconds
related to aircraft. over a distance of 852 feet in North Carolina
beach.
The term aviation is sometimes used
interchangeably with aeronautics, although By the fall of 1905, the Wright brothers’
aeronautics includes lighter-than-air craft such experimental period ended. With their third
as airships, and includes ballistic vehicles while powered airplane, they then routinely made flights
aviation technically does not. of several minutes.
A significant part of aeronautical science deals On October 5, Wilbur made a spectacular flight in
with the motion and the way that it interacts with which he circled the field 30 times in 39 minutes
objects in motion in air & space, such as an aircraft, for a total distance of 24 1/2 miles. The Wrights
Missile, Rocket, their Structures, Aerodynamics, then had a practical airplane and patented their
Propulsion Systems, Flight Controls, Avionics, invention. Progressive research continued around
Aero / Nano / Composite Materials, Special the globe.
Manufacturing Techinques; etc. The First Airlines
First Flight DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-
Earlier attempts since 17th century onwards were Aktiengesellschaft I was the world’s first airline.
made to fly, but in vain. History of Aerospace It was founded on November 16, 1909, with
is identified as First Wright Brother’s Flight of government assistance and operated airships

Interdisciplinary Engineering 9
Annual Technical Volume

manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. to buy three planes, including a Bleriot monoplane
and Farman biplanes, which arrived in the Punjab
First Passenger Plane. There have been series
later that year.
of FIRST claims around the world, applying
different bench-marks, which are accepted within 1911 : 18-Feb-1911 the first commercial civil
those parameters. First Passenger plane flew on aviation flight took place in India between
10-Dec-1913. However, documented on 01-Jan- Allahabad and Naini, a distance of 6-miles when
1914, the world’s first scheduled passenger airline Henri Piquet carried 6500 mails on a Humber bi-
service took-off, operating between St. Petersburg plane. This is considered to be the world’s first
and Tampa, Florida, US. St. Petersburg-Tampa airmail service and the beginning of civil aviation
Airboat Line was a short-lived endeavor -only in India.
four months - but it paved the way for today’s
1930 : 10-Feb-1930, JRD Tata was awarded
daily transcontinental flights.
India’s first pilot’s licence, Pilot Licence No.1 by
In 1915, the first airliner (for commercial use) Federation. Aeronautique International signed by
was used by Elliot Air Service. The aircraft was Sir Victor Sasoon on behalf of the Aero Club of
a Curtiss JN-4, a small biplane which was used India and Burma.
mainly in World War-I as a trainer.
1932: JRD Tata launched India’s first scheduled
Rapid growth occured in US & Europe during the airline, Tata Airlines, by piloting the first flight
build-up and during World War-I. himself from Karachi to Mumbai via Ahmedabad
on a single-engine. Puss-Moth with a load of
Further impetus for in the field of aeronautics
airmail. Nevill Vintcent, a former Royal Air
continued for commercial & military airplanes &
Force pilot and JRD’s colleague, flew the plane
machines with associated systems developments
to Chennai via Bellary thus completing the flight.
taking place concurrently.
1932 : 08-Oct-1932, Royal Indian Airforce was
INDIA’S GROWTH & PROGRESS
Notified to be formed at Drigh Road, Karachi.
SINCE 1920 :
The Indian Air Force was established in British
Various independent agencies have been paving India as an auxiliary air force of the Royal Air
the progress of Aerospace in India, for example, Force with the enactment of the Indian Air Force
Civil-Airlines operations Public Sector & Private, Act 1932 on 8-Oct-1932 and adopted the Royal
manufacturing Industry, Aero-Research & Air Force uniforms, badges, brevets and insignia.
development, Indian Airforce.
1932: Urmila K Parikh becomes the first woman
These are discussed in different sections, to get a pilot’s licence when she is given an licence
organization-wise. by the Aero Club of India and Burma. She flew a
Mile-Stones of Aviation Growth & Maintenance Gipsy Moth aircraft.
by Indian Engineers.
Civil Aviation
The know-how to maintain these airplanes was
progressively transferred to Indian Engineers &
Technician, with initial phases of trainings abroad
with indigenous follow-up & OJTs.
1910. The first Indian, to have an airplane was
young Maharaja of Patiala, Bhupinder Singh, who
had a keen interest in aviation. Maharaja sent his
Chief Engineer to Europe for a study with orders JRD Tata -15 Oct1962

10 Interdisciplinary Engineering
 Annual Technical Volume

Urmila K Parikh near aero-plane, she flew in a

saree
Royal Air Force (UK) She got married to PD Sharma, also a pilot, when
she was just 16.
“My husband was the first Indian to get airmail
pilot’s license and flew between Karachi and Lahore.
My father-in-law was even more enthusiastic and
got me enrolled in the flying club. I knew I was
breaching a strictly male bastion but I must say the
men, they never made me feel out of place,”
Subsequent batches inducted before World War
II included Aspy Engineer, K K Majumdar,
Narendra, Daljit Singh, Henry Runganadhan,
RHD Singh, Baba Mehar Singh, S N Goyal,
Prithpal Singh and Arjan Singh.
1933: In its first year of operation, Tata Airlines
flies 160,000 miles, carries 155 passengers and
10.71 tonnes of mail. Tata Airlines launched its
longest domestic flight, Mumbai to Trivandrum
with a six-seater Miles-Merlin.
Indian Air Force
1945: India’s second domestic airline, Deccan
1933 : On 1 April 1933, the IAF commissioned Airways, was founded with 71% stake owned
its first squadron, No.1 Squadron, with four by the Nizam of Hyderabad, 29 per cent by Tata
Westland Wapiti biplanes and five Indian pilots. Sons. Deccan Airways was the first of a bunch
The Indian pilots were led by RAF Commanding of new airlines to serve domestically in India. It
officer Flight Lieutenant (later Air Vice Marshal) flew in the Hyderabad region, using a fleet of 12
Cecil Bouchier. Douglas DC-3s, wherein, first services begun in
July 1946.
The first five pilots commissioned into the IAF
were Harish Chandra Sircar, Subroto Mukerjee, 1946: Tata Airlines changed its name to Air India.
Bhupendra Singh, Aizad Baksh Awan and In 1947, Air India signed an agreement with the
Amarjeet Singh. Government of India to operate international
services under a new company called Air India
All of them were commissioned as Pilot Officers
International Ltd, established as a joint sector
in 1932 from RAF Cranwell. Subroto Mukerjee company with a capital of Rs 2 crore and a fleet
later went on to become the IAF’s first Chief of of three Lockheed constellation aircraft. The new
the Air Staff. name was inaugurated on 08-Mar-1948. Three

Interdisciplinary Engineering 11
Annual Technical Volume

Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways,

Himalayan Aviation, Kalinga Air Lines, Indian
National Airways, Air India, Air Services of India,
were merged to form the domestic national carrier.
Air India International took over the international
routes. Indian Airlines Corporation inherited a
large fleet of 74 DC-3 Dakotas, 12 Vikings, 3 DC-
4s and various smaller aircraft.
1960: India entered the jet age when Air India
began operating its first Boeing 707-437. It also
marked the year in which USA is first connected
to India by an Indian airliner.
1964: Indian Airline’s inducted first pure-jet as a
Caravelle aircraft.
1984: Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma, a
35-year-old Indian Air Force pilot becomes the
first Indian cosmonaut and the 138th man in
space; when he spent eight days in space aboard
USSR’s Salyut-7, with their team of cosmonauts.
1985: Captain Saudamini Deshmukh commanded
the first all-women crew flight on an Indian
months later on June 8, Air India International Airlines Fokker Friendship F-27 on the Calcutta-
inaugurated its international services with a Silchar route. She also commanded the first
weekly flight from Bombay to London via Cairo Boeing all-women crew flight on September 1989
and Geneva. The airline was nationalized in 1953. on the Mumbai-Goa sector.
1951: Prem Mathur becomes the first woman
commercial pilot. She flew planes owned by
Deccan Airways. She was offered the job at
the age of 38 where she became the first Indian
woman to fly a commercial plane.
During her career at Deccan Airways, she flew
high-profile people like Indira Gandhi, Lal
Bahadur Shastri and Lady Mountbatten.
Mathur wanted the full command of the cockpit
but was denied the same by Deccan Airways,
even after fulfilment of the required flying hours
by her, being a woman. Soon after, she moved to
Delhi where she became GD. Birla’s private jet
pilot. After that she joined Indian Airlines in 1953
and worked there for the rest of her career span.
1953: Indian Airlines and Air India International
were set up after legislation comes into force to
nationalize the entire airline industry in India.
Eight former independent domestic airlines;

12 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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1989: Indian Airlines became one of the earliest

airline in the world to induct the revolutionary
fly-by-wire A-320s made by France’s Airbus
Industrie into its fleet.
1990: East West Airlines became the first national
level private airline to operate in the country after
37 years, after the government decided to end
Indian Airlines’ monopoly over domestic civil
aviation.
Air India was commended in the Guinness Book
of World Records for the largest evacuation effort
by a civil, when it flew over 111,000 people from
Amman to Mumbai in 59 days, operating 488
flights just before the first Gulf War.
Capt Nivedita Bhasin of Indian Airlines at 26
became the youngest pilot in civil aviation history
to command a jet aircraft when she piloted IC-492
on the Bombay-Aurangabad-Udaipur sector on
01-Jan-1990. Bhasin also became the country’s
first woman check-pilot on an Airbus A300
aircraft.
1992: The Indian Air Force (IAF) decided to 1999: Flying Officer Gunjan Saxena, who was
recruit women pilots. It advertised for eight among the first women pilots in the IAF, who
vacancies and receives 20,000 applications. The became the first woman to fly in a Combat Zone
first pilots entered service in July 1994. when she took part in air operations during the
1997: A group of army aviation professionals got Kargil war.
together to set up Deccan Aviation, which soon 2003: Air Deccan, India’s first ever budget airline
grew to become India’s largest privately owned began operations on 25-August. The first flight
helicopter charter company. was from Bangalore to Mangalore.
1997-2003: Dr Kalpana Chawla an Indian- 2004: On August 26, Air Deccan turned into the
American astronaut, engineer, and the first woman first truly national budget carrier with the launch
of Indian descent to go to space. She first flew of its A320 flights on the Delhi – Bangalore route.
on Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997 as a mission
2007: After being granted permission from the
specialist and primary robotic--arm operator.
Government of India, on 15 July 2007, Indian
In 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew Airlines and Air India merged and started to
members who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia operate as a single entity. Post-merger the new
disaster when the spacecraft disintegrated airline was renamed as Air India. This new
during its re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. airline was also a member of the Star Alliance,
Kalpana Chawla was posthumously awarded the largest airline alliance. Presently it possesses
the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, and a fleet of 136 aircraft, excl subsidiaries, with 102
several streets, universities and institutions have destinations.
been named in her honor. The late astronaut is
2005-2019: Various private airlines emerged on
recognized as a national hero in India. She was in
Indian skies, with passenger traffic growing at
space for 336 hours during research mission.

Interdisciplinary Engineering 13
Annual Technical Volume

a steady pace over 18.8 % year-in-year basis. product design, reconfiguration and customization
Presently there are nearly 15–25 (approx) airlines with creativity, assured quality and value addition.
operating in India - including full-service,
India, also keen to strengthen its own aerospace
regional, low-cost, and charter airlines. However,
industry and has asked major weapon exporting
seven airlines capture nearly ~98% of the
countries to transfer technology to India, for last
domestic aviation market. Passenger traffic has
5-years under “Make in India” approach / concept.
grown from 60 million in 2011 to 139 million in
2018, an annual growth of 18.8%, with passenger Global Participation 2014-20
fill-rate touching 92.7 % up from 75.5 % in 2018, Rafale Fighters-Dassault Aviation, France.
and continues to grow rapidly. India as a matter of State Policy is working on
Airports have been added & existing ones have Make-in –India through Technology Transfer
been modernized & upgraded. (ToT), fully . Rafale deal for 36-aircraft is an
example in this direction.
Presently 486 total airports, airstrips, flying
schools and military bases are available in the Assorted Cooperation. The Indian manufacturing
country. sector is internationally competitive with
international quality standards, efficiency and
123 airports with scheduled commercial flights
manufacturing facilities. India is fast developing
including some with dual civilian and army use.
into a manufacturing hub for world corporations
34 international airports wanting to leverage the sector’s proven skills in
product design, reconfiguration and customisation
Indian skies have recorded an annual growth of
with creativity, assured quality and value addition.
over 41% in passenger traffic during in the last
two years (2017-19 Several global defence giants, including Europe’s
Airbus, America’s Lockheed Martin, Germany’s
The rapid growth of civil aviation has put
ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems and France’s
extreme pressure on the existing civil aviation
Naval Group have made offers to India. Airbus
infrastructure. As a result, the thrust is now on
helicopter division in India, says, “Airbus is
modernization of airports, communications,
planning to assemble its naval utility helicopters,
navigation and surveillance systems for air traffic
including the Panther, for both domestic and
management, radars and facilities for Maintenance
export markets (including India), these helicopters
Repair and Overhaul of aircraft and sub systems.
being used by 18-Navies including the US Coast
(Source: Aero India; undated)
Guard.”
Indian industry currently is on the threshold
Some Indian private players, such as Adani
of entering into a new era where it will assume
Defence and Aerospace, Tata Advanced Systems,
greater responsibility in making the nation self-
Bharat Forge and Mahindra and Mahindra, have
reliant in Defence Production. The resurgence of
India’s manufacturing sector has been remarkable.
The sector is making its presence felt abroad as
many Indian firms are becoming transnational
companies.
The Indian Aerospace manufacturing sector
is now internationally competitive with
international quality standards, efficiency and
manufacturing facilities. India is fast developing
into a manufacturing hub for world corporations However, large aerospace companies are joining
wanting to leverage the sector’s proven skills in to catapult Indian start-ups.

14 Interdisciplinary Engineering
 Annual Technical Volume

tied up with foreign defence manufacturing firms, Pawley obtained a large number of machine-tools
but these deals are yet to be finalised. and equipment from the United States.
Academia & Industry Cooperation. Recently, The Indian Government invested Rs 25 lakhs
Boeing launched a programme for Indian then, as it believed this to be a strategic imperative.
university students, faculty and early stage start- The decision by the government was primarily
ups to help innovators convert their ideas into motivated to boost British military hardware
viable business offerings that have the potential supplies in Asia to counter the increasing threat
to shape the future of aerospace and defence. posed by Imperial Japan during Second World
Boeing is reported to be committed to nurturing War.
innovation and skill development in India. They
1942: The Kingdom of Mysore nominated two
believe that a close partnership with India’s
directors, Air Marshal John Higgins was resident
academia and growing entrepreneurial ecosystem
director. The first aircraft built was a Harlow PC-
has the potential to reimagine the future of
5.
aerospace for the world.
02-Apr-1942, the government nationalized the
With Boeing University Innovation Leadership
company, when it had bought out the stakes of
Development (BUILD) programme, the joint
Seth Walchand Hirachand and other promoters
venture is creating a platform for students and
so that it could act freely. Initially, Mysore
entrepreneurs to not only benefit from Boeing vast
Kingdom declined to sell its stake in the company
experience and partner networks, but also develop
but yielded the management control over to the
their ideas into path-breaking innovations.
Indian Government.
Boeing has partnered with seven incubators: IIT
1943 : The Bangalore factory was handed over to
Delhi, IIT Gandhinagar, IIT Bombay, IIT Madras,
the United States Army Air Forces but still using
IISc Bangalore, T-Hub Hyderabad, and KIIT
Hindustan Aircraft management. The factory
Bhubaneshwar to select finalists for the BUILD
expanded rapidly and became the centre for major
boot camps.
overhaul and repair of American aircraft and was
HINDUSTAN AIRCRAFT LIMITED. known as the 84th Air Depot. The first aircraft to
be overhauled was a Consolidated PBY Catalina
A PSU with specialized programs & role in field
followed by all types of aircraft operated in India
of Aerospace & associated systems, including
and Burma.
Space systems
1945 : When returned to Indian control two years
1940 : HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft
later the factory had become one of the largest
Limited in Bangalore on 23-Dec-1940 by Seth
overhaul and repair organisations in the East. In
Walchand Hirachand who became Chairman of
the post- war re-organisation the company built
the company.
railway carriages as an interim activity.
The organisation and equipment for the factory at
1947 : After India gained independence in 1947,
Bangalore was set up by William D. Pawley of
the management of the company was passed over
the Intercontinental Aircraft Corporation of New
to the Government of India.
York, in partnership with Chinese Nationalist
government. 1957 : The company started manufacturing Bristol

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equipment. Its product track record consists of 12

types of aircraft from in-house R&D and 14 types
by licence production inclusive of 8 types of aero
engines and over 1000 items of aircraft system
equipment (avionics, mechanical, electrical).
1980s & 1990s, HAL’s operations saw a rapid
increase which resulted in the development
of new indigenous aircraft such as the HAL
Tejas and HAL Dhruv. HAL also developed an
advanced version of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-
21, known as MiG-21 Bison, which increased its
HAL Folland Gnat –Ajeet Mk-II life-span by more than 20 years. HAL has also
obtained several multimillion-dollar contracts
from leading international aerospace firms such
as Airbus, Boeing and Honeywell to manufacture
aircraft spare parts and engines.
HAL is a major partner for the Space programmes
of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
and manufactures structures and assemblies for
the launch vehicles and satellites at its dedicated
Aerospace Division in Bangalore.
HAL HF-24 –Marut- Inducted 1967

Siddeley Orpheus jet engines under licence at new

Aero-Engine factory at Bangalore.
1964 : Mergers & Expansions. Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 01-
Oct-1964, when Hindustan Aircraft Limited
joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF
Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur (at the
time manufacturing HS748 under licence) and the Cheetah Helicopter with Artoustee –IIIB Engine
group then recently set up to manufacture MiG-21
under licence, with its new factories planned in
Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad.
1970-1980. Though HAL was not used actively
for developing newer models of fighter jets,
except for the HF-24 Marut, the company played
a crucial role in modernisation of the Indian Air
Force.
HAL, being a Defence PSU, has been a major
player in the global aviation arena. It has built
up comprehensive skills in design, manufacture
and overhaul of fighters, trainers, helicopters,
transport aircraft, engines, avionics and system
Bristol Siddley Orpheous Engine for Gnat A/c

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All the production Divisions of HAL have ISO

9001-2000 accreditation and sixteen divisions
have ISO-14001-2004 environment management
system (EMS) certification. Six divisions have
also implemented the aerospace sector quality
management system requirements stated in ISO-
AS-9100 standard and obtained certification. Four
of these divisions have also obtained NADCAP
certification (National Aerospace Defence
MiG-21Fighter –HAL- Nasik Div-1970s
Contractors Accreditation programme –USA) for
special processes such as NDT, heat treatment,
welding etc.
2000s : In order to meet with the challenges in
the 21st Century, the Company had redefined its
mission as follows:
“To become a globally competitive aerospace
industry while working as an instrument for
achieving self-reliance in design, manufacture
MiG-21-Flying Fighter –HAL- Nasik and maintenance of aerospace equipment, Civil
Transport Aircraft, helicopter & missiles and
diversifying to related areas, managing the
business on commercial lines in a climate of
growing professional competence.”
HAL has successfully designed & developed the
Advanced Light Helicopter, which is currently
being operated by the Defence Services of India
and private Companies.
The Advanced Light Helicopter also has great
export potential.
Apart from licence production of front line
fighters like Su-30 MKI, HAL has also developed
Jaguar Fighter HAL- Bangaluru A/C Div

Advanced Light Helicopter –Dhruva HAL-

Mirage-2000- Overhaul-HAL A/c Div Helicopter Division, Bangaluru

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(Engineering & R&D). There are two Govt.

nominees in the Board and six independent
Directors.
2017: In March 2017, HAL Chairman and
Managing Director announced that the company
had finalised plans for an indigenisation drive.
The company plans to produce nearly 1,000
military helicopters, including Kamov 226,
LCH (Light Combat Helicopter) ALH (Advanced
Light Helicopter), and over 100 planes over the
next 10 years.
HAL would manufacture the Kamov 226T
helicopter under a joint venture agreement with
Russian defence manufacturers. The Kamov
226T will replace the country’s fleet of Cheetah
and Chetak helicopters. Over the next 5 years,
Su-30 MKI –Fighter Aircraft from HAL-Nasik
Division HAL will carry out major upgrade of almost the
entire fighter fleet of Indian Air Force including
Su-30MKI, Jaguars, Mirage and Hawk jets to
make them “more lethal”.
The company will also deliver 123 Tejas Light
Combat Aircraft to the IAF from 2018–19, at a
rate of 16 jets per year.
HAL has produced over 3550 aircraft, 3650 aero-
engines and overhauled around 8750 aircraft &
28400 engines besides manufacture / overhaul of
related accessories and avionics. The Company
IJT Prototype
has the requisite core competence base with a
the following products through design and demonstrated potential to become a global player.
development:-- HAL has 19 production divisions for manufacture
-- Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT) and overhaul of aircraft, helicopters, engine and
accessories. It has 9-R&D Centres to give a thrust
-- Light combat helicopter (LCH) to research & development.
-- Weaponization of Advanced Light Helicopter HAL’s major supplies / services are to Indian Air
(ALH) Force, Indian Navy, Indian Army, Coast Guard
-- Tejas-Light Combat Aircraft (Design by ADA) and Border Security Force. Transport aircraft
and Helicopters have been supplied to Airlines
2012, HAL was reportedly bogged down in the as well as State Governments. The Company has
details of production and has been slipping on its also achieved a foothold in export in more than
schedules. 20 countries, having demonstrated its quality and
2015 : On 1 April 2015, HAL reconstituted price competitiveness. HAL is a major partner for
its Board with CMD, Director (Operations), the Space Vehicle programmes of the Indian Space
Director (HR), Director (Finance) and Director Research Organisation. It has also diversified

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The Indian National Committee for Space

Ka-226-T Helicopter Research (INCOSPAR) was established under the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962,
with the urging of scientist Vikram Sarabhai
recognizing the need in space research.
INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969,[14]
also under the DAE.[15][16]
1972 : Government of India had setup a Space
Commission and the Department of Space
(DOS),[17] bringing ISRO under the DOS. The
establishment of ISRO thus institutionalized space
research activities in India.[18] It is managed by
the DOS.

HAL Light Combat Helicopter 1975 : ISRO built India’s first satellite, Aryabhata,
which was launched by the Soviet Union on
into the fields of industrial & marine gas turbine 19 April 1975.[20] It was named after the
business and real-time software business. mathematician Aryabhata.

HAL is now ranked 34th in the list of world’s 1980 : Rohini became the first satellite to be
top 100 defence companies. HAL continues placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle,
its growth with a sales turnover of Rs 19,705 SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other
Crores in FY 2019. It has doubled its turnover in rockets:
3 years (2016-17). It has declared profit growth The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
of 15% Y-on-Y basis, in 2019. The company has for launching satellites into polar orbits and
made supplies to almost all the major aerospace the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
companies in the World like Airbus, Boeing, IAI, (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary
IRKUT, Honeywell and Ruag etc. orbits. These rockets have launched numerous
INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH communications satellites and Earth observation
satellites. Satellite navigation systems like
ORGANISATION (ISRO)
GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed.
1972 : ISRO is the space agency of the Government
2008 : ISRO sent a lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan-1,
of India headquartered in the city of Bengaluru.
on 22 October 2008, which discovered lunar
Its vision is to “harness space technology for water in the form of ice.
national development while pursuing space
The details of various Satellites launched by
science research & planetary exploration”.[8]

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ISRO chronologically since 1975 are tabulated at

Annexure -1 to this document.
Comparison of Indian Carrier Rockets.
Design & development of Propulsion Systems for
the satellites formed an important & integral part
of the growth of ISRO & its functions. Important
carrier rocket systems designed, developed and
fabricated plus successfully utilized, since 1975
onwards are as shown below.
2013-14 : Mars Orbiter Mission (MoM) , on 05-
Nov-2013, which entered Mars orbit on 24-Sep-
2014, making India the first nation to succeed on
its maiden attempt to Mars, as well as the first
space agency in Asia to reach Mars orbit.
2016 : On 18-June ISRO launched twenty
satellites in a single vehicle.
PSLV C42 on the First Launch Pad
2017 : 15-Feb-2017, ISRO launched one hundred
and four satellites in a single rocket (PSLV-C37),
a world record.
ISRO launched its heaviest rocket,
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle-Mark
III (GSLV-Mk III), on 5 June 2017 and placed a
communications satellite GSAT-19 in orbit. With
this launch, ISRO became capable of launching
4-ton heavy satellites into GTO.

GSLV F11 at Second Launch Pad

Comparison of Indian carrier rockets.

Left to right:
SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk.III GSLV Mk III M1

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It is the first mission meant to explore the little-

explored Lunar south pole.
The main objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission
is to demonstrate ISRO’s ability to soft-land on
the lunar surface and operate a robotic rover on
the surface. Some of its scientific aims were to
conduct studies of lunar topography, mineralogy,
elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and
signatures of hydroxyl and water ice.
The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover,
was scheduled to land on the near side of the
Moon, in a south polar region at a latitude of
Chandrayan-1
about 70° south at approximately 1:50 am on 07-
Sep-2019.
However, at about 1:52 am IST, the lander
deviated from its intended trajectory starting from
an altitude of 2.1 kms (1.3 mi), and telemetry was
lost seconds before touchdown was expected.
ISRO, stated that the lander location had been
found, and “it must had been a hard landing”. The
mission’s orbiter used thermal imaging to locate
the lander, but ISRO yet to describe its potential
condition.
As of 10-Sep-2019, ongoing efforts are being
made by ISRO in hopes to restore communications
with Vikram.
Future plans include development of the Unified
Launch Vehicle, Small Satellite Launch Vehicle,
development of a reusable launch vehicle, human
spaceflight, a space station, interplanetary probes,
and a solar spacecraft mission.
DEFENCE RESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION
(DRDO)
Vikram lander mounted on top of the DRDO presently has a network of 52 Defence
Chandrayaan-2 orbiter
Laboratories in India which are deeply engaged in
2019 : Chandrayaan-2 is India’s second mission developing critical defence technologies covering
to the Moon, which includes an orbiter and various disciplines like aeronautics, armaments,
lander-rover module. electronics, combat vehicles, engineering system,
instrumentation, missiles, advanced computing
Chandrayaan-2 was launched on a Geosynchronous and simulation, special materials, naval systems,
Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-MkIII) life sciences, information systems and agriculture.
on 22-July-2019 at 2:43 pm IST.

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during 1965 and transfigured into a full-fledge

establishment called Chief Inspectorate of Aerial
Delivery Equipment (CIADE).
1968 : DGI establishment came under the fold of
DRDO in May 1968.
1969 : ADRDE was established in January 1969
at Agra. During the resurgence of DRDO in
1980, the activities of this establishment were
reviewed and ADRDE was brought under cover
of Directorate of Aeronautics.
The activities & products developed by ADRDE
included :--
Tejas (ADA) – Indigenous Light Combat Aircraft
• System design and development of
Primarily 5-Aero Cluster Laboratories are Aerodynamic Decelerators
working, directly in the field of Aerospace ,
namely , ADRDE, ADE, CABS, CEMILAC and o Parachute Aerodynamics.
GTRE. o Aerospace Textiles & its engineering
1991-2015 : Tejas is an Indian single-engine, • Design and Development of Aerial Delivery
delta wing, multirole light fighter designed by the Platform of up to 16T class.
Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and
• Design and Development of Aircraft Arrester
being manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics
Barrier Systems using hydraulics (water
Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force and
twister technology)
Indian Navy. It came from the Light Combat
Aircraft (LCA) programme, which began in the • Design and Development of Controlled Aerial
1980s to replace India’s ageing MiG-21 fighters. Delivery System
LCA will be both for IAF & Indian Navy have • Design and Development of Lighter-than-Air
been developed. Naval deck-based Catapult Systems including Floatation Systems.
assisted take-off & Landing
5-Aero Cluster Laboratories
ADRDE. Aerial Delivery Research &
Development Establishment Agra was started in
Kanpur during the later part of 1950s, consisting
of two Aerial Delivery Sections, namely - Chief
Inspectorate of Textiles & Clothing (CIT & C)
and Chief Inspectorate of General Stores (CIGS)
under the control of Director General of Inspection
(DGI).
Primarily, these two sections were responsible
for the indigenization of parachutes and related
equipment’s for paradropping of men and
materials.
1965 : These sections moved over to Agra

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Interdisciplinary Engineering 23
Annual Technical Volume

Abhyas

Rustam

Aeronautical Development Establishment,

Bangaluru. ADE is a key Aeronautical Systems
Design House involved in the design and
development of the state-of-the-art Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles and Aeronautical Systems and
technologies to meet the requirements of the Indian
Armed forces. Major R & D activities are in the
areas namely; Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, Flight
simulators, Pilotless target aircraft, Flight control
systems & Air Weapons ADE has developed the Lakshya-1
following systems since its inception.

24 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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CABS. Centre for Airborne Systems is a

laboratory of DRDO, has developed & providing
cost effective solutions for Airborne Surveillance
Systems for various services. Presently, this
lab as the nodal agency in DRDO is tasked to
develop complex airborne system of systems.
CABS acts as a system house and an integration
agency, utilizing all available infrastructure and
expertise in the country for development of
Airborne Electronic Force Multiplier (AEFM)
Systems focusing on systems such as Airborne
Early Warning and Control(AEW&C)/Airborne
Warning and Control System (AWACS),Design
and Development of Intelligence, Surveillance,
Lakshya-2 Target Acquisition& Reconnaissance (ISTAR)
and Multi Mission Maritime Aircraft (MMMA)
systems. CABS is also the development agency
of Identification Friend and Foe (IFF) for Tri-
services. International Aerospace Quality Group
(IAQG) accorded approval for Aerospace
Standard (AS9100D) certification for CABS as
an organization.

Micro Mini UAV

Air Borne Early Warning & Control System
Embraer -135 Platform

Pilot Mental Workload Assessment Analysis

Simulator

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Advanced Light Helicopter

CEMILAC. The airworthiness assurance

functions of CEMILAC cover the whole spectrum
of activities in Indian Military Aviation such as
Ab-initio Designs, Continued Airworthiness and Light Combat Helicopter
Production support, Certification of Systems
developed abroad, Indigenization and Unmanned
Air Vehicles. CEMILAC has also supported the
Design, Development and Certification of tyres
and tubes, bearings, ATF and Synthetic Aviation
Lubricants. In the process of encouraging
indigenization, more than 1900 indigenously
developed items have been accorded Type
Approval by CEMILAC. For facilitating the
development of these items, CEMILAC has also
accorded more than 190 Design Approvals to
design and development establishments.
CEMILAC has been associated for the
Airworthiness Approval of the following Systems. SARAS

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engine optimization studies mostly related to

development of advanced components and
systems such as transonic compressors, annular
combustors, high temperature turbines, catalytic
ignition systems, control systems etc.
Re-engineering of RD-9F engine, a candidate
power plant for the HF-24 aircraft was carried-out
in association with HAL. 1700 K Re-heat system
developed for Orpheus 703 engine.
1980s : GTRE proceeded to design and develop
the GTX series of engines with flat rating concept
which was successfully demonstrated.

GTRE. Gas Turbine Research Establishment is Developments :

one of the pioneering Research and Development 1989- 2009 :
Organizations under the Ministry of Defence,
Initial sanction for the development of GTX-35-
Government of India. The main charter of the
VS was given in 1989 and christened as KAVERI
Establishment is to design and develop gas-
engine in the first meeting of Aero Engine
turbine engines for military applications, besides
Development Board. Three full engines and two
carrying out advanced research work in the area
core engines were successfully tested to prove the
of gas-turbine sub-systems. In addition, the
concept.
Establishment is responsible for establishing the
requisite computational, prototype manufacturing With redesigned compressor, six full engines
and test facilities for components and full- and one core engine were built and successfully
scale engine development. The Establishment tested at altitude conditions and the performance
has a strong team of over 845 personnel drawn evaluated.
from science and engineering which includes The marine version of this engine for the Navy
aeronautics, mechanical, electronics, computer was conceived and the first prototype was
science, materials science, applied mathematics, successfully integrated and tested at Naval
etc. and support services. Dockyard, Visakhapatnam. 73 hours of Altitude
1959 : Gas Turbine Research Centre (GTRC) took Testing was conducted at Central Institute of
its birth at No.4 BRD Air Force Station, Kanpur Aviation Motors (CIAM), Russia in 2009-10 and
in 1959 with 8 Engineers / Scientists and about 20 the performance and operability of the engine were
Technicians.
First indigenously developed centrifugal type gas
turbine engine of 1000 kg thrust was tested in
1961.
1961 : GTRC was moved to Bangalore, brought
under the banner of DRDO, and was re-named as
Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) in
November 1961.
1970s. Reheat for Orpheus 703 Engine was type
certified as air-worthy in December 1973.
Series of research projects carried-out on Kaveri Engine

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Kaveri Core Engine -Kabini

verified. 57 hours of Flight Tests were completed

in IL-76 aircraft at Russia covering altitude up to
12 km and Mach No. 0.7 in 2010-11. About 3000
hours of testing completed at ground and altitude
conditions as on date.
BrahMos Aerospace A marvel for the Aviation and submarine-launched versions currently in
Armament missile systems. the testing phase. An air-launched variant of
It is a joint venture between the Russian BrahMos appeared in 2012. A hypersonic version
Federation’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya and India’s of the missile, BrahMos-II, is also presently under
Defence Research and Development Organisation development with a speed of Mach 7-8 to boost
(DRDO), who together have formed BrahMos aerial fast strike capability. It is expected to be
Aerospace. ready for testing by 2020.
1998-2012 : India wanted the BrahMos to be based on a mid-
range cruise missile like the P-700 Granit.
The BrahMos (designated PJ-10) is a medium-
range Ramjet Supersonic Cruise Missile that can Its propulsion is based on the Russian missile, and
be launched from submarine, ships, aircraft, or missile guidance has been developed by BrahMos
land. It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in Aerospace. The missile is expected to reach high
the world. It is based on the Russian P-800 Oniks degree of acceptance by the nations.
cruise missile and other similar sea-skimming 2016 : India became a member of the Missile
Russian cruise missile technology. The name Technology Control Regime (MTCR), India and
BrahMos is a portmanteau formed from the names Russia are now planning to jointly develop a new
of two rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the generation of Brahmos missiles with 600 km-plus
Moskva of Russia. range and an ability to hit protected targets with
It is the world’s fastest anti-ship cruise missile in pinpoint accuracy.
operation. The land-launched and ship-launched 2019 : India upgraded the missile with a new
versions are already in service, with the air range of 500 km.

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Annexure -1

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

The details of various Satellite Systems launched by ISRO, chronologically are as Tabulated below :--
Indian Satellites Key Features
Aryabhatta(19th April 1975) First Indian Satellite.
(Decay date: 11th February 1992) It was built to conduct experiments in X-ray
astronomy, aeronomics, and solar physics.
Bhaskara- I(7th June 1979) First Experimental Remote Sensing Earth
Observation Satellite.
(Decay date: 17th February 1989)
Carried Two TV cameras and Satellite Microwave
Radiometer (SAMIR).
Rohini Technology Payload(10th August 1979) Contained instruments to measure the
performance of the launch vehicle, SLV.
Rohini RS-1(18th July 1980) First Indian Satellite successfully launched by
indigenous launch vehicle SLV.
(Decay date: 20th May 1981)
Rohini RS-D1(31st May 1981) Carried a solid-state camera for remote sensing
applications.
(Decay date: 08th June 1981)
Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE) First Indian three-axis stabilized experimental
(19th June 1981) Geostationary communication satellite.
Used in various experiments including relay of
TV programmes and radio networking.
Bhaskara – II(20th November 1981) First Indian Satellite for Earth observation from
orbit.
(Decay date: 30th November 1991)
INSAT- 1A(Indian National Satellite) First operational multipurpose
(10th April 1982) communication and meteorology satellite.
Rohini RS-D2(17th April 1983) It was on a mission for 17 months.
(Decay date: 19th April 1990) It carried a smart sensor camera which captured
2500+ pictures.
Carrier twelve C and three S band transponders.
INSAT-1B(Indian National Satellite) Eleven C-band and two S-band transponders
provided nationwide TV and communications to
(30th August 1983) thousands of remote villages.
Provided a detailed weather and disaster-warning
service.
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-1) It conducted astrophysics, Earth Remote Sensing
(24th March 1987) and upper atmospheric monitoring experiments.
Conducted new and novel application-oriented
missions.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

IRS-1A(Indian Remote Sensing-1A) First remote sensing satellite.
(17th March 1988) It was launched to develop indigenous remote
sensing capability.
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-2) Carried remote sensing payload of German space
(13th July 1988) agency in addition to Gamma Ray Astronomy
payload.
INSAT- 1C(Indian National Satellite) Big Govt. agencies like All India Radio,
Doordarshan, Department of Space and Indian
(21st July 1988)
Meteorological Department were using its
services.
INSAT- 1D(Indian National Satellite) Launched for Communication & Meteorological
Observations
(12th June 1990)
IRS-1B(Indian Remote Sensing-1B) Improved version of IRS-1A.
(29th August 1991) First Remote Sensing Satellite by ISRO using
imagery generated by remote sensing technology.
INSAT- 2DT(Indian National Satellite) It was a communications Satellite,
(26th February 1992) earlier called as Arabsat-1C also known as
INSAT-2R.
Operated initially by Arabsat and then by ISRO.
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-C) Launched for conducting astrophysics, Earth
(20th May 1992) Remote Sensing and upper atmospheric
experiments.
(Decay date: 14th July 1992)
INSAT- 2A(Indian National Satellite) First Indian Multipurpose Satellite.
(10th July 1992) Launched for Communication, Meteorology and
Satellite based search and rescue.
INSAT- 2B(Indian National Satellite) Second satellite in INSAT-2 series.
(23th July 1993) Launched for Communication, Meteorology and
Satellite based search and rescue.
IRS-1E(Indian Remote Sensing) Also known as IRS-P1.
(20th September 1993) Indian Experimental Earth observation satellite.
Launched to develop earth imagery using
instruments carried on board.
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS-C2) Identical to SROSS-C.
(4th May 1994)
(Decay date: 12th July 2001)
IRS-P2(Indian Remote Sensing) Launched to provide spaceborne capability to
India in observing and managing the Natural
(15th October 1994)
Resources.
INSAT- 2C(Indian National Satellite) Updated version to improve communication
in remote areas like Northeast and Andaman &
(7th December 1995)
Nicobar Islands.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

IRS-1C(Indian Remote Sensing) Indian second generation Operational Remote
Sensing Satellite.
(29th December 1995)
IRS-P3(Indian Remote Sensing) Experimental Earth Observation Satellite.
(21st March 1996) Carries two remote sensing payloads, an X-ray
astronomy payload and a C-band transponder.
INSAT- 2D(Indian National Satellite) Identical to INSAT-2C.
(4th June 1997) Indian Satellite used for Communication.
IRS-1D(Indian Remote Sensing) Operational Remote Sensing Satellite.
(29th September 1997) Similar to IRS – 1C in terms of spatial resolution,
spectral bands, stereoscopic imaging, wide field
coverage and revisit capability.
INSAT- 2E(Indian National Satellite) Indian geostationary communications and
weather satellite.
(3rd April 1999)
Launched to provide communications to Asia and
Australia.
Oceansat-1 First Indian Satellite built specifically for Ocean
applications.
(IRS-P4)(26th May 1999)
Carried Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) and
a Multi-Frequency Scanning Microwave
Radiometer (MSMR).
INSAT-3B(Indian National Satellite) Indian Satellite used for multipurpose
communication like business communication,
(22nd March 2000)
developmental communication, and mobile
communication.
GSAT-1(GramSat-1) Experimental Communication Satellite for the
first developmental flight of Geosynchronous
(18th April 2001)
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
Technology Experiment Satellite (TES)(22nd Experimental Satellite to demonstrate and
October 2001) validate technologies such as attitude and orbit
control system, high-torque reaction wheels, new
reaction control system, etc.
INSAT-3C(Indian National Satellite) Launched to provide voice, video and digital data
services to Indian and neighboring countries.
(24th January 2002)
Kalpana-1 First Indian dedicated meteorological satellite.
(MetSat)(12th September 2002) Earlier known as MetSat-1 and renamed to
Kalpana-1 in memory of Kalpana Chawla.
INSAT-3A(Indian National Satellite) Multipurpose Geostationary satellite.
(10th April 2003) Launched for telecommunications, broadcasting,
meteorological and search & rescue operations.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

GSAT-2(GramSat-2) (08th May 2003) Experimental satellite for the second
developmental test flight of Geosynchronous
Satellite.
INSAT-3E(Indian National Satellite) Communication satellite to augment the existing
INSAT System.
(28th September 2003)
Resource Sat-1 (IRS-P6)(17th October 2003) Advanced Remote Sensing Satellite.
Intended to continue the remote sensing data
services and also enhance the data quality
provided by IRS-1C and IRS-1D.
GSAT-3(GramSat-3) (EduSat) First Indian Satellite built exclusively to serve the
educational sector.
(20th September 2004)
Launched to meet the demand for an interactive
satellite-based distance education system for the
country.
CartoSat-1(5th May 2005) A stereoscopic Earth Observation satellite.
The satellite covers the entire globe in 1867 orbits
on a 126-day cycle.
HamSat(5th May 2005) Micro satellite for providing amateur radio
satellite communications to the Indian as well as
the international radio operators.
INSAT-4A(Indian National Satellite) Advanced satellite for providing television,
telecommunication and broadcasting services.
(22nd December 2005)
INSAT-4C(Indian National Satellite) Indian Satellite used for communication.
(10th July 2006) It was based upon the I-2K satellites bus.
CartoSat-2(10th January 2007) Advanced remote sensing satellite carrying a
panchromatic camera capable of providing scene-
specific spot images.
Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) Indian Experimental Satellite intended to
(10th January 2007) demonstrate the technology of an orbiting
platform for performing experiments in micro
gravity conditions.
INSAT-4B(Indian National Satellite) Indian Satellite used for communication.
(12th March 2007) It is based upon the I-3K satellite bus.
INSAT-4CR(Indian National Satellite) Replacement satellite of INSAT-4C.
(2nd September 2007) It carried 12 high-power Ku-band transponders
designed to provide direct-to home (DTH)
television services.
CartoSat-2A(28th April 2008) Earth observation/remote sensing satellite.
An Indian Military Satellite which carries a
panchromatic (PAN) camera capable of capturing
black and white pictures in the visible region of
electromagnetic spectrum.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

IMS-1 (Third World Satellite– TWsat)(28th April First Indian Satellite to use ISRO’s Indian Mini
2008) Satellite.
Chandrayaan- 1(22nd October 2008) India’s first mission to moon.
This was a major boost as India researched and
developed its own technology to explore the
moon.
RISAT-2(Radar Imaging Satellite) Indian radar reconnaissance satellite.
(20th April 2009) Launched to monitor India’s borders and as part
of anti-infiltration and anti-terrorist operations.
ANUSAT(Anna University Satellite) Indian student research microsatellite.
(20th April 2009) It was designed, developed & integrated at
Aerospace Engineering, Madras Institute of
(Decay Date: 18th April 2012) Technology (MIT), Chromepet, Anna University.
Carries an amateur radio and technology
demonstration experiments.
Oceansat-2(IRS-P4)(23th September 2009) Launched to provide service continuity for
operational users of the Ocean Colour Monitor
(OCM) instrument on Oceansat-1.
GSAT-4(GramSat-4) Also known as HealthSat was an Experimental
Communication and Navigation Satellite.
(15th April 2010)
First Indian Satellite to employ ion propulsion.
CartoSat-2B(12th July 2010) An Earth observation satellite.
Carries a panchromatic (PAN) camera capable of
capturing black and white pictures in the visible
region of electromagnetic spectrum.
StudSat(Student Satellite) A CubeSat satellite designed by undergraduate
students across India.
(12th July 2010)
First Indian pico-satellite, a miniaturized satellite.
GSAT-5P /INSAT-4D(25th December 2010) Indian Satellite used for communication.
Intended to operate in geosynchronous orbit as a
replacement of INSAT-3E.
ResourceSat-2(20th April 2011) Provides the same services as RESOURCESAT-1.
Designed to provide data with enhanced
multispectral and spatial coverage.
Youthsat(20th April 2011) Indo-Russian scientific-educational artificial
satellite.
Built using ISRO’s Indian Mini Satellite-1 bus.
GSAT-8 / INSAT- 4G(21st May 2011) An Indian Satellite used for communication.
First satellite to carry GAGAN payload.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

GSAT-12(GramSat-12) Indian Communication Satellite.
(15th July 2011) It is considered to be a replacement of INSAT-3B.
Provides services like tele-education, tele-
medicine, disaster management support and
satellite internet access.
Megha- Tropiques(12th October 2011) Developed by ISRO and CNES, France.
Launched to study the water cycle in the tropical
atmosphere.
Jugnu(12th October 2011) A Remote Sensing CubeSat satellite.
Operated in IIT Kanpur and was built under the
guidance of Dr. N. S. Vyas.
A nanosatellite used to provide data for agriculture
and disaster monitoring.
SRMSat(Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Satellite) A Nano-satellite developed by SRM University.
(12th October 2011) Used to monitor Greenhouse gases in atmosphere.
RISAT-1(Radar Imaging Satellite) An Indian Remote Sensing Satellite.
(26th April 2012) It is the heaviest earth observation satellite
launched by India.
GSAT-10(GramSat-10) An Indian Satellite used for communication.
(28th September 2012) Second Indian Satellite to carry GAGAN payload.
SARAL(Satellite with ARGOS and ALTIKA) The Satellite with ARGOS and ALTIKA
(SARAL) is a joint Indo-French satellite mission.
(25th February 2013)
It performs altimetric measurements designed to
study ocean circulation and sea surface elevation.
IRNSS-1A(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite First navigational satellite in IRNSS series.
System) (1st July 2013) Launched to provide a system similar to GPS.
INSAT-3D(Indian National Satellite) Meteorological Satellite with advanced weather
monitoring payloads.
(26th July 2013)
GSAT-7(INSAT-4F) An Indian Military Satellite used for
communication.
(30th August 2013)
It will enable the navy to extend its blue water
capabilities and stop relying on foreign satellites
which provide communication services to its
ships.
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)(5th November Also known as Mangalyaan is India’s first Mars
2013) orbiter.
Launched to develop the technologies required for
designing, planning, management and operations
of an interplanetary mission.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

GSAT- 14(GramSat-14) An Indian Satellite used for communication.
(5th January 2014) Expected to replace the GSAT-3 satellite.
IRNSS- 1B(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite Launched to provide navigation, tracking and
System) mapping services.
(4th April 2014) The satellite is powered by two solar arrays,
which generate power up to 1,660 watts, and has
a life-time of ten years.
IRNSS-1C(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite Launched to provide navigation, tracking and
System) mapping services.
(16th October 2014) Contained two payloads: a navigation payload
and CDMA ranging payload in addition with a
laser retro-reflector.
GSAT-16(GramSat-16) An Indian Satellite used for communication.
(7th December 2014) Launched to increase the number of transponder
that in turn enhance the satellite-based
telecommunication, television, VSAT services in
India.
IRNSS-1D(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite The only satellite in the constellation slated to
System) provide navigational services.
(28th March 2015) The payloads of this satellite generate navigation
signals at L5 and S-band.
GSAT-6(GramSat-6) It is a multimedia communication satellite.
(27th August 2015) Provides a Satellite Digital Multimedia
Broadcasting (S-DMB) service.
Astrosat(28th September 2015) First Indian Satellite with multi-wavelength
space observatory.
It enables the simultaneous multi-wavelength
observations of various astronomical objects
with a single satellite.
GSAT-15(GramSat-15) Indian Satellite used for communication.
(11th November 2015) Launched to provide more bandwidth for Direct-
to-Home television and VSAT services.
IRNSS-1E(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite An Indian satellite which was launched to provide
System) (20th January 2016) navigational services.
IRNSS-1F(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite The sixth out of seven in the Indian Regional
System) (10th March 2016) Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) series of
satellites.
Provide navigational services.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

IRNSS-1G(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite The final satellite of the Indian Regional
System) (28th April 2016) Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) series of
satellites.
After its launch, Indian Govt. renamed IRNSS as
NAVIC (Navigation Indian Constellation).
Cartosat - 2C(22nd June 2016) An Indian Earth observation satellite.
Carries a panchromatic (PAN) camera.
Satellite is capable of capturing minute long
video of a fixed spot.
SathyabamaSat(22nd June 2016) Indian micro experimental satellite developed by
students and faculty of Sathyabama University,
Chennai.
Launched to collect data on greenhouse gases.
Swayam-1(22nd June 2016) A 1-U picosatellite developed by the students of
College of Engineering, Pune.
First Indian Satellite launched to demonstrate
passive attitude control.
INSAT-3DR(Indian National Satellite) An Indian weather satellite launched to provide
meteorological services.
(08th September 2016)
Pratham(26th September 2016) Indian ionospheric research satellite.
Launched to count electrons in the Earth’s
ionosphere.
PISat(PESIT Imaging Satellite) Remote sensing nanosatellite developed by PES
Institute of Technology, Bengaluru.
(26th September 2016)
Carries a camera which can capture images with
80-meter resolution.
ScatSat-1(Scatterometer Satellite-1) An Indian Miniature satellite developed by ISRO.
(26th September 2016) Launched to provide weather forecasting, cyclone
predictions and tracking services.
GSAT-18(GramSat-18) An Indian satellite used for communication.
(06th October 2016) Carried 24 C-band, 12 extended C-band and 12
Ku-band transponders.
ResourceSat-2A (07th December 2016) A Remote sensing satellite launched to continue
providing the remote sensing data services.
CartoSat-2D(15th February 2017) It is an Earth observation satellite.
It was launched with two other Indian
nanosatellites (INS-1A and INS-1B) and 101
nanosatellites from other countries.
With this launch, ISRO created a record of
launching the most number of satellites in one go.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

INS-1A (ISRO Nano Satellite 1A)(15th February An Indian Nanosatellite developed by ISRO.
2017) Launched to accompany bigger satellites on
PSLV.
Carried two payloads: Surface BRDF Radiometer
(SBR) and Single Event Upset Monitor (SEUM).
INS-1B (ISRO Nano Satellite 1B)(15th February An Indian Nanosatellite developed by ISRO.
2017) Launched to accompany bigger satellites on
PSLV.
Carries two payloads: Earth Exosphere Lyman
Alpha Analyzer (EELA) and Origami Camera
payload.
South Asia Satellite (GSAT-9)(05th May 2017) A communications and meteorology satellite.
It was operated by ISRO for South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
region.
GSAT-19(GSAT-19E) An Indian Satellite used for communication.
(05th June 2017) It carries a Geostationary Radiation Spectrometer
(GRASP) payload to monitor and study the nature
of charged particles.
NIUSat(Noorul Islam University Satellite) Launched by Noorul Islam Centre for Higher
Education (NICHE).
(23rd June 2017)
Used for agricultural applications and facilitate
higher education.
CartoSat-2E(23rd June 2017) An Earth observation satellite developed by
ISRO.
Launched to collect high-resolution, large-scale
images for use in urban planning, infrastructure
development, utilities planning, and traffic
management.
GSAT-17(GramSat-17) An Indian Satellite used for communication.
(29th June 2017) The heaviest satellite launched by ISRO.
IRNSS-1H(Indian Regional Navigation Satellite Launched to replace the failed IRNSS-1A and
System) (02nd September 2017) complete the constellation of navigation satellites.
CartoSat-2F(10th January 2018) An Earth observation satellite.
Almost same as previous CartoSat 2C, 2D & 2E
satellites.
MicroSat-TD(Microsatellite) An Earth observation satellite.
(10th January 2018) India’s 100th satellite in space.
Can take pictures at night.

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Indian Satellites Key Features

INS-1C (ISRO Nano Satellite 1C)(10th January An Indian Nanosatellite developed by ISRO.
2018) Launched to accompany bigger satellites on
PSLV.
Carries MMX-TD (Miniature Multi Spectral
Imager - Technology Demonstrator) payload.
GSAT-6A A Communications Satellite operated by ISRO.
(29th March 2018) Also provides a platform for developing various
technologies.
IRNSS-1I It’s an eighth navigation satellite to join the
IRNSS series.
(12th April 2018)
GSAT 29 It is a communication satellite developed by
ISRO
(1st Nov 2018)
The aim is to provide high-speed bandwidth to
VRC in rural areas.
HySIS (29th Nov 2018) HysIS is an earth observation satellite configured
around ISRO’s Mini Satellite-2 (IMS-2) bus.
It was launched to study the earth’s surface in
the visible, near infrared and shortwave infrared
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This
data will also be accessible to India's defence
forces.
ExseedSat-1 It is the India’s first privately built satellite along
with 63 other satellites.
(3rd Dec 2018)
GSAT-7A (19th Dec 2018) It is advanced military communications satellite
for Indian Air force.
Microsat-R (23rd Jan 2019) It was an earth observing satellite manufactured
by DRDO and launched by ISRO. It was meant
for military use.
KalamSAT-V (23rd Jan 2019) It was named after former Indian president Dr. A.
P. J. Abdul Kalam.
It was built by an Indian High school student
team. It is a Femto Satellite.
GSAT-31 (6th Feb 2019) It is a high throughout telecommunication.
EMISAT (1st Apr 2019) The satellite is intended for electromagnetic
spectrum measurement. It is an Indian
reconnaissance satellite.
Chandrayaan-2 (22nd July 2019) Chandrayaan-1. It is the India’s second lunar exploration mission
after
Cartosat-3 An Earth Observation satellite
(27th November 2019) Third generation agile advanced satellite having
high resolution imaging capability

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Agricultural Engineering Developments

since1700 (Begining) till Today

Dr Nutan Kumar Dash , FIE

Council Member, IEI
 [email protected]

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE elevator was introduced in 1842. Steam powered

Agricultural Engineering as a profession began tractors were introduced in 1868. Barbed wire
before we had machines, iron, steel or plastic. It was introduced in 1874. Horse and mule-drawn
began when people realized they could make their combines were introduced in 1880s and 90s.
lives easier by utilizing pieces of wood or stone. George Washington Carver pioneered new uses
The concept and basis of what we call agricultural of peanuts, sweet potatoes, and soybeans, thus
engineering originated when people realized the diversifying southern US agriculture. Big open-
need for a sustainable food supply, shelter, and the geared gas tractors came into use between 1910
need to protect themselves. As late as the 1700s and 1915.
people were still using oxen, mules, and horses
to provide power; seedbeds were prepared with State and Agricultural Societies bring Science
crude wooden plows; seeds were sown by hand; into Agriculture
cultivation was done with a handheld stick, and US witnessed a push by state and local agricultural
threshing was done with a flail or by walking societies to bring science into agriculture. The
cattle through the harvested grain. Many of the
emergence of schools willing to focus their
early labour saving devices and machines were
coursework on agriculture (at the expense of the
the inventions of creative individuals who saw a
need, had an idea and worked hard to transform classics) was a struggle. The school that became
the idea into reality. Penn State was no different.

Most of the examples of initial agricultural INTRODUCTION OF IC ENGINES IN

engineering interventions emerging are from the 1920
USA. The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney Driven by the enhancement of reliable,
in 1793, revolutionized the cotton industry in the
inexpensive internal-combustion engines
United States. The struggle to enhance seedbed
developed during First World War , farmers
preparation, starting with the ploughing of the
soil, with early efforts by Thomas Jefferson began to replace human, horse, mule, and oxen
(1794), Charles New Bold (1797) and finally a power with machines. By1920, gasoline-powered
patented iron plow by Jethro Wood in 1819. John tractors were supplanting horses, mules, and even
Deere began manufacturing steel plows in 1837. steam-powered tractors. In 1920, tractors could
The McCormick reaper in 1834 made harvesting be found on 3.7% of Pennsylvania farms. By
small grains cheaper and easier, and the grain 1930 that number rose to 15%.

Interdisciplinary Engineering 39
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FARM ELECTRIFICATION IN 1927 to Ames, in 1913 received his third B.S. degree in
agricultural engineering from Iowa State College
A big boost to farm electrification came in
of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. An interesting
1927, when the Pennsylvania Public Service
sidelight is that during his time at Iowa State
Commission ordered utilities to supply rural
College (ISC), he met Arthur W. Clyde, also a
customers at a monthly rate not to exceed 2%
student in agricultural engineering at ISC. Having
of the cost of installing the lines. Inexpensive
finished his degree program at ISC, Ralph was
electricity was brought to 22,000 farms over the
appointed Instructor in Agronomy at Penn State in
next five years.
1913. Two years later, in 1915, apparently seeking
ADVENT OF FORMAL TEACHING IN a promotion, Ralph left Penn State and returned
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING to Alabama Polytechnical Institute as professor of
agricultural engineering. Then in 1917, he rejoined
In 1892, in an effort to keep pace with advances
the Penn State faculty as Associate Professor
in agricultural technology and to address
of agronomy with a salary of $2,700 in 1919.
emerging topics like tillage, farm machinery,
Blasingame established the Department of Farm
and soil drainage a few faculty (there were no
Mechanics (Machinery), approved by the Board of
“Colleges”, “Schools” or “Departments” in those
Trustees on November 5, 1920, with the mission
days) recommended adding an engineer to the
of teaching only agriculture students. This new
College faculty. These early efforts lead to the
department was listed as a “service department”
development of several correspondence courses,
in the School of Agriculture. Throughout the
which dealt with many of these topics. By 1904, a
1920s, the Department offered courses to students
baccalaureate-level course entitled “Agricultural
in other majors, yet had no baccalaureate program
Engineering Lectures” had been developed and
of its own. During 1920 and 1930, there were
was mandated for all Penn State students. In
several efforts made by Blasingame to change the
1907, following the creation of the first “Schools”
name of the Department from “Farm Machinery”
the School of Agriculture organized and created
to “Agricultural Engineering”. Bezilla (1987)
the Department of Agronomy, the first of what
relates that when Blasingame requested that
was to become many departments. Also in 1907,
the Departmental name be changed to include
the American Society of Agricultural Engineers
the word “engineering”, Robert Sackett, Dean
(ASAE) was founded as colleges and universities
of the College of Engineering frowned upon
throughout the nation were seeing the need for
Agriculture’s attempt to undertake work in an area
engineering-related courses and research in areas
he considered more properly belonging to his own
related to agriculture. The Agronomy Department
sphere. In order to win approval from the Board
offered 12 courses in 1907, two of which had to do
of Trustees for the Department of Agricultural
with engineering on the farm. The first full-time
Engineering, Ralph Watts, Dean of the School
instructor in farm equipment was Ralph Upshaw
of Agriculture, had to secure the prior blessing
Blasingame an agricultural engineer, hired on
of Dean Sackett. By 1929, Blasingame reported
July 1, 1913 to teach courses in the Department
that Sackett was offering “sincere and determined
of Agronomy. Blasingame’s path to agricultural
opposition” to any expansion of the farm
engineering is interesting. Having grown up in
machinery department and would not have been
Russell County, Alabama, he attended Alabama
unhappy to see its demise. Only by convincing
Polytechnic Institute where he received his first
the College of Engineering’s administration
B.S. degree in civil engineering in 1908. Two
of the need for a baccalaureate curriculum in
years later, in 1910, he received his second B.S.
agricultural engineering was Dean Watts able to
degree in agricultural engineering and then moved
override this opposition. We are not told, what
to Cooper Industrial School in Cooper, as the
finally changed Dean Sackett’s mind. On March
school principal. Shortly thereafter, Ralph moved
27, 1930, the first curriculum in Agricultural

40 Interdisciplinary Engineering
 Annual Technical Volume

Engineering) was approved, the Department English College for servicemen. He organized
of Farm Machinery’s name was changed to the the North Atlantic section of ASAE in 1925.
Department of Agricultural Engineering, and He served ASAE as President from 1936 to
Ralph U. Blasingame was appointed the first Head 1937. Blasingame’s list of publications includes
of this new Department. Also during this decade- detailed treatises on “Home Electrification”,
long period of transition, the Department began to “Some New Objectives in Preparing College Men
grow and add more faculty and staff. On February for Industry”, and “Potato Production Employing
1, 1920 John Robert Haswell was appointed the Only Tractor Power”. After his retirement on
first Extension agricultural engineer. His schooling December 31, 1951, Ralph travelled to Puerto
started at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute. He Rico for the Agricultural Experiment State and
soon transferred to Cornell University, where contributed to their work on coffee. Soon after
he earned a B.S. degree in Civil Engineering in the first academic program was approved, ASAE
1909. The first ten years of his career was as a approved the creation of the Student Branch,
drainage engineer with the U.S. Department of with the first president being Ray Bressler. The
Agriculture. In 1920, Jack was appointed to the first faculty member hired to the new Agricultural
Extension staff in the College of Agriculture Engineering Department was Arthur W. Clyde
at Penn State. Haswell was a licensed P.E., had in 1931.Also during this period the first research
served as a captain in the Army Corps of Engineers project in Agricultural Engineering “A Study
in WWI, was a Fellow in ASAE, and a Tuscania of Power and Labour Factors Involved in Crop
Survivor. In 1927, Roy Johnson was appointed Production in Pennsylvania” was started.
as a technician to the Department. John Edward
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY -
Nicholas was appointed to the department faculty
in 1929. John earned his B.S. degree in mechanical COVERAGE
engineering from Lehigh University in 1915. He Agricultural technology refers to technology for
spent the next six years as a Mechanical Engineer the production of machines used on a farm to
for Bethlehem Steel Corp. In 1926 he earned his help with farming. Agricultural machines have
M.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from been designed for practically every stage of the
MIT and then taught thermodynamics at the agricultural process. They include machines for
University of Minnesota from 1926 to 1929 after tilling the soil, planting seeds, irrigating the land,
which he was appointed as an Associate Professor cultivating crops, protecting them from pests
of farm machinery at Penn State. Nicholas was and weeds, harvesting, threshing grain, livestock
a very productive faculty member with a focus feeding, and sorting and packaging the products.
in application of electricity to agriculture. He People who are trained to design agricultural
published over 100 papers and was a Fellow in machinery, equipment, and structures are known
ASAE. Blasingame provided leadership to the as agricultural engineers.
Department of Agricultural Engineering until his
The Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers was
retirement in 1951 following which Arthur W.
established in 1960. Agricultural Engineering,
Clyde was appointed acting head. Clyde led the
involves application of engineering to production,
department until Frank W. Peikert was appointed
processing, preservation and handling of food,
head of Agricultural Engineering on August 1,
feed and fibber. It also includes the transfer of
1954. Interestingly, one of Peikert’s first activities
engineering technology for the development and
was to hammer out the now famous memorandum
welfare of rural areas and masses. The major
of understanding establishing joint administration
fields of Agricultural Engineering are:
of the Department by both the Colleges of
Agriculture and Engineering. Ralph Blasingame • Farm Machinery and Power Engineering
was a very aggressive leader. In 1945, he taught • Soil and Water Engineering
at the American University of Shrivenham, an

Interdisciplinary Engineering 41
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• Processing, Dairy and Food Engineering the use of the extension service, of the various
research practices which have been sufficiently
• Energy & other Areas
tested for immediate adoption by the cultivators
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN of the region, and of those which require further
INDIA trials in the cultivators’ fields. The I.C.A.R. should
actively help the States in the preparation of these
Prior to the establishment of Indian Council
compendiums by a financial grant, if necessary. It
of Agricultural Research in 1930, agricultural
may be necessary to appoint a special officer in
research was carried out in the Indian Agricultural
each State for this purpose who will work under
Research Institute at Pusa and in the Research
the guidance of the Agricultural Commissioner.
Institute attached to the Departments of
Agriculture in the various States. The Royal Agricultural research is of a continuing nature.
Commission on Agriculture found that ‘there was New knowledge has to be gained, and fresh
lack of sufficiently close touch not only between problems tackled. With this object Dr Stewart
Pusa and the Provincial Departments but also had recommended the location of research
among the provincial departments themselves’. and experimental stations in carefully selected
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research was, centres for each crop soil-region. Unless these are
therefore, constituted in 1930, with the object of established, or existing research centres attended
promoting, guiding and coordinating agricultural to the attainment of these objectives, extension
research in India. work may soon come to a standstill. These stations
have been of great significance in the agricultural
In the course of research work a vast amount
development of Japan, and the establishment of
of valuable information has been obtained and
such stations should be an important concern of
striking results have been achieved particularly
the I.C.A.R. and the State Governments.
in the field of plant breeding, utilisation of
manures and fertilizers and plant protection.. The The functions of the I.C.A.R. in respect of
use of improved varieties of seed, pre-sowing promoting, guiding and coordinating research
treatment of seed, preparation and utilisation of work were masked to some extent by the growth
compost manures, utilisation of fertilisers, etc., of research by organisations over whose research
are some of the results of research which have programmes there is little control i.e. the States,
come to form a part of an enlightened cultivator’s the Commodity Committees and the Central
agricultural practice. But the lack of a properly Research Institutes. Research work in the States
trained extension service retarded this process. may be divided into two categories:
The recommendation of the Enquiry Committee i) Schemes sponsored by the I.C.A.R. by sharing
was that such a service should be available a portion of the cost, and
throughout the country within a defined period.
An extension service helps to connect the research ii) Schemes whose cost is borne entirely by the
centre with the farmer in the field—his problems States.
being brought to the research centre and new The latter category of schemes were never formally
discoveries being carried to him. The absence of examined or considered by the I.C.A.R. Its annual
such a service has had its effect on research work review was only related to the schemes, the cost
also, in that the demands on research workers of which it shared. The same was the case with the
were not sufficiently insistent or pressing and programmes of the Commodity Committees which
tended to be unrelated to the practical needs of were only sent to the I.C.A.R. for information.
the cultivator. Now that the foundation of an The Central Research Institutes also drew up their
extension service for India is being laid, it is of own programmes and the I.C.A.R. had no voice
the utmost importance that for each soil climate either in their framing or their modification. The
and region a compendium should be prepared, for I.C.A.R. was thus till lately largely confined to the

42 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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research programmes the cost of which it shared crops, like cotton, jute, sugarcane, oilseeds,
with the State Governments. No overall review coconuts, areca nuts, tobacco and do not include
or coordination of research under such conditions important food crops, like wheat, rice, pulses,
was possible. millets, potatoes, etc. At a later stage, it appeared
that instead of Commodity Committees, All-India
The idea underlying the Commodity Committees,
Institutes for research in respect of food crops
which were established between 1921 and 1949
should be started, and we have All-India Research
for cotton, jute, tobacco, sugarcane, oilseeds
Institutes for rice and potatoes. But, as already
and other commercial crops, was that quick
indicated, there is considerable doubt whether
results could be obtained if a Special Committee
crop-wise organisation of agricultural research
representing the interest of all stakeholders, e.g.,
is the best form of organisation; and in some
growers, traders, processors, etc., was entrusted
cases it is impossible. This may be illustrated
with the function of advancing research in that
by the example of the crops grown in the south-
commodity. These expectations have been
west corner of India. This area grows valuable
fulfilled, and some Committees have done good
crops, like pepper, cashew nuts, cardamoms,
work. But this exclusive attention to the problems
cloves, lemon-grass, etc. A single organisation for
of one crop led inevitably to the disregard of the
research and development of these crops would
problems of other crops grown in the same region.
lead to expeditious and coordinated action. Such
This type of crop-wise compartmentalisation
a regional body could well have delegated to
of research was discouraged by the Royal
itself the functions of the I.C.A.R. A commodity
Commission on Agriculture in 1929 and also
approach here is an impossibility.
later by Dr. Stewart in 1946. His opined that the
functions of Commodity Committees should be The Central Research Institutes are the I.A.R.I.
confined to problems which arise after a crop at Delhi, the Potato Research Institute at Patna,
is grown, e.g., processing, marketing, etc. but and the Rice Research Institute at Cuttack. The
so far as agricultural research is concerned, it I.A.R.I. carries out fundamental research but its
must comprise all crops grown on a soil, in the research programme is not coordinated by the
interest of all round agricultural development. I.C.A.R. with the research programme of the rest
To quote Dr Stewart “We must start with the soil of the country. Apart from this drawback, the
and consider it in relation to all the crops which I.A.R.I. provides the background against which
it is asked to grow, rather than starting from applied research is carried out over the rest of the
the opposite direction involved in the widely country.
accepted policy of sectionalising research into a
The same cannot be said of the Potato and Rice
series of crop compartments”. Another drawback
Research Institutes. Ordinarily there are no
of the commodity approach is that it involves
fundamental problems with respect to individual
earmarking of funds in respect of particular crops,
crops which are not-related to the ecological
and prevents a balanced allotment of finances,
conditions in which they are grown, and which
according to the needs of the different crops.
would, therefore, have an all-India application.
And this has actually happened as relatively
Even special work like cross-breeding with
much more work has been done on crops under
foreign varieties can be done in Research Stations,
Commodity Committees than on other crops like
all over the country, and Central Institutes for
millets, wheat and rice, though their importance
particular crops do not appear to have a special
in the national life is equally great, if not greater.
advantage. Their present usefulness lies in
A logical result of the acceptance of the enabling researchers of high standing to work in a
commodity idea would be to have Commodity well-equipped laboratory, a facility which a State
Committees for each important crop in India. But might not be able to afford on its own.
today they are confined only to the commercial

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The role of universities in promoting agricultural Institutes and research in areas to be focussed
research is a question which needs attention. upon universities so that the increased agricultural
Although universities are better suited for such demand can be met within specified time frame.
research, especially of the more fundamental As things stand today, the I.C.A.R. has to examine
type, they have not taken it up to any significant a large number of schemes, and whether some
extent in the past, perhaps owing to lack of funds regional decentralisation can probe to be effected.
and other causes. It is perplexing, that there is not
Also, it is suggest that the following measures
a single chair of genetics in any Indian university,
should be immediately adopted to remove some
although breeding of plants and animals, which
of the drawbacks which affect the Commodity
rests on the foundation of this science, has been
Committees and the organisation of the I.C.A.R.
in progress in the country for several decades.
It is important that whatever limitations there (a) All schemes of the Commodity Committees
may be in the way of the universities taking an should be subject to examination and scrutiny
appropriate part in agricultural research should by the same body which examines the
be removed and encouraged to make their research schemes pertaining to other crops
contribution to research. This will also in turn grown in that area. This would ordinarily
benefit the universities as their scientific staffs be the Standing Scientific Committees of
will be exposed to real problems which needs to the I.C.A.R. It would be the function of this
be solved for the betterment of the vast majority body to suggest what other schemes should be
of our people. undertaken on crops grown in the same region
to ensure all-round agricultural development
FUTURE GROWTH OF and a balanced growth of research in that area.
AGRICULTURE
(b) Wherever any research station is working
India is now embarking on a vast programme under any Commodity Committee, the same
of agricultural development with the ambitious staff should also carry out the research in
target of doubling agricultural production in the respect of other crops in the area.
next fifteen years. An extension service, which
will cover the whole country in a ten year period, (c) The I.C.A.R. should have authority to suggest
has been proposed to be constituted. The pace to a Commodity Committee what coordinated
of agricultural development largely depends on research in respect of other crops grown in
the speed with which solutions to the practical the region or rotational crops grown with the
problems of the cultivators are found by research main commodity should be undertaken by it.
workers. The whole organisation of agricultural In order that the I.C.A.R. may be enabled to
research in India will have to be geared to fulfil discharge its statutory duty of coordinating all
this task. agricultural research in the country, it should
be in a position:
The I.C.A.R. was constituted in 1929, and its
work was subsequently reviewed in 1937 by i) to review all research work done in
Member, High Level Committee, Sir John Russell the country. All research programmes,
and some of its aspects in 1946 by Member, High- whether of the Commodity Committees,
Level Committee, Dr. Stewart. It is felt that the State Governments, or Central Institutes,
stage has now been reached when a High Level should be sent to this body for scrutiny
Committee should examine the entire functioning and approval. Appropriate dates could
of the organisation of research in India, and, be specified for the receipt of these
in particular, purpose changes that should be programmes, so that all programmes
brought about in the functioning of the existing are received at a time and considered
Commodity Committees and Central Research together;

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ii) to undertake a detailed examination of employed in the projects sponsored by all India
all research programmes received. The organisations, such as the I.C.A.R. or Commodity
I.C.A.R. today tries to discharge this duty Committees, suffer from the handicap that their
through Scientific Committees, which tenure is temporary as the schemes on which
meet for a few days just before the annual they work are sanctioned for limited periods.
meeting of the Advisory Board and Although it may be argued that a research worker
the Governing Body. Such a procedure is actually seldom thrown out of employment, the
does not permit a detailed and proper feeling of insecurity is always there. This needs
examination. It is suggested that these to be removed and the research services brought
bodies should meet more frequently, and more in line with other permanent services under
at least twice a year, once for examining the Government. As far as the human element in
the Schemes received by the I.C.A.R. and research is concerned, the important pre-requisites
once for assessing their progress. These for the production of satisfactory results are
meetings should allow sufficient time for stability of service and congenial conditions of
a proper examination of these schemes; work and proper guidance and direction.
iii) to take an overall view of research in the Now in India, agricultural engineers are
country as a whole, assess the result of instrumental in the context of agricultural
the past years’ working and indicate the production, processing and the management of
direction of future research. natural resources. Their specialties include power
systems and machinery design; structures and
iv) the Research Board which has been
environmental science; and food and bioprocess
recently constituted by the ICAR is
engineering. They perform tasks such as planning,
expected to perform this function. It
supervising, and managing the building of dairy
must consist cf top-ranking agricultural
effluent schemes, irrigation, drainage, and flood
scientists in the country on whom would
and water control systems. They develop ways
fall the ultimate responsibility of guiding
to conserve soil and water and to improve the
and coordinating research in the country;
processing of agricultural products. In addition,
v) to initiate research into utilisation of they may perform environmental impact
agricultural products which today go to assessments and interpret research results.
waste. Such utilisation has an important
bearing on the agricultural economy and AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND
no work in this direction has so far been TRAINING
done. The ability of the extension service to appreciate
In connection with the research programmes in the the difficulties of the farmers and to render
States, it is proposed to associate representatives effective assistance in resolving them are factors
of progressive cultivators, traders and processors which will largely contribute to the success of
with the drawing up of annual research the agricultural programme. The extension staffs,
programmes and their evaluation. Though many particularly at the village and tehsil/taluka level,
of the problems of cultivators will be brought up have to be properly trained and equipped for
by the extension service, such association will this work. Provision of adequate teaching and
pave the way for incorporating relevant problems training facilities for these staff is an important
faced by cultivations into research programs. aspect of agricultural education. Another equally
important but broader aspect is the education of
The uncertain terms of employment of the research the cultivators, so that they may practice scientific
workers influences the quality and quantity of the agriculture.
work done. In this respect the research workers

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The main defect of the extension work carried out of the Ford Foundation. The training period at
hitherto has been its relatively greater reliance on these centres is only six months, as ordinarily the
propaganda rather than on actual demonstration trainees have a previous training in an agricultural
to the cultivator under actual field conditions. school or knowledge of practical agriculture.
This is largely due to insufficient stress being
There are now 30 Agricultural Engineering
laid in agricultural institutions on practical work
Colleges turning out annually about 2000
and on the correlation of practice with theory.
graduates, a large proportion of them are employed
The complaint that students from agricultural
by the Agricultural Departments for extension,
institutions prefer jobs to private agriculture
research and educational work.
largely arises from this drawback. A trainee must
be moulded physically and mentally into the In late 50s and early 60s imported tractors were
practice of the ‘dirty hands’ method, before he can in use in Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana etc.
be expected to demonstrate it successfully in the when green revolution was announced by Pandit
field, or practice it himself in his own cultivation. Jawaharlal Nehru, the then Prime Minister of
It is recommended to adopt the Manjira pattern of India. After which in late 60s and early 70s
two year schools in the Bombay State as the best imported tractor were in use in other states in
for ensuring that this background is sufficiently India when Sh. Lal Bahadur Sastri was the Prime
emphasised. These are boarding schools, and Minister of India.
every item of work on the farm where the school The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
is located has to be done by the students; servants GoI at centre and Directorate of Agriculture and
are allowed on the farm only during the vacation Food Production, at state was doing extension works
period. The schools have the additional advantage in liaison with State Agricultural Universities in
of being less costly and of enabling the student to collaboration with foreign countries. Agricultural
supplement his income, during the school period. Engineering was new branch of engineering
They supply village-level workers, and also offer at that time, which was combination of Civil,
agricultural training to sons of cultivators. Their Mechanical and Electrical Engineering as applied
‘drawback’ is that a student passing out from such technologies for introducing mechanisation in
a school is not able to prosecute his studies further the field of Agriculture to make the effort of the
in an agricultural college. This handicap should farmers easy.
be removed, by extending the course by one year
for those who want to prosecute their studies During late 70s and 80s innovative irrigation,
further. This may necessitate a special admission that is micro irrigation, was introduced to
examination for them by the agricultural college. raise productivity of various commercial value
crops. Also at that time it was thought of food
All village-level workers are trained either at processing industries to comes up in a bigger way
agricultural schools, or in special training centres. with marketing facilities through Co-operative
The total number of schools in the country is 38 and departments of centre and various states like
ten more will be started during the Plan period. The Regulatory Market Committee (RMC), Krishak
training period in the schools generally extends Bazaar, Mandi’s etc.
from two to three years. It is recommended that
all existing schools should be converted into the In early 90s combine harvester and other
Bombay type of school as early as possible. As the innovative machineries were in use at farms of
full requirements of the village-level staff cannot Agriculture.
be met by the existing schools, and a large number From 2000 onwards, vigorous advanced
of village level workers are immediately required developments have taken place in India to
for manning the Community Projects. 30 special make agriculture practices easy from tillage
centres have been organised through the help to processing, value addition and marketing;

46 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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productivity increases coming with the help of other nationalised banks, Industries, Central and
computers, IT, electronic devices etc. State Govt. Departments, Research Institutes for
refreshing the knowledge and introduction of
Second IARI, PUSA was established during
new innovative technologies with solving various
the year 2015 at Samastipur, Jharkhand for
problems on policy issues in India Government
Agricultural developments in Eastern India.
of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Presently, Sh. Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of Welfare has already issued one notification vide
India, has given one slogan to double the income their number-F.No-13-1/2018,M&T(I&P), Date-
of farmers during 2022. The experts, scientists, 14 September 2018 that involvement of The
engineers, researchers, inline technocrats are Institution of Engineers (India) in the information,
already in process of working to give some more Education and Communication programmes
result oriented output which will create impact on of the crop residue Management Scheme and
it. their professional experience may be taken in
Beside these, in 10 point program of Prime organising the activities of the Information,
Minister of India, micro irrigation is placed at Education and Communication
6th point for innovative development in farmers’ CONCLUSION
field to enhance productivity with limited area of
production for commercial crops. Agricultural Engineering is the area of engineering
concerned with the design, construction and
Now during 2019-20 in the budget speech of improvement of farming equipment and
Finance Minister, GoI, has announced to give machinery. Agricultural engineers integrate
more stress on Processing and Value addition technology with farming. For example, they
Industries of Agriculture, Horticulture sectors to design new and improved farming equipment
raise the income of farmers in India. that may work more efficiently, or perform new
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING tasks. The Industrial Revolution led to advances
DIVISION OF IEI in agricultural technology that greatly increased
food production allowing large numbers of
During the year 1975 the Agricultural Engineering people to pursue other types of work. Agricultural
Division was started in The Institution of technology is among the most revolutionary and
Engineers (India). Since 1998 – 1999 onwards impactful areas of modern technology, driven by
the topic and Sub topics of the journal that the fundamental need for food and for feeding an
is thrust area was approved by Committee of ever-growing population. It has opened an era in
Advancement of Technology in Engineering which powered machinery does the work formerly
(CATE), subsequently revised the same during performed by people and animals (such as oxen
2017 – 2018 by CATE and continuing for future and horses). These machines have massively
development of Agriculture Engineering in India. increased farm output and dramatically changed
Agricultural Engineering Division of The the way people are employed and produce food
Institution of Engineers (India) is conducting worldwide. A well-known example of agricultural
Seminars, Symposiums, Paper meetings, Popular machinery is the tractor. Currently, mechanized
lectures, Workshops, Brain Storming Sessions, agriculture also involves the use of combine
National and International Conferences in India and harvesters, unmanned vehicles, drone camera,
abroad to help GoI, ICAR, IITs, NITs, NABARD, Robots, airplanes and helicopters etc.

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Architectural Engineering 1920 to 2020-

A Developmental Review

Dr Jitendra Singh
Professor, Architecture & Planning, Amity School of Architecture and Planning (ASAP), Jaipur
 [email protected]

PREFACE such as the forts and palaces. In the later period

with change in the administration system the
Indian Architectural backdrop is very old and
buildings of administrative nature started taking
glorious. The records are available dating about
the priority. Public residences and apartments
3000 years old. The buildings built in different
came up much later.
phases had the impact of the socio political and
climatic scenario of the country at that time. The During the East India Government period there
remains available of the buildings of early phases was emphasis on extraction of resources for
are of religious nature and they showcase the exports as such lot of industries were built along
development of the architectural, planning and with the rail infrastructure and storage houses. It
engineering expertise of the period. The buildings was during the later part of the British rule in India
are really proof of the overall development of the and to show their power, grand structures related
time and are rightly known as the mirror of the to governance such as New Capital at Delhi and
age of development. A review of development of Patna were developed. Most of the structures in
or past is rightly reflected in the settlements of the pre-Independence era were designed under the
Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Taxshila and Nalanda. British expertise though built under supervision
These structures rightly display the town planning and by Indians largely with local materials. It
and engineering skills of the builders. The was in the post independence period that the
engineers and scientist remain amazed when they typology of the structures suddenly changed due
review these sustainable buildings and settlements to the changed system of governance. Though
developed based on the concepts of modern day initially the buildings were for de-centralized
planning. governance, gradually the public convenience
and housing started getting importance in the
With this glorified history of architecture and
government policies and the structure typology
background knowledge, when one starts looking
changed. By the time India got independence,
at the development in architectural engineering
the education system, especially technical and
a gradual change from low rise structures to the
medical education started by British was in
multistoried buildings is noticed. With passage of
infancy, it got importance in the National Plans
time, change of the governance of the states, the
and sudden impetus was given. Today we have
building typology also changed. While the initial
fully developed education system in India that
buildings found in India were largely for religious
is comparable to the best in the world and taking
purposes such as temples. It slowly changed to
care of the requirements of the world especially in
structures for war and protection from enemy
the technical and medical education.

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PRE-INDEPENDENCE ERA centralized systems of power generation, water

supply, and irrigation were established, and the
India was under British rule before the
most significant development in colonial cities
Independence in 1947. The British brought
has been (5) the creation of a sanitary urban
many of the developmental skills, material and
environment by installation of modern sanitation
technology with them. In the last 50 years of technologies and introduction of several important
their rule over the country, they were trying to sanitation related innovations in India.
consolidate and strengthen their administration.
As such most of the buildings built were of The British, in the later phase of their rule in
largely for administration and related activities. India, established Industrial towns. A village
named Sakshi (present Jamshedpur) became the
The Indian economy was also improving and
site of Tata Iron and Steel Works (1907), Jharia
the privileged ones started constructing their
Coal field and Dhanbad (1910) rich in coal and
estates and havelies to show their prosperity and
iron ores and Mysore iron works were established
proximity to the rulers.
in Bhadravati (near Shimoga) in 1918 to tap the
The East India Company landed on the Kolkata minerals required for the Industrial Revolution.
port and established their base there. The first New Delhi designed by Edwin Lutyen’s was
settlements that grew were the Ports of Kolkata, planned as a totally independent city. The
Mumbai, Madras and other towns on the trade highlight of Lutyen’s plan was the centerline
routes to facilitate bulk transportation of the raw and the axial planning and a landscaped centre
material to their factories. Initially these port with monumental buildings such as Viceroy’s
towns were the centre of power and were known Palace (present Rashtrapati Bhavan), Secretariat
as the Presidency Towns. Latter focus shifted from buildings, Parliament, and Courts. The new
Calcutta to Delhi in 1911. The weather of the port city with broad, straight streets had sprawling
towns was not conducive to the British as such mansions built in the middle of large compounds
they also started developing a few new cities as that truly reflected the the gandure.
hill stations such as Shimla, Nainital, Mussoorie The master plan of New Patna was done by J.F.
etc. There they developed their protected Munnings in 1920. The plan was developed
residences and clubs and other similar facilities following the contours of the old bed of Son
for their recreation. Capitals like New Delhi and River and ‘the Gangetic floods’, existing roads
Patna had substantial administrative areas. Towns and railway lines ‘considering the necessities of
grew into cities at the nodal points on transport modern systems of transport’. The Government
and communication. The urban fabrics of existing House and the Secretariat were placed at opposite
Indian cities also started changing substantially. ends of a long axis. Other public buildings, market,
and the railway station were located between the
The key features of the colonial architecture and
new and the old cities. The large residential plots
planning were (1) the sitting of cities reflecting
were arranged in double rows, with service roads
colonial ideology and facilitating movement of
between them. The roundabouts were fenced and
resources extracted (2) the planning was a direct shrubs were planted within, along with modern
import of European models of town planning and amenities such as sewer, water, light mains, and
represented spatial configurations prevalent in telegraph-lines laid along the roads.
the respective home country, (3) transportation
infrastructure, particularly the railway network, POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA
was developed on a gargantuan scale since India, after independence, decided to plan and
nodes and modes of transportation were of vital guide its development through a system of Five
importance towards exploitation of resources, (4) Year Plans. The major part of the democratic

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Master Plan of Lutyen’s Delhi

Master Pan of New Patna

system was to decentralize the governance. In wide roads, gardens and parks and clearly indicate
the process all the states of the country were the impact of the origin of the designers.
re-organized and some new created. Orissa
Before these new capitals could develop, a young
was given status of a state and Chandigarh was
and dynamic entrepreneur M S Oberoi, with his
decided to be the new capital of states of Haryana
experience of managing the Cecil Hotel Shimla,
and Punjab. These capital towns were designed by
built the first luxury Five Star Hotel at New Delhi
experts invited from abroad. While Chandigarh
during 1950-52. The hotel has 315 double rooms
was designed by Le Corbusier, Bhubaneswar was
while 22 rooms are luxury suites. With passage
designed by German architect Otto Königsberger.
of time and development of tourism, country saw
Both the capital complexes were designed with
many more hotels of all categories.

50 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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The Hotel Oberoi New Delhi

Chandigarh Le Corbusier also designed the Capitol Complex

French architect Le Corbusier was invited to buildings of Chandigarh 1951-62. These exposed
plan the Capital and design important buildings cement concrete buildings designed by Corbusier
of Chandigarh. Chandigarh was developed as a were the buildings that changed the architectural
garden city with self contained sectors as module vocabulary of the country and lead to a phase
of planning. Due emphasis was given on the layout of exposed concrete as well as exposed brick
of road and segregation of traffic. A separate sector buildings. The emphasis given by Corbu on the
was planned for main marketing while day to day building skyline also became an element to be
shopping facilities were available in each sector. followed and adopted in the major buildings built
with inspirations from the works of the Master.
This was the phase when Assembly buildings
were planned for the new capitals of many Indian
states.
It may be noticed that during the initial phase,
after independence, emphasis was given on the

Master Plan, Chandigarh

The Vidhan Saudha (Assembly) Bangalore was

also built in 1952-67 and is contemporary to the
development of Capitol Complex Chandigarh. The
building attempted to follow the rich architectural
Assembly Building Chandigarh style of the State.

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buildings for the administration and offices to

house the personnel to manage and develop India.
The centre of development had always been New
Delhi. The task of planning gradually shifted in
the hands of Indian architects and planners. Delhi
being capital of the country was the first city to
get a proper development plan. First Master Plan
of Delhi was prepared by the Delhi Development
Authority (established in 1957 under DDA Act)
and first promulgated in 1962. The Indian team
In the year 1954 the Orissa Secretariat was built in was lead by Ar Shivnath Prasad under the Ford
the new capital of Orissa known as Bhubaneswar. Foundation team lead by Ar Albert Mayer.
The city was planned by the German architect Otto Chankyapuri was designated as the location of the
Konigsberger embassies and consulates in India. Chankyapuri
was developed as a self-contained sector with
commercial, entertainment and related facilities.

The Independent India needed a new building to

house her apex bank-The Reserve Bank of India
and a new building was built in 1952 in Kolkata.

It was in Chanakyapuri that Ar Shivnath Prasad

designed a fully exposed RCC building named as
The Supreme Court of India was also built in 1952 Chanakya Cinema Hall in 1969, a structure that
in New Delhi. GB Deolalikar, the first India Chief was unusual till this time.
Architect of the Central PWD had the honor of It was in the same year that he also designed the
designing this building. famous Sri Ram Centre of Arts at New Delhi.

52 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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Nehru Centre, Mumbai houses a Planetarium,

1000 capacity auditorium, experimental theatre,
art galleries, library and research centers.
The Planetarium was the first building to be
commissioned in 1977. Other buildings came later.
This cylindrical structure and white dome spectacle
is a delight to all stargazers and space lovers. The
building was designed by one of India’s prominent
A new building to House NDMC was built during architects, J.M. Kadri and is an architectural and
1965-83. This was again a new iconic style for structural marvel.
housing the offices of NDMC. This 22 story RCC
building, tallest of its time in Delhi shows the
structural marvel of Ar Kuldip Singh Er Mahendra
Raj duo.

Hall of Nations was inaugurated in 1972 to mark

the silver jubilee of freedom of India and showcases
the progress and development of the Country in
the post-independence era. Hall of Nations and
Industries, the building designed by team of Ar Raj
Land prices started soaring in Mumbai the financial
Rewal and Er Mehendra Raj was constructed in cast
capital of India. It was during the year 1974 that
in-situ concrete and used a tessellating triangular
Ar Charles Correa built a multistoried apartment
structure to form a capped pyramid. This was the
building in Mumbai. This 27 floor tall building
largest column free space of the time and clearly
is a classic example of a low energy apartment
shows the mastery of Indian Architects and the
having cross ventilation and view to all apartments
Engineers. This was the most prominent building
in the building. This building was a shift from
of Pragati Maidan the location of Industries fairs
administrative and commercial projects of the era
in New Delhi.
and became an iconic building of the town.

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A new IIT was established at Kanpur. Ar AP

Kanvinde who gave a new direction and philosophy
of design of educational campuses in exposed brick
and concrete construction, a legacy carried forward
The financial Capital Mumbai was late in building from the master builder Corbu.
its Legislative assembly and it was inaugurated in
1981. The Circular domed portion houses the two
halls for the two houses and a central hall for the
joint sessions. The honeycombed building backdrop
has 21 floor and houses the offices. It is a centrally
air-conditioned building

India stared promoting games and was chosen as

venue for the 1982 Asian Games at Delhi. Various
sports facilities, hotels, stadiums and residential
facilities for the sports person were built and
completed in 1982. The residential facilities for the
The University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee) was players knows as sports village was designed by
chosen a centre for establishment of a Regional Ar Raj Rewal as a high density low rise pedestrian
Computing Facility as Regional Computer Center. friendly campus housing 500 residential buildings.
The Building designed by Prof NK Tayal and Prof
Jitendra Singh was built during 1978-82

It was during 1978-82 that a Central Government End of 1986 saw the opening of The Lotus Temple,
Research facility was created at IIT Roorkee, The in Delhi as a House of Worship for Bahá’í. Due to its
National Institute of Hydrology. The architects of flowerlike shape is is known as Lotus Temple. The
the building were also in-house team of Architects shape has been achieved through the use of Shell
Prof NK Tayal and Prof Jitendra Singh. construction by Ar Fariborz Sahaba.

54 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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Research in development and management of water

remained in the top priority in India and a Water
and Land Management Institute was established at
Patna in 1990-95. The building was designed by Ar
Prof Jitendra Singh

Story of Indian architecture would be incomplete

if there is no mention of the works by Ar Laurie
Baker-A British Born Indian Architect who
dedicated his life to the Philosophy of Mahatma
1997 saw development of a Convention centre at Gandhi. He was the one architect who challenged
the Science City Kolkata. The Science City was the race of modernism with his philosophy of
developed to provide immersive experience to minimalistic architecture. His buildings of different
the visitors in science through large scale models. typology are of bare bricks –inside as well outside.
The Campus and the buildings were designed by He avoided provision of windows also and achieved
Kolkata based firm Development Consultants. minimum consumption of material. The Indian
Coffee House Thiruananthpuram is just an example

By 1990 a trend had started to look for alternative

materials for building construction in an attempt to
cut down the carbon footprint. Vikas Apartments, Suzlon One Earth building by Ar Christopher
Auroville by Ar Vikas Mani, was a positive and novel Benninger at Pune shows concern of Indian
attempt. He designed a rammed Earth Building, 2 architects in designing environment friendly zero
to 4 floor high having 1 BHK and 2 BHK flats. Total energy Green buildings 2009, a building trend
23 blocks were built during 1993-98. started to face the challenges of climate change.

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With increasing awareness about environmental

protection, architects starts making ‘Green’ and
‘Sustainable’ Buildings. Care Institute of Medical
Sciences Ahmadabad by Ar Surya Kakani is a
300 Bed Super Specialty Hospital and First Green
Healthcare Building in India -2010

While India was trying to fill the gap of Housing

Shortage, one of the leading Industrialist of the
country invited yet another foreign architect
Chicago based Ar Perkins Will to design a villa,
matching his status in Mumbai. This house named
as Antilia was built in 2010. This 27 story house is
Two of the Indian cities- Bangalore and Hyderabad,
considered as the most extravagant house in India.
became the hub for IT industries and were attracting
lot of visitors. Park Hotel Hyderabad by SOM
Architects built in 2010 was an attempt to fulfill
the gap. Though this hotel has large cantilevered
space, it has been designed with many sustainability
features to sow concern for the environment.

The infrastructure industry in the country has

been growing at much faster pace. To cope up
the pressure many airports were built and many
upgraded. Latest in the process is Vadodara
Airport (2018) designed by Delhi based Creative
Group under Ar Charanjit Shah out-matches many
similar structures of the world.

CONCLUSIONS
Collector Office at Pune by Ar Sunil Patil clearly
show a shift in design of government administration In last 100 years Indian architecture has seen a
office building from the traditional and drab ‘PWD’ great change from the legacy left by the British
designs.-2017. This is a modern building built with designers, impact of works of foreign designers
modern building materials and is an icon in Pune. in India, the school of training of the Indian

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Architects and the maturity of locally trained and health related building. Opening of the world
architects and designers. The impact can easily market in India gave boost to the construction
be seen and gets reflected in their works. The industry and lot of new material and construction
foreign architects brought in impact of their own machinery was imported. Today India has world
culture and style of design though it got modified class buildings of all typologies. They are energy
by the Indian craftsmen and with the limitation of efficient and sustainable. India is also making
material availability. The earlier structures were zero energy buildings. Our airports are many a
low rise and were largely load bearing. In the free times better that rest of the world.
India, Corbusier brought a new style in exposed
The architectural scenario in the country has really
cement concrete. The Indian architects were
matured and its impact is seen and experienced
influenced and adopted the same in their works.
by the users. Although craze of ‘Foreign’ or
They even went a step ahead and started designing
‘Branded’ is still there, India is self sufficient in
their work in exposed brick work. With passage
building products, architectural and structural
of time these style and non availability of good
design and construction technology.
quality bricks coupled with the cost factor, these
styles were shelved. The influx of population in
metros and capital towns land values increased Note-India is a large country. Summarizing 100 years
which forced high rise buildings and RCC of development of Architecture and related engineering
framed structures took over the load bearing. in few pages has been really a very difficult task. Author
With Democracy maturing emphasis shifted from has just tried only to give the glimpses in nutshell and
regrets for any major omissions.
public to private buildings, infrastructure, sports

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Chemical Engineering & Technology: Path

Breaking Developments in the Last Hundred Years

Dr M P Sukumaran Nair, FIE

Council Member, IEI and
Formerly Chairman, Public Sector Restructuring & Audit Board, Government of Kerala
 [email protected]

According to the International Council of public health achieved in the early years of the
Chemical Associations’ (ICCA) report titled, ‘The twentieth century.
Global Chemical Industry: Catalyzing Growth
Water borne diseases were ruling high and were
and Addressing Our World’s Sustainability
the major threat to public health in cities in the
Challenges,’ in 2017, the chemical industry
early years of the 20th century. In the United
contributed USD 5.7 trillion to gross domestic
States, typhoid alone killed more than 150 per
product (GDP), an equivalent of 7 percent of the
100,000 people annually, and dysentery and
world’s GDP, and supported 120 million jobs. No
diarrhoea were the third largest cause of death.
other engineering segment has grown to this scale
Researchers D. Cutler and G. Miller in The
in the last one hundred years. While chemical
Role of Public Health Improvements in Health
engineering and application of its principles in the
Advances: The Twentieth Century United States,
practice in the industry contributed immensely
conclude that clean water technologies, filtration
to upgrade the quality of life of people across
and chlorination, were responsible for nearly half
the world, there were certain leaps and bounds
of the total mortality reduction in major cities
that significantly revolutionized contemporary
between 1900 and 1936, with an even greater
life. In this paper, an overview of a few of such
impact on infant and child mortality rates during
developments is picked up from the vast repository
that same time period. Prior to the successful and
of scientific and technical advancements.
widespread use of chlorination, water treatment
CHLORINATION OF DRINKING methods in vogue included filtration, followed
WATER by chemical precipitation and sedimentation
techniques. However, these methods alone
Worldwide, about 1.2 billion people lack access could not eliminate bacteria and provide good
to safe drinking water, and twice that many quality potable water supply. Chlorine is used to
lack adequate sanitation. As a result, the World disinfect water, an essential step in delivering safe
Health Organization estimates that 3.4 million drinking water and protecting public health. With
people, mostly children, die every year from the understanding of the disinfectant properties
water-related diseases. The use of chlorine for of chlorine and engaging it in municipal water
disinfection of water is a major breakthrough in treatment it has been possible to virtually eliminate

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water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid and rural villages and large cities alike, helping to
dysentery. The first practical demonstration of bring safe water to those in need.
drinking water chlorination was in Chicago in
THE DAWN OF MINERAL
1908. Today, chlorine is by far the most commonly
used disinfectant all over the world. Chlorine also FERTILIZERS
eliminates slime bacteria, moulds and algae that Fritz Haber’s discovery of ammonia synthesis in
commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on 1908 sowed the seeds for the Green Revolution of
the walls of water mains and in storage tanks. the early 20th Century through the manufacture of
Elemental chlorine or chlorine containing water ammonia based mineral fertilizers. Over half of the
soluble chemicals have the desired disinfection entire world’s food grown today is made possible
capabilities and a residual level of 0.2 to 0.3 ppm through the application of mineral fertilizers in the
in treated water help to ward off disease causing farmlands all over. Modern society recognises that
bacteria during distribution and storage of water. it is indeed, one of the most important inventions
Water treatment techniques developed in this which has saved billions from famine and will
century include filtration, chemical coagulation, continue to feed the world for decades to come.
sedimentation, carbon adsorption and disinfection World consumption of the three main fertilizer
through chlorination, ozonation or ultra violet nutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus expressed as
(UV) radiation. With the installation of effective phosphate (P2O5), and potassium expressed as
water treatment systems in many countries potash (K2O), was 190 million tonnes (N, P2O5
there was a dramatic impact in reducing these and K2O) in 2018. The demand for N, P2O5 and
illnesses, virtually eliminating them in most of the K2O is forecasted to grow annually on average
developed countries by the 1940s. Considering by 1.5 to 2.5 percent to 205 million tonnes over
the difficulties and risk associated with the the next five years till 2024. The global capacity
handling of chlorine gas/liquid, now a days, insito of the production of fertilizers, intermediates and
electro chlorinators in which nascent chlorine is raw materials are also expected to increase in line
generated instantaneously are also being used. with the above to cater the demand.
The successful use of chlorination for drinking Major plant nutrients are classified as primary,
water have led to longer life expectancy, reduced secondary and micro level. Nitrogen, phosphorus,
infant mortality, vast increases in agricultural and potassium the primary nutrients, sulphur,
production and improvements in the quality of calcium, magnesium and calcium are secondary
life around the world. Despite a range of new nutrients and boron, zinc, iron, manganese,
challenges, drinking water chlorination will remain copper, molybdenum and chlorine are the
a cornerstone of water borne disease prevention. micronutrients. Nitrogen is the prime nutrient
Chlorine’s wide array of benefits cannot be necessary for plant growth and the formation of
provided by any other single disinfectant. While vital proteins in all living things. Even though
alternative disinfectants such as chlorine dioxide, the earth’s atmosphere contains about 78 percent
ozone and ultraviolet radiation are available, nitrogen by volume, plants are unable to absorb it
all disinfection methods have unique benefits, directly. Hence nitrogen is to be administered as
limitations, and costs. Municipal water treatment water soluble compounds for plants to absorb it
facility operators consider these factors, and through the roots. Ammonia and its compounds
design a disinfection approach to match each are water soluble and hence palatable to all
system’s characteristics and source water quality. species of plants. Nitrogen pulled out of the
In addition, world leaders increasingly recognize thin air around us and hydrogen liberated from
safe drinking water as a critical building block water using the energy of fossil feedstock such
of sustainable development. Chlorination also as natural gas through a combination of physical
provides cost-effective disinfection for remote and chemical processes produce ammonia, (by

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the much renowned Haber-Bosch process) the achieved specific energy consumption parameters
vital input to all nitrogenous fertilizers. It is this comparable or even better than the best plants in
development that enabled farmers worldwide to the industry globally. Water conservation has been
supplement plant nutrients getting depleted in a prime target to many industry operators and
the soil through repeated farming year by year some of them have even achieved zero effluent
together with the widespread adoption of modern discharge in their plants. In the last 30 years
agricultural technologies that produced abundant industry, through innovation, has been successful
crops of food grain and lifted millions out of in advancing materials used for plant construction,
poverty and famine. catalyst used in the chemical processes, process
technologies employed and also have been able
According to FAO, fertilizers are essential to
to recycle and reuse in plant streams which
safely sustain both our food and our future. In
otherwise would have gone to waste, elimination
the 1960s, one hectare of land fed two people.
of waste itself and significantly improve safety
By 2025, that same hectare will need to feed five
and reliability and achieve an optimized overall
people, as a result of an increased population
performance.
and the loss of arable land to urbanization and
industrialization. Advances in fertilizer and While agriculture in the developed countries has
agricultural technologies helped today’s crops achieved a high degree of nutrient stewardship in
efficient nourishment through replenishment of the application of fertilizers to crops, we are yet
soil nutrients depleted every time due to intensive to reach that level. The 4R framework in the US
farming. Even poor and degraded soil is rendered aims to implement the best management practices
flourishing with crops and many poverty-stricken (BMPs) based on the right nutrient source applied
areas have seen a steep decline in famine. Fertilizer at the right rate, at the right time, and in the right
significantly increases the amount of food that can place. The 4Rs reduce the loss of nutrients to the
be safely grown per hectare and experts say this environment while also addressing sustainability
allows two out of five people around the world to concerns, such as improved profitability of the
have access to a reliable food supply. farm, improved water quality, and reduced loss
of greenhouse gases. Achieving that vision
The United Nations 17 Sustainable Development requires commitment from all industry members,
Goals (SDGs) adopted in 2015 are also aimed including establishing a knowledgeable employee
at ending poverty, promoting prosperity and base and investing in product research, technology
improving the lives of people everywhere innovation, infrastructure, and stakeholder
while protecting the planet through an active partnerships.
involvement of national governments, industry
and business and citizenry. Proposed goals for Therefore, the mission towards achieving a zero
achieving zero hunger (2), clean water and hunger world is, in the first hand, undertaken
sanitation (6), affordable and clean energy (7), by the global fertilizer industry. Farmers around
industry, innovation and infrastructure (9) and the globe are able to keep up with the demands
climate action (13) are all intricately related to the of feeding a growing population because of
production of fertilizers. fertilizers. Of course we have miles to go with
regard to a prudent and balanced administration of
Enhanced crop productivity through sustainable mineral fertilizers in our farmlands in the country.
agriculture is the buzzword to achieve zero
hunger. Fertilizer manufacture is an energy and FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING OF
water intensive process. Over the years, significant CRUDE PETROLEUM
progress has been achieved in reducing energy The development of thermal cracking of crude
consumption and in the conservation of water petroleum to produce hydrocarbon fuel was a
used. Some of the Indian fertilizer plants have major advance in petroleum refining which started

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in 1913 and was followed by the production of in 1936 in Paulsboro. The FCC process was
catalytic cracking in 1936. A further advance developed by a consortium of Catalytic Research
was platforming in 1947 with the introduction Associates (CRA), made up of Standard Oil,
of platinum as a catalyst in the refining process. Anglo-Iranian Oil, Texas Oil, Dutch Shell, M.W.
Later the 1950s witnessed the development of Kellogg, Universal Oil Products and IG Farben
hydrocracking which used hydrogen to break down based on the earlier work by Standard Oil in
heavy fractions into diesel and petrol. Parallel the late 1920s. The first plant based on the this
developments in oil and natural gas exploration, technology, built by M.W. Kellogg Company,
drilling, and transportation technologies have was commissioned in 1940 at the Standard Oil
enabled the growth in demand for petroleum and of New Jersey (later Exxon Mobil). The first
downstream products. World crude oil production full-scale commercial catalytic cracker which
increased from 150 million barrels per year in revolutionized the industry by the selective
1900 to about 34 billion barrels in 2018. The conversion of crude petroleum to gasoline went
impacts of oil and gas in the global economies and on stream at Sun Company (now Sunoco, Inc.) in
the related geopolitical political significance had 1937. It also greatly improved the gasoline octane
been profound and it also paved way to re-shape rating, making possible today’s efficient, high-
the societal landscape of the 20th century. Thus, compression automobile engines. During World
cracking of petroleum to derive gasoline, diesel War II, the high-octane fuel played a critical role
and such common fuels of the day became an in the Allied victory.
epoch making discovery of the twentieth century. Today, the most commonly used catalytic cracking
In 2018, World’s refineries have processed close process is called the fluid catalytic cracking
to 83 million barrels of oil per day, 1.2 percent (FCC). This is a continuous process in which the
more than the previous year. size of the catalyst particles is so small that they
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the act like a fluid. The cracking reaction produces a
most important refinery processes used in crude variety of chemicals including coke, which results
petroleum processing. It is widely used to in a layer of coke forming on the catalyst. Coke
convert the high-boiling, high-molecular weight is a solid residue consisting primarily of carbon,
hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum crude oils which may be used as a fuel. This layer of coke
into more valuable gasoline, olefinic gases, and leads to a substantial reduction in catalyst activity;
other products. Cracking of crude petroleum consequently, the catalyst needs to be regenerated.
initially started as a thermal process in which In the FCC process, this is done on a continuous
hydrocarbons present in crude oil are subject to basis. The regeneration process is quite simple,
high heat and temperature to break the molecular burning off the carbon that is adhering to the
bonds and breaking down long-chained, higher- surfaces of the catalyst particles. This is, as are all
boiling hydrocarbons into shorter-chained, lower- combustion reactions, an exothermic process. The
boiling hydrocarbons. It was completely replaced heat energy released from the regeneration of the
by catalytic cracking as it produced more gasoline catalyst often is used to provide the heat needed
for the endothermic cracking process and the
with a higher octane rating. It also yielded olefinic
refinery off gases produced is used as a feedstock
gases having more economic value, than those
for ammonia or petrochemicals.
produced by thermal cracking as by-products.
In 1922, E.J. Houdry and E.A. Prudhomme set Catalysts used in the cracking of crude oil are
up a plant to produce petroleum at the rate of 60 usually hydrated aluminium silicates. Zeolites, or
tons per day from lignite using a catalyst Fuller’s molecular sieves, are hydrated aluminosilicates
Earth containing silica–alumina. Working in having a very porous crystalline structure, in
collaboration with the Sun Oil Company, New which water molecules are trapped. Zeolites,
Jersey, the first demonstration unit was set up because of their high porosity, are used for

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a variety of applications such as absorbents, as a complex system of electrical fields, fluids,

as molecular sieves for separating mixtures biomechanics, chemistry, and motion—ideal for
by selective absorption as well as catalysts in an engineering approach to many of its problems.
petroleum processing. Since then, engineers have worked with the
medical profession to develop artificial organs,
DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN
replacement joints, diagnostic and imaging
Penicillin has saved the lives of at least 200 technologies, and biomaterials that improve the
million across the globe according to the New quality of life for millions. The technologies
World Encyclopaedia. Sir Alexander Fleming, a for surgery, medical implants, bioimaging,
Scottish researcher, is credited with the discovery intensive care monitors, and the mass production
of penicillin in 1928 while experimenting with of antibiotics and other drugs are all vital parts
the influenza virus in the Laboratory at St. of this story. The impact of engineering in the
Mary’s Hospital in London. It was subsequently medical arena and the resulting benefits to the
developed by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain average person are incalculable. In no other field
in the 1940s. It is manufactured via fungi and have engineers become so intimately wedded to
microbes, with phenol and cumene being used life itself.
as preparatory substances. The discovery of
Penicillin was indeed a success story of humankind
penicillin transformed the world of medicine
conquering disease causing bacteria but today it is
enormously.
the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics
With its development, infections that were that is confronting modern medical science. Drug
previously severe and often fatal, like resistance of bacteria is a major problem today. In
bacterial endocarditis, bacterial meningitis 1945 itself, Fleming warned with foresight, “there
and pneumococcal pneumonia, could be easily is the danger that the ignorant man may easily
treated. Even dating all the way back to World underdose himself and by exposing his microbes
War II and today with the war in Iraq, soldiers to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them
experienced injuries that would have been fatal resistant. That’s exactly what happened in the
without penicillin and other antibiotics that were bygone years. Globally 700,000 people die every
developed subsequently. It is really impossible year because of drug resistance and by 2050 this
to imagine what the world would be like without is expected to rise to 10 million, according to a
penicillin. The discovery of penicillin led to a report by the Review on Antimicrobial Resistance.
number of pharmaceutical industries beginning
to screen a variety of other natural products
DEVELOPMENT OF MANMADE
for antibacterial activity, which led to a whole TEXTILES
host of new antibiotics, such as streptomycin, As regards primary requisites for mankind, clothing
amino glycosides, tetracycline and the like. It is comes next to food and therefore innovations in
astounding to compare the medical technology of drapery started from time immemorial. The last
today with that of 1900. Then, doctors used the few century witnessed a transition from cotton as the
instruments they had, but mostly their senses of fabric material to manmade technical textiles for
touch and sight, to diagnose illness. Today people a variety of clothing and industrial applications.
live nearly 30 years longer, on average, than their Cotton itself went through tremendous
ancestors did at the beginning of the 20th century. developments in terms of quality betterment,
Although many advances were underway early weaving and fibre processing to clothing
in the century, health technologies really began material. The first commercial production of a
to blossom in the last half, when engineering and manufactured fibre -artificial silk- was achieved
medicine became increasingly interdisciplinary, in 1889 and it caused a sensation in the Paris
and the human body was more fully recognized Exhibition held to mark the century of the fall of

62 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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the Bastille in 1779 . By 1910, American Viscose dullness, better blending qualities, reduce clinging,
Company formed by Samuel Courtaulds and greater comfort, achieve greater whiteness and
Co Ltd began its production of Rayon in 1910 easier dye ability. Some new fibre shapes and
from plant cellulose. This led to a revolution in thicknesses were being introduced to cope up with
textile technology which gave the US a complete the special needs. New fibres were introduced like
dominance for several decades. By the mid 1920s polyamide which is a high temperature resistance,
Rayon fibre became popular in the textile industry para-aramid with outstanding strength to weight
as it was 50 percent cheaper than natural fibres properties and spandex a stretchable fibre with
such as silk. aramid group. The US and Russian space program
helped to further advance the development and
With the development of Nylon, by DuPont 1931
use of manmade fibres. When Neil Armstrong
the first truly synthetic fibre from petroleum
put his first step on the moon, he was wearing the
downstream products, a new era of manufactured
space suit which included multi layers of aramid
textiles emerged. DuPont began commercial
and nylon fibre and the flag he waved was made
production of nylon in 1939 and it was used in
of nylon. Carbon fiber is used as a component in
making parachute fabric and women’s stockings.
the aircraft for lowering weight, lowering fuel
A lot of nylon was used by the military during
costs and adding strength.
World War II. During the War, nylon replaced
Asian silk in parachutes - as much of the Asian With the new developments and discoveries the
silk market was unfortunately dominated by the industry of manufactured fibres was diversified.
Japanese flag in applications such as tyres, tents, More new fibres can be obtained from this
ropes, ponchos and other military supplies and rather than that available from nature. After the
even used in the production of a high-grade paper Second World War major industries start new
for US currency. developments and discoveries for the new fibres
having desirable properties. In the early 1990
During the war cotton was the most commonly
some super fibres were being discovered like glass
used fibre and its uses were more than 80 percent
fibre, composite fibre, ceramic fibre and carbon
than any other fibres. By the end manufactured
fibre which are completely inorganic fibre and
fibres had taken 15percent of the market and the
are very strong. Manufactured fibres have varied
US industry was supplying more than 20 percent
applications in industry, construction, aerospace,
of the fibres needed for textile mills. Following the
superabsorbent diapers, artificial implants, organs
success of nylon, research intensified and a host
and engineered non-woven products were used in
of other synthetic fibres emerged. DuPont started
the roofing materials, road bed stabilizers, apparel
new production of acrylic fibre which was the
interfacing and surgical gowns. These non-woven
generic name of the wool- like product. Scientists
fabrics are made without weaving or knitting and
J. T. Dickson and J. R. Whinfield invented the
it has excellent comfort, feel and texture.
polyester fibre from condensation polymerization
of ethylene glycol with terephthalic acid. NATURAL GAS AS ENERGY SOURCE
New blend was created by mixing cotton and Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuels among the
acrylic fibres in the summer of 1952. It was available fossil fuels. It is used as a feedstock in
termed as “wash and wear” which attracted more the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics and other
customers. This fibre was wrinkle free, so it could commercially important organic chemicals as well
be wearable by wash only and was an easy care as used as a fuel for electricity generation, heating
product due to its strength. The polyester fibre purpose in industrial and commercial units.
indeed revolutionized the textile industry. The Natural gas is also used for cooking in domestic
newly developed fibres have many new qualities households and a transportation fuel for vehicles.
like flame resistance, release soil, special luster or The use of natural gas as a fuel and feedstock was

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a major development in energy technology in the Natural gas is found around the world, but the
twentieth century. Many view natural gas as a largest reserves are in the former Soviet Union
transition fuel between the dominant fossil fuels and the Middle East. The Arab gulf countries of
of today and the renewable fuels of tomorrow. For Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and UAE
a given amount of heat energy, burning natural together account for about 65 percent of the oil
gas produces about half as much carbon dioxide, reserves and also accounts for 35 percent of the
the main cause of global warming, as burning world’s proven gas resource base. Environmental
coal. Since one of the primary consumption of concerns such as global warming have resulted
natural gas is as a source for power generation in increased use of natural gas. This is because
and it is increasingly becoming popular because it natural gas gives off only one half as much carbon
burns cleaner than oil and coal and produces less dioxide (CO2) per unit of energy produced as does
greenhouse gases. This ability of natural gas raises coal, and 25 percent less than oil.
the possibility that it could emerge as a critical Natural gas is used as fuel in thermal electric
transition fuel that could help to battle global power generation, for heating in industrial
warming. In nature natural gas is much more in furnaces and boilers, as a feedstock for ammonia
abundance than oil. Most oil economists put the and methanol industry and as automotive and
natural gas reserves at least 50 percent higher than domestic cooking fuels. It is associated with
oil reserves at the current consumption rates conventional oil fields, independently in gas
At present natural gas reserves are estimated field deposits both underneath and in shales and
in collieries as coal bed methane. Natural Gas is
at 6952 trillion cubic feet (tcf) in 2018 and are
captured from gas fields compressed and liquefied
expected to last for over 60 years whereas oil
to produce LNG and transported to long distances
reserves are estimated at 40 odd years. The
through ocean transport to LNG regasification
discovery of unconventional gas such as shale
terminals in specially designed cryogenic tanks.
gas and coal bed methane are perceived as game
At the regasification terminals it is again heated
changers. Some years back, natural gas used to
to convert to gas and delivered through pipelines
be a regionally based fuel, frequently flared off in
to prospective users.
oil fields because it was of little use, but now with
liquefaction and the creation of pipelines, it is now LNG is produced from natural gas by cooling
fast becoming a major international commodity. it to a temperature of approximately -162°C
at atmospheric pressure when it condenses to a
Natural gas is a gaseous mixture of light liquid. One volume of this liquid takes up about
hydrocarbons, which is found underground 1/600th the volume of natural gas. LNG weighs
in sedimentary rock formations, often in the less than one-half that of water, actually about 47
same location as crude oil. It contains light percent as much. LNG is odourless, colourless,
hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, propane, non-corrosive, and non-toxic. When vaporized
butanes, pentanes and small quantities of CO2, it burns only in concentrations of 5 to 15percent
helium, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. Natural when mixed with air. Neither LNG, nor its vapour,
gas obtained while drilling for oil was simply can explode in an unconfined environment.
burned off, because the infrastructure necessary to
capture the gas and transport it to potential users DEVELOPMENT OF REFRIGERANTS
was not available. Natural gas pipelines are in Life has changed markedly in the 20th century as
place to serve a large portion of the industrialized air conditioning and refrigeration systems became
world in the latter half of last century. Natural gas more efficient, controllable and mobile. No longer
is seen as an important economic factor in drilling dependent on the weather for work or play, humans
for oil; and natural gas itself supplies 24 percent truly made the environment adapt to their needs.
of the world’s commercial energy needs in 2018. Dozens of engineering innovations made this

64 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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possible, from William Carrier’s early work with infamous for greatly adding to the depletion of the
cooling and humidity control, to later advances earth’s ozone shield.
in cooling agents, materials, system designs, and
Most uses of CFCs are now banned or severely
energy efficiency. Climate control has become so
restricted by the Montreal Protocol, because of
reliable and inexpensive that it has grown from
the ozone depletion. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
an invisible luxury to a common necessity. The
instead have replaced many uses, but they, too,
ability to transport and store fresh foods and other
are under strict control under the Kyoto protocol,
perishables simplified shopping and widened
as they are deemed “super-greenhouse effect”
our choices. By the end of the century, nearly 70
gasses. They are no longer used in aerosols, even
percent of U.S. households had air conditioning,
though no suitable, general use alternatives to the
and 99.5 percent had at least one refrigerator. And
halocarbons have been found for refrigeration that
beyond the home, tight control of air temperature
is not flammable or toxic, problems the original
and quality provides the purified environments
Freon was devised to avoid.
required for surgery, manufacturing computer
chips, and performing many types of research. PETROCHEMICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Refrigerators from the late 1800s until 1929 Petrochemical products are closely associated
used the toxic gasses, ammonia (NH3), methyl with our day to day lives in modern societies.
chloride (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), as The petrochemicals industry has evolved out of
refrigerants. Several fatal accidents occurred in oil and gas processing by adding value to low
the 1920s because of methyl chloride leakage value by-products, which have limited use in
from refrigerators. People started leaving their the fuels industry. The industry now produces a
refrigerators in their backyards. A collaborative remarkable range of useful products, including
effort began between three American corporations, plastics, synthetic rubber, solvents, fertilisers,
Frigidaire, General Motors and DuPont to search pharmaceuticals, additives, explosives and
for a less dangerous method of refrigeration. In adhesives. These materials have important
1928, Thomas Midgley. Jr and Charles Franklin applications in almost all areas of modern society.
Kettering invented Freon. Freon represents several A variety of chemical products which use
different chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are petroleum derivatives as feedstock which include
used in commerce and industry. The CFCs are a plastics, packaging, clothing, digital devices,
group of aliphatic organic compounds containing medical equipment, detergents, tires and many
the elements carbon and fluorine, and, in many others. They also find applications in modern
cases, other halogens (especially chlorine) and energy system, including solar panels, wind
hydrogen. Freons are colourless, odourless, non- turbine blades, batteries, thermal insulation for
flammable, noncorrosive gasses or liquids. buildings, and electric vehicle parts.
In 1930, General Motors and DuPont formed the Petrochemicals, have had an enormous impact,
Kinetic Chemical Company to produce Freon. providing everything from aspirin to zippers,
The trade name Freon® is a registered trademark including pharmaceuticals, medical devices,
belonging to E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company synthetic fabrics, fertilizers, pesticides, building
(DuPont). Because Freon is non-toxic, it materials, and cosmetics. Furthermore, the
eliminated the danger posed by refrigerator leaks. industry continues to innovate through new
In just a few years, compressor refrigerators using technology and the ability to process different
Freon became the standard for almost all home types of raw materials.
kitchens. The gas is non-toxic and non-flammable.
Only decades later did people realize that such The use of petrochemicals has revolutionised the
chlorofluorocarbons endangered the ozone layer electronics sector through research, development
of the entire planet. CFCs, or Freon, are now and invention – as a result, the electronics industry

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is thriving as a global concern worth billions products. The light weight is a particular bonus
of dollars and creating an enormous number of because this translates into energy savings for the
jobs. Virtually no electronic need is too big or too end user. In a modern car, around 100 kilograms of
small for plastics to play a role, whether it is the petrochemical based plastics can replace 200-300
rugged plastic required for water-resistant radios kilograms of traditional materials. The average
used by fire-fighters and light-socket canisters on car now contains 120 kilograms of plastics,
drilling rigs or more delicate applications, such comprising 15-20 percent of its total weight. With
as microwave transmission and heat-resistant this increased use of strong, lightweight plastics in
automotive fuses. There are many benefits to using cars, the environmental outcomes are impressive
petrochemical derived products to manufacture – the lighter weight of plastic components means
computers and electronics. The latest electronic fuel economy can be improved by 25-35 percent
devices utilise new generation plastics because of and for every kilogram of weight lost, the car will
their special features. emit 20 kilograms less of carbon dioxide over its
operating life.
In the petrochemical industry, the organic
chemicals produced in the largest volumes The petrochemicals industry sources raw materials
are methanol, ethylene, propylene, butadiene, from refining and gas-processing and converts
benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Ethylene, these raw materials into valuable products using
propylene, and butadiene, along with butylenes, a variety of chemical process technologies. A
are collectively called olefins, which belong to variety of feedstock are used as raw materials,
a class of unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons the industry driver being economics. If cheap
having the general formula CnH2n. Olefins feedstock is available then there will always be
contain one or more double bonds, which make somebody who is prepared to try to make a profit
them chemically reactive. Benzene, toluene, and by making something valuable out of it. These
xylenes, commonly referred to as aromatics, feedstock are subject to a variety of processes
are unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons containing with the aim of producing a hand-full of chemical
one or more rings. Olefins, aromatics, and building blocks. These building blocks are further
methanol are precursors to a variety of chemical processed through a variety of reactions to form
products and are generally referred to as primary the final petrochemical products.
petrochemicals. The target markets for petrochemical products
are smaller and more specialised in comparison
Manufacturing processes introduced in recent
to refined products and natural gas. Although
years have resulted in raw material replacement,
petrochemical products usually earn premium
shifts in the ratio of co products produced, and
prices compared to refined products and natural
cost. This has led to a supply/demand imbalance,
gas product, marketing is more demanding.
particularly for smaller downstream petrochemical
Market risks and competitive analysis therefore
derivatives. In addition, growing environmental
play an important role in lender assessment of
concerns have expedited the development and
petrochemical project finance transactions.
commercialization of renewably derived chemical
products. DISCOVERY OF RECOMBINANT
Petrochemical products are generally easy DRUGS
to process and more cost-efficient for the Human life is greatly threatened by various
manufacturer because of availability and reduction factors, like food limitations leading to
in vehicle assembly time. For example take the malnutrition, different kinds of lethal diseases,
case of the car industry. Automotive bodies and environmental problems caused by the dramatic
components benefit from the light weight, design industrialization and urbanization and many
flexibility and durability of many petrochemical others. Genetic engineering has replaced the

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conventional strategies and has the greater biodiversity. Further, concerns exist that genetic
potential to overcome such challenges. engineering has dangerous health implications.
Thus, further extensive research is required in
Recombinant DNA technology is an important
this field to overcome such issues and resolve the
development in science in the twentieth century
concerns of common people.
that has made the human life much easier. In recent
years, it has advanced strategies for biomedical In 1982 Food and Drug Administration approved
applications such as cancer treatment, genetic Humulin, Eli Lily’s recombinant insulin made
diseases, diabetes, and several plants disorders from Genentech’s specially modified bacteria. It
especially viral and fungal resistance. The role was the first drug produced through recombinant
of recombinant DNA technology in making DNA technology and among the first genetically
environment clean (phyto-remediation and engineered products to be made available to
microbial remediation) and enhanced resistance consumers. Following the success of Humulin,
of plants to different adverse acting factors recombinant DNA technology was quickly
(drought, pests, and salt) has been recognized adopted to replace older methods of producing
widely. The improvements it brought not only in medical products from human growth hormone
humans but also in plants and microorganisms to vaccines. Although scientists have since
are very significant. The challenges in improving developed new biotechnology techniques,
the products at gene level sometimes face serious recombinant DNA still plays an important role in
difficulties which are needed to be dealt for the the production of several major medical products.
betterment of the recombinant DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology is a major DNA-
future. In pharmaceuticals, especially, there are
based tool that opens a new age for modern
serious issues to produce good quality products
biotechnology. With this technology, a gene
as the change brought into a gene is not accepted
or multiple genes can be identified, cut, and
by the body. Considering health issues, the
inserted into the genome of another organism.
recombinant technology is helping in treating
Using this technology, the first drugs of medical
several diseases which cannot be treated in normal
biotechnology were produced, namely human
conditions, although the immune responses hinder
insulin.
achieving good results.
The first concept for recombinant DNA technology
Several difficulties are encountered by the
came from Werner Arber’s discovery of restriction
genetic engineering strategies which needed to be
enzymes in bacteria that degrade foreign viral
overcomed by more specific gene enhancement
DNA molecules. From this discovery, geneticists
according to the organism’s genome. The
learned to “cut” and “paste” DNA molecules, and
integration of incoming single-stranded DNA
novel restriction enzymes for cutting, and pasting
into the bacterial chromosome would be carried
were discovered or invented. The development of
out by a RecA-dependent process. This requires
recombinant DNA technology was advanced by
sequence homology between entities, the
the collaboration of Stanley Cohen and Herbert
bacterial chromosome and incoming DNA. Stable
Boyer in 1972. They also established the first
maintenance and reconstitution of plasmid could
company that focused on recombinant DNA
be made easy. The introduction of genetic material
technology (Genentech) in 1976.
from one source into the other is a disaster for
safety and biodiversity. There are several concerns Recombinant DNA technology relates to the
over development of genetically engineered plants usage of three main tools: (1) enzymes (restriction
and other products. For example, it is obvious that enzymes, polymerases, and ligases); (2) vectors;
genetically engineered plants can cross-breed with and (3) host organism. The enzymes will help cut
wild plants, thus spreading their “engineered” (restriction enzymes), synthesize (polymerases),
genes into the environment, contaminating our

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and bind (ligases) DNA. The restriction enzymes points in the whole of the operational network
play an important role in this technology. The at an early stage, rapid troubleshooting, ideal
restriction enzyme will cut at a specific site planning of maintenance and servicing activities,
within the DNA molecule called a restriction site. optimizing stocks of spares and inventory – these
Vectors are important parts of the recombinant empower to develop a clear perspective about the
DNA technology. They are considered as the final status of critical equipment and systems. In these
vehicles that carry genes of interest into the host facilities the operators and maintenance men are
organism. Several types of vectors have been on a constant lookout for optimized solutions to
developed to date; however, the most commonly keep production running efficiently by reducing
used vectors are plasmids and bacteriophages. The downtime for maintenance assessing the condition
host organism is the cell in which the recombinant of components, and quickly initiating service
DNA is introduced. To date, host organisms measures – whatever it takes to avoid abnormal
include bacteria, fungi, and animal cells. To situations.
introduce vectors into hosts, techniques involving
Large volume of data is generated during the
microinjection, biolistics, gene gun, alternate
operation of refining, petrochemical and fertilizer
cooling and heating, and calcium phosphate ions
plants in the chemical processing. If these data are
have been used.
intelligently processed, the output could be used
DIGITISATION to better manage these facilities. This is the intent
of digitalization of industry. The challenge is to
Digitalization and networked processes enabled,
access these existing and often unused volumes
companies to produce more flexibly and
of data (big data) without compromising on the
reliably and to respond to events more rapidly.
system security and availability. Digitalization
Digitally enhanced drive components are an
thus is opening new opportunities for companies
important step toward digitalized automation.
of all sizes to increase their efficiency, flexibility,
In the CPI, drive systems play a key role in
product quality and to customize their processes
the production processes and are ultimately
more than ever before.
what keeps production going. Faults or failures
involving motors, converters, etc., have costly Every plant operator would like to see that down
consequences. With the digital platform, one can time of his facilities remain the minimum because
now monitor, analyse, and optimize drive systems it has a direct bearing on the profitability of the
digitally, and thus maximize their availability, business especially at a time when margins
efficiency, performance, and serviceability. This are squeezed and the cost of doing business is
in turn increases overall productivity, thereby going up amidst environmental considerations
improving the bottom lines. Several hardware becoming stringent day by day. In order to see
pioneers have come up with cloud-based solutions that the downtime is minimised operators are
for data analysis that makes the operational and required to impose a strict vigilance over the
condition data of the drive equipment transparent. operating parameters of the plant and equipment.
It also helps to identify maintenance requirements During earlier days it was human intervention
and optimize operations to boost productivity and and personal supervision that held a constant vigil
efficiency and enable an effective operation and over the operational activities. As process and
maintenance planning. Maintenance of critical equipment used in industrial operations become
equipment operating in remote locations such as complex and the number of parameters to be
compressor stations on cross country gas pipelines monitored at a particular point of time become
especially during sudden failures is difficult. more the practice of relying on constant human
Cloud based data analysis from OEMs will help to intervention becomes difficult and unaffordable.
leverage the service requirements and improve the The developments in condition monitoring
serviceability of systems. Identification of weak instrumentation and advanced rigorous

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monitoring of process parameters started at this is acquired. If there is a network of machines,

point. The pneumatic instrumentation paved way the platform can monitor the continuous data
for electrical and then electronic instrumentation flow from all networked machines automatically,
and with the advancement of IT and ITE services, analyses it, and interpret the findings and develop
today we have the most advanced instrumentation recommendations for action. That means, for
and control of chemical processing facilities. example, that maintenance work can be done
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) and predictively, downtime can be prevented, and
Distributed Control System (DCS) helped to utilization is optimized. This onsite solution only
reduce downtime of plant and equipment and network machines at one production location
operate them with increased reliability. Even with only and if multiple locations are involved, for
the advanced process monitoring technologies analyzing machine data across all such locations
and control systems, human intervention to a cloud solution become necessary. In the digital
interpret data and arrive at a logical conclusion maintenance, the system automatically develops
and make necessary correction in the operating maintenance plans based on equipment status and
environment is necessary. This often led to provides an up-to-date overview of the condition
errors and misinterpretations leading to accidents of each individual device in the factory. In case
resulting in loss of lives and assets. of a fault it sends an alarm immediately, which
triggers system to generate and send a repair order
Even though there is no dispute that the chemical
to the responsible party. When the fault is fixed, an
processing industry has significantly improved
electronic record is generated automatically that
its safety and accident prevention standards from
can be used as a reference for future maintenance
the days of the Flixiborough disaster, occasional
work and efficiency improvements. The digital
incidents in recent years reminds us that the efforts
service portfolio enables in-depth analysis of all
towards reducing human errors shall continue
relevant operational and process data, allowing
ever. This is because the accidents continue to
optimizing the overall effectiveness of plants
happen even in the best design and best operated
while improving competitiveness and achieving
plants and most often detailed accident analysis
maximum performance and efficiency of plant
reveal that human error remains the major culprit
and equipment. Operators must be guarded against
contributing to accidental situations. Today
unplanned shutdowns and accidents having the
with the development of the big data analytics,
risk of loss of life and damage to assets along with
digitization, artificial intelligence and cloud
loss of production. Besides they must comply with
computing it has become possible to address the
the statutory and environmental regulations. In
above limitation most successfully in our complex
order to achieve the above, necessary training to
operating facilities. Most of these facilities could
update operator awareness, skills, and readiness
be broken down into various systems working
to act under abnormal situations and adherence
together to achieve a common objective and that
to best-practice procedures are periodically
is production of the intended product. Therefore,
required. Consequently, more and more industries
achieving the best of reliability in this component
are coming forward to understand the proof of
systems will directly contribute to gain in better
concepts of digitization through pilot plant studies,
productivity. Valves, pumps, control circuits,
later to be incorporated into large installations
drive equipment, catalytic reactors, heat and mass
transfer equipment are all monitored in real time ARTIFICIAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS
with these tools.
Photosynthesis is the process by which green
In order to ensure machine reliability and plants use sunlight to synthesise foods from
productivity, continuous performance monitoring carbon dioxide and water. The process combines
is needed for which a platform is set up on a six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules
server at the operator’s premises and relevant data of water to produce one molecule of glucose and

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six oxygen molecules. The glucose is stored capturing titanium dioxide nano-particles on any
in the plant as starch and cellulose which are surface it dramatically increases the surface area
simply long chain glucose molecules, known as and therefore the light capturing potential of the
polysaccharides, as a source of food for the plant surface. If this titanium dioxide is coupled with a
to survive and grow. The oxygen that is produced dye and then immersed in an electrolyte solution
as a by-product of photosynthesis is what most with a platinum cathode, electrons are excited to
animals rely on to breath. So the process that the the extent they are displaced and produce a current.
plants and trees fulfil on our behalf is critical to This current can then be used to split the water
our survival. into its molecular components, thereby storing the
solar energy in chemical bonds, particularly in the
We already acquired advanced capability to
reduced form of hydrogen, again in the presence
harness light energy from the sun to produce
on nanoparticles, more specifically iridium oxide
electricity via solar photovoltaic cells. However,
nanoparticles.
there is a fundamental problem regarding its
storage for at a later stage usage. Whereas in In the final part of natural photosynthesis (known
photosynthesis it locks energy from the sun within to biologists as the Dark Reactions), carbon
the chemical bonds in the glucose molecule. dioxide is captured by the chemical ribulose
Therefore plants are not only producing energy, biphosphate, before undergoing the Calvin Cycle,
but they also have the ability to store it. eventually producing one molecule of glucose.
If we could somehow artificially replicate the Scientists are currently trying to establish the
photosynthetic process completed by plants, most efficient form of naturally occurring
we would be able to lower carbon dioxide ribulose biphosphate, with a view to make a
concentrations in the atmosphere, while also wholly artificial nanotechnology-based version
producing sugar that we could use for food and that is more efficient than it’s naturally occurring
energy production. The ultimate goal though is relative. Research is going on all over the world
to take the natural process of photosynthesis and currently trying to crack what could one day
improve it, making it more efficient, absorbing become the renewable fuel of the future, not
more light, at a wider range of wavelengths, only using the sun’s energy more effectively than
potentially even in the dark to produce more Solar PV currently does (and leaves themselves),
energy. but also helping to remove some of the carbon
dioxide that humans have added to the atmosphere
There are three major scientific challenges in
through burning fossil fuels.
artificial photosynthesis that one needs to find
answers to before one can create fuel directly Nanotechnology is not the only avenue we are
from sunlight on an economical scale. They are using trying to mimic photosynthesis. Another
capturing light and moving the electrons to the method involves using giant parabolic mirrors
reaction centres, splitting water into hydrogen and direct and concentrate sunlight onto two chambers
oxygen and reducing carbon dioxide. In plants, separated by a ring of cerium oxide. The energy
light capture is handled by leaves which contain from the sun heats this cerium oxide up to
the green pigment chlorophyll which absorbs all 15000OC, which in turn releases an oxygen atom
photons with a wavelength of ~430-700 nano into one of the chambers and is pumped away.
metres, and through a complex process first splits The deoxidised cerium is then moved into the
water into its constituent parts, then combines other chamber, where carbon dioxide is pumped
hydrogen with carbon dioxide to make the sugars. in, and the deoxidised cerium steals one of the
oxygen molecules, creating carbon monoxide,
In artificial photosynthesis we are proposing
and the more stable cerium oxide, which can be
to use nano-particles to not only replicate this
reused in the reaction. A similar reaction is used to
process but improve its efficiency. If we use light

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separate water into its native elements, a hydrogen INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP

molecule and oxygen. As humans, we have really
AT Kearney estimates that, over the next decade,
struggled to replicate nature’s photosynthetic
the various players in the chemical industry
process, where a plant transfers simple molecules
will need to adopt different strategies to keep
into others with richer energy content, which is
their businesses moving forward. Asset-driven
probably the most effective way to storing solar
players will probably have to restructure and
energy. Therefore, if either of the techniques
shift operations closer to their growing markets.
above can be mastered, then we are going some
Specialty players may need to merge with each
way to replicate one of nature’s best kept secrets.
other and consolidate in order to stay competitive.
And unlike most methods of generating Integrated players may have to grow substantially
alternative energy, artificial photosynthesis has to compete. Growth will be both organic
the potential to produce more than one type growth and by expansion through mergers and
of fuel. The photosynthetic process could be acquisitions, joint ventures, partnerships and
tweaked so the reactions between light, CO2 and alliances. Both growth scenarios will require a
H2O ultimately produce liquid hydrogen. Liquid high capability to fund investments quickly. For
hydrogen can be used like gasoline in hydrogen- specialty chemical manufacturers, customer-
powered engines. It could also be funnelled into centric innovation is about working with their
a fuel-cell setup, which would effectively reverse customers to jointly develop new products or
the photosynthesis process, creating electricity applications for a specific customer need. This
by combining hydrogen and oxygen into water. requires teamwork across functions on both sides
Hydrogen fuel cells can generate electricity and a managerial approach that is different from
like the stuff we get from the grid, so we’d use integrated players.
it to run our air conditioning and water heaters.
One current problem with large-scale hydrogen Regulation will continue to influence the
energy is the question of how to efficiently -- and development of the chemical industry, on a regional
cleanly -- generate liquid hydrogen. Artificial and local basis. Environmental and other kinds
photosynthesis might be a solution. of activism increasingly influences regulation.
A well-known example is Europe’s REACH
Methanol is another possible output. Instead of (the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and
emitting pure hydrogen in the photosynthesis Restriction of chemical substances) regulation.
process, the photo-electrochemical cell could Companies are pressured to become more
generate methanol fuel. Methanol is derived from open and demonstrate strong environmental
the methane in natural gas, and it’s often added to stewardship.
commercial gasoline to make it burn more cleanly.
Some cars can even run on methanol alone. Population shifts will have major consequences.
In mature markets, chemical industry workers are
The ability to produce a clean fuel without retiring, leaving companies without experienced
generating any harmful by-products, like managers to take over leadership roles. Fast growth
greenhouse gases, makes artificial photosynthesis markets have high numbers of young people, but
an ideal energy source for the environment. It many of them need further training, education and
wouldn’t require mining, growing or drilling. And development to work in the chemical industry.
since neither water nor carbon dioxide is currently Nevertheless, the resource pool for technical
in short supply, it could also be a limitless source, skills will shift toward the fast-growing markets
potentially less expensive than other energy of Asia, and other emerging market countries.
forms in the long run. In fact, this type of photo-
electrochemical reaction could even remove Rising prosperity in fast-growth and developing
large amounts of harmful CO2 from the air in the markets will continue to drive strong chemical
process of producing fuel. sector growth. As demand shifts, companies must

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reposition their asset and product portfolios. About growth for transportation fuels is causing many
70 percent of consumer spending is concentrated refining companies to re-think their petrochemical
in North America, Europe and Japan. In 10 years, strategy, seeking a higher conversion of crude
80 percent of the middle-income consumers oil into chemical products. Plastics recycling
will live outside of these economies mostly in and waste: these are perhaps the most critical
China and India. There is a clear polarization of issues that will influence the industry beyond
consumption in the chemical industry. At one end the 2020s. Globally, communities are exploring
is demand for basic, cheap chemicals, and at the bans on single-use plastic applications, while the
other end demand for premium chemicals with visual of plastics waste in the oceans is now an
specialty products. international media issue. A slowdown in demand
growth for commodity plastics resulting from
Globalization is the second-biggest trend
increased recycling and application bans, must
transforming the chemical industry. Cash-rich
now be considered in long-term forecasting.
government funds and companies from Asia
The consolidation of China as a global force
and the Middle East are investing in Western
in chemicals continues, as many changes are
companies to acquire knowledge, brands, and
occurring in China’s domestic market. Key
market footholds. Result: The chemical industry
areas to watch include: economic transition,
is globalizing on a rapid scale and the dominance
environmental protection, fuel standards, private
of established companies is being evened out by
ownership, self-sufficiency goals, conventional/
increasingly sophisticated “emerging market”
non-conventional technology, capital cost
companies. Everyone’s market will be open to
advantage, an advancing specialty chemical
foreign competition, on an increasing scale. And
sector, and international trade ambitions. Crude-
chemical companies have to be global to compete.
to-chemicals technology is emerging in all regions
Resource scarcity is the most important trend while investments in gas-based chemicals in North
the chemical industry faces. Water scarcity, in America continue. Regional competitiveness will
particular, is an increasing threat. Not only are be significantly influenced by the price of crude
people suffering in many parts of the world from oil.
water shortages, but water needed by industrial
In the coming decades, investors in the chemical
processes is also running out. The chemical
industry will seek to balance the economic benefits
industry will need to re-design its processes to
of investment in the chemical value-chain, a
rely less on water for its own use, and will also
sustainable approach to the consumption of natural
be forced by society to take care that people in the
resources, and offering sound environmental
areas where it operates are not deprived of water
stewardship that is responsive to societal demands
for their use. The need for sustainability will
for a healthy and clean environment. The chemical
drive innovation. Companies know they need to
industry must continue to proactively engage
become more sustainable to be competitive.
on all fronts - seeking cooperative, fact-based
Chemical industry business strategies are solutions to these challenges and working side-
changing. A forecasted decline in the rate of by-side with local communities and government.

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Growth and Contribution of Civil

Engineering in India since 1920

Prof P K Sikdar
President, ICT Pvt. Ltd, Green Park, New Delhi
 [email protected]

Contributions from
Prof. S. N. Tripathi, Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Prof. Satish Chandra, Director, Central Roads Research Institute (CRRI), New Delhi
Prof. Bhargab Maitra, Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Prof. A. Veeraraghavan, Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Prof. Prem Krishna, Former Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Roorkee (Now IIT Roorkee)
Prof. Madhira R. Madhav, Former Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Prof. T. I. Eldho, Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Bombay) Mumbai
Prof. P. K. Garg, Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

BACKGROUND history including the Gupta, Maurya and Mughal

dynasties, for the construction of roads and
Growth of Civil Engineering across the world is
bridges. The Grand Trunk Road was started during
synonymous to growth of the modern civilization,
the Mauryan era and completed by subsequent
and therefore, India and the sub-continent is no
rulers such as Sher Shah Suri and Mughal kings.
exception. Every man-made object seen in front
of our eyes has a direct or indirect contribution In the 1830s the then ruling British Government
from Civil Engineering tools, techniques or even started systematic construction of railways,
analysis. The first evidence of road development, metalled roads and bridges, including rebuilding
drainage and planned residential development the Grand Trunk Road and a diverse irrigation
in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to network including canals. The first railway line
approximately around 2800 BC in the ancient in India was opened on 16 April, 1853 between
cities of Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro of the Indus Mumbai and Thane over a distance of 34 km.
Valley Civilization, which were the applications British Governor General William Bentinck had
of civil engineering knowledge and expertise. rebuild the modern Grand Trunk Road from
During the Aryan period in 400 B C, there are Calcutta (now Kolkata) to Delhi with permanent
references in Rig Veda to Mahapathas as the bridges, while Lord Dalhousie took steps for the
travel/communication network, as well as well- formation of the PWD in place of the military
style irrigation techniques. Such developments board in 1885.
using civil engineering skills continued with By the turn of the 19th Century there were 39,834
special impetus given during particular periods of km of railway but road development did not see

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much progress with majority of work remained • Geotechnical Engineering

focussed on feeder roads. During this time, Sir
• Water Resources Engineering
Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya, the Chief Engineer
to the Diwan and a great scholar, was responsible • Geoinformatics/Geomatics
for the construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara Each of these is a vast area now, developed as
dam in Mysore as well as flood protection system complete discipline for specialisation in higher
for the city of Hyderabad. Every year on birthday studies and research. However, the aim here is to
of this great civil engineer of India, ie, September give a brief account of the developments in each
15 is celebrated as Engineer’s Day. of these areas over last one century.
In 1919, the Government of India Act promulgated During the last 100 years a wide range of milestone
that the affairs of all the roads, except those of
achievements can be found to demonstrate
military importance and certain other roads of
the contributions of various Civil Engineering
national importance be transferred from the central
disciplines in application, where most of the areas
government to the provincial governments. On
had more direct as well as indirect or supportive
recommendation of the Jayakar Committee, the
contributions. A collection of such achievements,
Central Road Fund was created in March 1929 and
picked up randomly, is compiled at the end of the
the Indian Road Congress (IRC) was formed in
write up titled as “Achievements in Pictures”.
December 1934, with the objective of promoting
Some of these have been reproduced from the
and encouraging the science for building and
INAE publication entitled, “Glimpses of Indian
maintenance of roads. In 1939 the Motor Vehicles
Engineering Achievements”, published in 2012.
Act was passed to regulate the road traffic. In
1950, Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
was established at New Delhi, which is one of the
Contributed by: Prof. S. N. Tripathi, Professor of Civil
National Laboratories of the Council of Scientific
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
and Industrial Research (CSIR) in India.
Early History
Like all other engineering disciplines, civil
engineering has also spread its wings in all Environmental engineering has been prevalent
directions, six of which are discussed in this since ancient civilizations, in the form of work
paper. All infrastructure developments are in done to improve and control the environmental
the folds of civil engineering in one way or the conditions as required. Through time, people
other, while the particular infrastructure could realized that health is affected directly by the
be used for services being provided by another quality of the environment around them, and so
discipline of engineering. There are plenty of such they started devising systems to improve it. The
examples, like electric power transmission towers earliest examples of Environmental Engineering
or dams for hydro-electric power generation or in India can be seen in the ancient Indus Valley
a reactor dome of a nuclear power plant, and so Civilization (3300 B.C. to 1300 B.C.). The
on. Thus, the last 100 years witnessed tremendous excavated sites show an advanced control over the
developments in India with application of civil water resources [1]. The public work structures at
engineering skills and techniques across all facets all parts of this ancient civilization included public
of life. The six major areas considered here in this baths, wells, water storage facilities, drinking
paper to narrate the growth and contributions of water arrangements, and sewage collection
civil engineering are: structure for the entire city. The ruins also
• Environmental Engineering indicate a canal-like irrigation system facilitating
extensive agriculture [2]. References to forms of
• Transportation Engineering Environmental Engineering can also be found
• Structural Engineering in ancient Sanskrit texts. In Ousruta Sanghita, a

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collection of Indian medical lore, the following below the poverty line subjected to economic
is recorded concerning water. “It is good to keep deprivation and hunger, indicating poor quality of
water in copper vessels, to expose it to sunlight human existence [6]. Following the 1958 serious
and filter through charcoal”[3]. Further, in the water pollution episode in Delhi, the Government
Susruta Samhita (2000 B.C.), it is recorded that of India realized the necessity for an organization
“impure water should be purified by being boiled that could evaluate and mitigate any issue related
over a fire, or being heated in the sun, or dipping to the public health sector. This led to the creation
a hot iron into it, or by filtration through sand of Central Public Health Engineering Research
and coarse gravel and then allowed to cool”. It Institute (CPHERI) [7]. It was established on 8
also discussed the use of Gomedka, derived from April 1958 by Council of Scientific & Industrial
rock and vegetable substances, for treatment of Research (CSIR). The initial objectives were
drinking water. With today’s knowledge, these to solve problems of air and water pollution in
would be considered as coagulants or polymers. urban areas, which involved assisting industries,
Since ancient times, people have been finding anticipating problems and regional development.
practical ways of improving the environment they At that time environmental concerns were
live in. This has, in modern times, evolved into limited to water supply, sewage disposal and
a skilful engineering branch that is derived from communicable diseases. Worldwide awareness on
all broad scientific topics like biology, chemistry, the environmental degradation started garnering
ecology, geology, etc. The goal of this discipline attention towards the late 60’s. Most notably, the
is to protect and improve the health of living United Nations Inter-Governmental Conference
organisms and the quality of the environment. on Human Environment held at Stockholm in
1972, helped India to realize the importance
Evolution of Environmental Engineering of the environmental issues, and as a result,
With the advent of the modern era, it became clear environmental engineering in India evolved into a
that active steps to study and improve the quality of more environmentally extensive field of study. In
the environment were necessary for public health. keeping with the shift in requirements, the Central
In particular, the discovery of bacteriology caused Public Health Engineering Research Institute
a paradigm shift and people realized importance was renamed as the National Environmental
of sanitation engineering [4]. The concept of Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) in 1974.
Environmental Engineering as a discipline started Environmental Engineering Education in
in the form of Sanitation Engineering, which was India
broadly defined as the application of engineering
The Department of Civil Engineering at the
methods to improve sanitation primarily by
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (Formerly
providing removal and disposal of human waste
University of Roorkee) is the oldest in the country
in addition to the supply of safe potable water [5].
offering education in Civil Engineering which
In India, over the years, Sanitation Engineering
encompasses Environmental Engineering. It
evolved into Public Health Engineering and
was established on October 19, 1847 [8]. Indian
then to Environmental Engineering. The role of
Institute of Technology Kanpur, established in
environmental engineering compared to sanitary
1959, was one of the first to have a curriculum in
engineering or public health engineering is that it
Environmental Engineering (under the Department
is much more comprehensive in nature. of Civil Engineering) post-independence in
At the time of India’s independence, the status of India[9]. Education in Environmental Engineering
public health was low evidenced by high rates of is largely provided by engineering institutes all
infant and under five mortality, high fertility rate over the country. In India, teaching and training
and very low life expectancy against the backdrop in environmental engineering are offered both at
of low literacy rate, a large segment of population pre-service and in-service level. The pre-service

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teaching and training is offered in the form of many standards have been implemented and strict
diploma, graduation courses and post-graduation regulations have been enforced by the authorities.
courses by a number of institutes and universities The pollutants from water consumption have
in India [10]. For in-service teaching and training, been addressed by introducing ash pond effluent
the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), recycling since the year 2005 [18]. The use of
Government of India is the nodal ministry in Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) with efficiency of
charge of various aspects of urban development 99.6% has been made mandatory along with the
including Urban Water Supply and Sanitation use of beneficiated coal. These two approaches
(UWSS) and offers in-service training for Public minimize the pollution from particulate matter.
Health Engineering [11]. To control the pollution from Sulphur dioxide and
Oxides of Nitrogen, dispersion in larger area by
Selected Environmental Challenges in
using tall stack height and low NOx burners have
India and Contribution of Environmental
been recommended [19]. These modifications in
Engineering
coal power plants have helped in reduction in
Pollution of river Ganga: A major effort to clean Particulate Matter, Sulphur dioxide and Oxides
the river Ganga was taken up by the Government of of Nitrogen, which in turn have helped in
India in 1985 [12]. It was called the Ganga Action improvement of Ambient Air Quality (AAQ) in
Plan and its objective was the reduction of organic and around the power plants.
load on the river to maintain the Biochemical
Control of Air Quality: In India, ambient air quality
Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Dissolved oxygen
monitoring is carried out under the National Air
(DO) levels within acceptable limits [13]. Many
Monitoring Programme (NAMP). The quality
industries, especially leather industries, along the
of air is assessed by the National Air Quality
river were shut down [14]. In 2010, the Government
Index (AQI). The national AQI was developed in
of India, through Ministry of Environment and
IIT Kanpur and launched by the Prime Minister
Forests, authorized a consortium of seven Indian
of India in April 2015 [20].The AQI converts
Institutes of Technology (IITs), led by IIT Kanpur,
individual air pollutant concentrations to an
to develop a comprehensive Ganga River Basin
indicative number that expresses the air quality
Management Plan (GRBMP) [15]. The first phase
in simple terms. A harmful effect of air pollution
was submitted to the Government in 2015, which
has also been seen on the Taj Mahal. IIT Kanpur
included broad-based strategic measures as well as
studied discoloration of the Taj Mahal and
detailed ready-to-implement actions. As a result,
concluded that it was due to particulate carbon and
the Centre for Ganga River Basin Management
dust deposition [21] arising from municipal solid
and Studies (CGanga) was established at IIT
waste and dung cake burning [22]. More recently,
Kanpur in 2016 [16]. It acts as the action centre
the National Clean Air Program, (NCAP) was
and comprehensive think-tank for GRBMP.
launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest
Regulation of Coal power plants: The use of and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) in January
high ash content coal in power generation leads 2019, with an aim to address air pollution in a
to many environmental problems [17]: Air comprehensive and time-bound manner [23].
pollution involves emission of particulate matter Under this programme, IIT Kanpur is designated
(dust), Sulphur dioxide and Oxides of Nitrogen, as the central nodal Institution and 17 other higher
Green House Gases, and fugitive emission of learning Institutions in 17 different states have
suspended particulate matter. Water pollution is been identified. The goal for each institute is to
also attributed to higher water consumption from act as a knowledge partner for the State Pollution
cooling water discharge and ash pond effluent. The Control Board in each of the states in order to
contribution of Environmental Engineering with achieve better air quality by addressing problems
respect to coal power plants has been enormous as specific to that region.

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Traffic Engineering in India

Deficiencies in the road and transport development Although it is difficult to trace the origin of
have an influence on the growth of agriculture, research in the area of traffic engineering in
industry and commerce for any region in the world, India, but the earliest attempt seems to be the one
but are particularly true of India. The poor state that was made by a team of scientists of Central
of road network and associated developments in Road Research Institute (CRRI), New Delhi on
India almost till the end of twentieth century were collection of traffic volume and speed data at one
primarily due to the following reasons: intersection in New Delhi to design the timings of
• Lack of governmental planning and policy traffic signal in 1957 [24]. This study brought out
initiatives for improving mobility in the some very interesting findings. It was observed
transport network (urban and non-urban) that one tonga (horse cart) takes as much time to
although the First Twenty–Year Road clear the intersection as taken by five cars, and one
Development Plan was finalised as early as in bullock cart takes time to clear the intersection that
the year 1943. is almost 11 times the time taken by motorized
vehicles. Based on these results, a method was
• Appreciation of the requirements of traffic suggested for selecting the optimum time plan
engineering and transport planning was for a traffic signal for the different volumes of
missing in planning and executing agencies, slow and fast moving vehicles. Another study
which gradually changed from mid-seventies.
found that more than 40 % cyclists cannot pedal
• Similarly scientific pavement engineering did their cycle on grades steeper than 3 % when the
not enjoy the confidence and understanding length of the grade is more than 765 ft. (233 m)
from the road authorities. However, a multi- [25]. There are a few other studies on traffic flow
institutional long-term pavement performance analysis as reported in some works, but a study
study was coordinated by CRRI since [26] on saturation flow is worth mentioning here.
beginning of 1980s. The said work perhaps for the first time in India,
This section focuses on the contributions of three related saturation flow at a signal controlled
important elements of transportation engineering intersection with approach width through a linear
– traffic engineering, transport planning and relation as given in Equation (1).
pavement engineering – all of which have a S = 103.5 + 129.5 W (1)
bearing on the mobility and performance of the
transport network. Where, S is the saturation flow in vehicles per
hour of green and W is the approach width in feet.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
The above study gave a fillip to the work on
Contributed by: Prof. Satish Chandra, Director, highway capacity in different parts of the country
Central Roads Research Institute (CRRI), New Delhi and researchers developed the relationships
Introduction between percent bicycle and capacity [27],
between auto rickshaw and speed of traffic stream
The field of Traffic Engineering began with the
[28], and between saturation flow and radius of
classical work of Greenshields in 1933 when
right turn at intersection [29].
he conducted field experiments to define and
measure three fundamental parameters of traffic The use of computers in traffic flow analysis in
flow: speed, traffic density and traffic flow. Traffic India was introduced by Marwah [30] when a
flow theory in last 86 years has been developed simulation model was developed to evaluate
extensively and researchers worldwide now use the interaction between vehicles in terms of
latest technologies to control and manage the passenger car unit (PCU) factors. A non-linear
traffic on highways and in urban areas. conditional multiplicative model was derived for

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interaction among three categories of vehicles on

urban roads. A similar work was reported [31], (2)
which developed a simulation model to relate
Where, Vc and Vi are the speeds of car and
traffic speed with traffic volume and composition
vehicle type i respectively and Ac and Ai are
of traffic stream on a mid-block section of urban
their respected projected rectangular areas.
road. The authors developed PCU factors for
Later, another study [34] suggested a simple
eight different types of vehicles. Simulation has
concept of stream equivalency factor to convert a
been established as a very vital tool for the traffic
heterogeneous traffic stream in to a homogeneous
analyst, in getting to know more about the traffic
equivalent without determining the PCU values of
flow and to verify the performance of control different types of vehicles.
systems. Cellular automata, a new entrant to this
area, introduced a concept of minimal modelling, Research on traffic flow analysis in India
against the complex modelling procedures being received a great impetus in 2012 when a major
used in conventional simulation [32]. The model study was undertaken by the Central Road
is used to study the behaviour of heterogeneous Research Institute (CRRI) in collaboration with
traffic such as lane changing, incident occurrence, seven academic institutes in different parts of
and the effect of different composition of traffic. the country to develop the Highway Capacity
The study using cellular automata gives a new Manual for Indian conditions. The manual (called
Indo-HCM) was ready in 2017 and it covers all
computationally efficient model for heterogeneous
types of traffic facilities ranging from single lane
traffic. However, this model can handle only
roads to multilane highways and expressways,
unidirectional traffic at midblock sections.
intersections, roundabouts and pedestrian
The first attempt to collect extensive field data facilities.
and to develop speed – flow diagrams for different TRANSPORT PLANNING
categories of intercity roads in India was made
Contributed by: Prof. Bhargab Maitra, Professor
during Road User Cost Study (RUCS) by Kadiyali
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
under the aegis of CRRI. Several studies were
Kharagpur
conducted after publication of this report in 1982
in different parts of the country on determination of Introduction
PCU factors for different categories of the vehicles The transport sector in India has undergone an
plying on Indian roads and also to evaluate speed- extensive transformation in all four major areas
flow diagrams for urban and rural highways. A of transport, including rail, road, water, and air
number of empirical studies have postulated a transportation. India has the second largest road
linear relationship between space mean speed network in the world comprising of over 5.6
and volume of different categories of vehicles million kilometres [35] of National Highways,
on a road. This functional form did not serve as a State Highways, District Roads, Urban Roads,
satisfactory basis for developing a theory of traffic Rural Roads and also the worlds fourth largest
flow, but it was used to derive PCU factors, which rail network of more than 1.2 million kilometre
were later found to be unacceptable. Several track length [36]. The Civil Aviation sector has
other methods were attempted in different studies, also grown extensively while the water transport
but the method proposed in a special study [33] system has experienced moderate growth.
received wider acceptability in India as well as in Transport planning, as a specialized are a of Civil
other developing nations having similar type of Engineering, did get very limited attention during
mixed traffic. This method is based on the ratio of the initial stage of the development in independent
speed and area of a vehicle category with respect India. However, the role of engineering expertise
to passenger car as given in Equation (2). for formulating sustainable plan and policy was

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realized over the time and subsequently the area due to strategic national security reasons. During
of transport planning has emerged as an integral this period, practically very limited attention
part of the major policy decisions in transport was paid to futuristic plan for the development
sector. of the transport systems commensurate with the
expected growth of demand.
The transformation of Indian transport systems
and the transport policy can be outlined in several Emergence of the Transport Planning
distinct phases. The initial phase was a dominance The urbanization without ‘urban planning’
of infrastructure development which was and without ‘transport planning’ and resulting
followed by the realization of need for transport demand supply imbalance exposed Indian cities
planning and thus its emergence. The third phase to multifaceted challenges in terms of aggravating
experienced a paradigm shift with a focus on congestion, vehicular emissions, and consequent
enhancing rural connectivity. Thereafter, transport degradation of quality of urban life. Therefore,
planning and policy have experienced various with a prolonged focus on the infrastructure
innovative experimentations and advancements. development over the period, the real need for
Finally, in recent times, the transport sector is strategic planning of transport system was felt in
going through a major transformation with the the early 80s and emphasis was given on planning
concept of long-term sustainable development. based on analytical and scientific evidence, and
Infrastructural Development Phase building up good database. Accordingly, in the
Seventh Five Years plan (1985-1990), it was
During the initial periods, the focus was largely
proposed to set up an Inter-disciplinary Group on
on developing the physical infrastructure such as
Transport in the Planning Commission to carry
road network, rail network, docks and harbours,
out systematic transport planning studies on a
etc. and rehabilitation of the roads and rail
unified basis, and to establish linkages with CSIR,
network was subjected to unprecedented strain
Universities and major research institutions in the
due to increased demand. Further, the primary
country. Subsequently, transport planning started
focus of the developments in the transport sector
to play a crucial role in various policy decisions
was the movement of freight by road and rail to
including plan for new generation roads for
satisfy the need of the industry and agricultural
high density corridors with provision of divided
sectors. However, the passenger transport sector
carriageway facilities, preparation of long-term
practically got very limited attention except for
master plans for the development of roads, and
some administrative reforms such as establishing systematic economic appraisal to replace schemes
public transport undertakings and some prepared on ad-hoc basis. During this period,
investments on the expansion of the vehicle fleet the need for research on transport planning and
of the public transport corporations. Thus, until highway economics, and promotion of energy
late 70s, the concept of transport planning and conservation and eco-friendly modes such as
traffic engineering was a sparse idea to consider electric vehicle also got significant appreciations.
and the Transportation Engineering largely dealt Transport planning has also played a significant
with the development of infrastructures. role in providing engineering solutions for (a)
The infrastructural expansion actions were largely improving the chaotic state of urban transport
reactive in nature and restricted to the expansion system in terms of aggravating congestion, delay,
of the network and increasing the supply of environmental pollution and accidents, as well as
rolling stocks to satisfy the increased demand. (b) rational planning measures to achieve a good
Rural transport and the connectivity to the land-use pattern that would restrain the growth of
sensitive boarder regions also got some attention transport demand.

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Transport Planning and Emphasis on Rural which indicates the need for more comprehensive
Connectivity planning and context specific strategic solutions.
With increasing traffic volume and expansion of
With the emergence of transport planning and
road network, challenges were also foreseen with
growing aspiration with economic development,
respect to road safety and management of road
the need for improving rural connectivity,
network assets.
faster completion of projects, and maintenance
programme was realized. Accordingly, the Considering the challenges faced in the old cities
ambitious National Highways Development due to unplanned development, the concept of
Project (NHDP), which was and later continued sustainable development has now taken the centre
with ‘Bharatmala’ name was initiated in late 1990s stage. The philosophy of transport planning
to upgrade, rehabilitate and widen major highways has transformed from reactive to proactively
in India to a higher standard. This project also predicting future demand (demand modelling)
gave birth to several visionary initiatives such as and taking up rational policies commensurate
the development of Golden Quadrilateral, North- to the need of the day and beyond. Inclusion of
South and East-West corridors, port connectivity, user cost in the project evaluation has changed
etc. During the early stage of the 21st century, a the entire perspective of transport planning from
number of significant transformative initiatives the finance driven policy to a need based people
have been taken up by the Government of India centric policy perspective. Thus, behavioural
including the Pradhan Matri Gram Sadak Yojana research has emerged as one of the key players
(PMGSY) for connecting villages through all- in rational planning, decision making, and
weather roads, involving private sector through execution of transport projects. Further, over the
BOT schemes for building roads and ensuring their time, the approach of demand modelling has also
efficient maintenance using the fund generated transformed from aggregate models [37] to more
through toll tax (users paying back to availing comprehensive disaggregate modelling [38-40]
better facility), and promising mass transit projects to activity based models and tour based models
such as metro rail and BRT systems in different [41, 42] for their superior ability to capture the
cities. Therefore, technological innovations have true travel behaviour of the individuals. Stated
played an important role in transforming Indian preference (SP) and/or revealed preference (RP)
data have been used extensively for analysing
transport system during this period.
the present travel characteristics, identifying
New Challenges and Sustainability the needs of the road users, and to predict the
In the past few decades, India is experiencing rapid travel characteristics with respect to the future
urbanization and the private vehicle ownership is developments [43-45].
growing at a faster rate, like never before, due to Vehicular emissions and the resulting pollution
the availability of favourable financial schemes has become a major concern in most cities.
and lack of interest towards availing the public Therefore, various policies have been taken
transport system. Such a scenario is aggravating up for promoting public transport, use of non-
the traffic congestion and pollution levels in the conventional and cleaner electric energy, solar
cities and posing threat to the quality of urban life. energy, wind energy, bio-gas, etc. in the vehicles.
Metro rail and Bus Rapid Transit systems have A number of recent policies such as emphasis on
been introduced in some of the cities to ensure electric vehicle (battery operated vehicles, hybrid
more efficient movement of people and to reduce and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, fully electric
congestion and vehicular emission. Though the vehicle) and electrification of highways are likely
metro rail projects in most of the cases have been to bring in a huge transformation in the transport
a success, the BRT schemes got a mixed response sector in coming time.

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Along with augmenting the connectivity and ‘Smart City’ is an excellent opportunity to develop
mobility, improvement of road safety scenarios the urban transport system in a planned manner
in urban and rural roads has drawn considerable in order to ensure sustainable development and
attention in recent years. Several initiatives and enhanced liveability index in the cities.
major policy decisions have been taken by the
Numerous researches have been dedicated in the
Governments including systematic safety audit of
domain of transport planning including travel
roads, improving the safety features in vehicles,
behaviour analysis, evaluation of transport
and promoting road safety awareness among the
systems, operation and management of transport
citizens.
systems and facilities. Various sophisticated tools
The importance of long-term planning and rational such as TransCAD, TRANSYT, Cube, VISSIM
decision making for highway development and micro simulation, etc. have also been used for
pavement management has also been recognized. analysing transport systems and making rational
Sophisticated tools such as Highway Development transport planning and traffic management
and Management (HDM Tool/ Model), which decisions. Recent works on road safety have been
was developed under World Bank Project, has helpful to improve the accident data recording
been calibrated under Indian conditions and system, develop technical analysis capacity for
used extensively not only for project appraisal accident modelling (i.e., crash frequency and
but also for predicting the economic, social, and severity models), black-spot identification and
environmental impacts that might occur while investigation for developing countermeasures, etc.
making investment decisions. (46-48). Mandatory road safety audit at all stages
of developments for major transport projects has
Transport Planning and Way Forward been a welcome step towards achieving better
The role of transport planning in the transport safety standards.
sector in India has transformed over the years. The changing lifestyle of the growing population
However, largely the deliberate/directed transport always has a push on the travel demand, and
planning has been limited to big cities only with new challenges are emerging which may require
very little done for Tire-II cities, and big transport innovative and context specific solutions. It is also
projects such as the development of highways necessary to augment the human resources with
and expressways, metro rail corridors, large scale the domain knowledge/expertise through formal
elevated corridors, etc. A comprehensive and academic curriculum as a part of Civil Engineering
rational strategic planning is generally absent in a more comprehensive manner. Presently,
in the case of developing small to medium size the transport planning courses are taught in the
facilities related to transport even in the big cities higher studies only in a very limited number of
which makes the projects vulnerable. The need for institutes in India, which appears to be inadequate
promoting non-motorized transport in the cities as compared to the number of experts required in
has been recognized in principle, but practically, this domain. Therefore, attention should be given
there has been very limited effort on ground to to augment the capacity in academic/research
realize the policy. Lack of rational planning has and training institutes to develop well trained
been the key reason behind the failure of such human resources in order to satisfy the future
initiatives in many cases. A rational policy for needs. While transport planning has emerged as a
guided development of the transport systems in domain knowledge for ensuring optimal planning
the small and medium size cities is the need of the of transport facility developments, more efforts
hour for avoiding the foreseeable chaos in future are required to ensure sustainability in case of
as observed in the big cities. The scheme like projects in urban and rural areas.

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PAVEMENT ENGINEERING of the subgrade soil and the traffic volume in

Contributed by: Prof. A. Veeraraghavan, Professor number of commercial vehicles per day classified
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology in different ranges to design the thickness of the
Madras (Chennai) pavement layers. The CBR method of pavement
design gives the total thickness requirement of the
Introduction pavement above the subgrade and this thickness
The pavements are generally classified as flexible value would remain the same irrespective of the
pavements and rigid pavements, depending on quality of the materials used in the pavement
the structural action. The flexible pavements are layers. Similarly, the commercial traffic volume
generally bituminous surfaced pavements with is considered only in number and the load carried
granular base and sub-base layers over a prepared by the commercial vehicles is not accounted in
subgrade. However, for low volume rural the design.
(village) roads, the requirement of bituminous IRC Method of Flexible Pavement Design as per
surface is optional. The loads are expected to be IRC:37-1984
transferred to the subgrade through grain to grain
contact of the materials in the pavement layers. The Indian Roads Congress revised the guidelines
The rigid characteristics of concrete pavements for the design of flexible pavements based on the
are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or concept of Cumulative Standard Axle (CSA)
slab action and the load is distributed over a wider loads, rather than considering the number of
area of the subgrade soil. The major function commercial vehicles only, and published it as
of the pavement engineering is to design the IRC:37-1984. The design traffic is defined in terms
pavement structure so that repeated applications of cumulative number of standard axles with load
of wheel loads can be carried without major in equivalents of 8160 kg, which is the standard
distresses. The objective the design is to minimize axle load considered for the design of pavements.
the life cycle cost, viz. initial construction cost, When the trucks carry heavy loads, they cause
periodic maintenance cost, road user cost, and to severe damage to the pavements. Thus, there is
avoid delay to traffic due to frequent maintenance a need to consider the spectrum of axle loads to
interventions, etc. assess the cumulative number of standard axle
loads and for the mixed commercial vehicles with
Design of Flexible Pavements in India different axle loads, these are to be converted to
Flexible Pavement Design as per IRC:37-1970 cumulative number of standard axle load, NS to
cater for the design traffic using the equation (3).
Many tests are known for the measurement of the
strength properties of the subgrade and objective (3)
is not to overstress the subgrade. The California where,
Bearing Ratio (CBR) test, though empirical, has
correlation with the design of pavements in India. A = Number of commercial vehicles per
The CBR tests were carried out by the California day when construction is completed
State Highways Department on existing highway considering the number of lanes
pavement layers including subgrade, sub-base r = Annual growth rate of commercial
and base course. Based on the extensive CBR vehicles
test data collected on pavements which behaved
n = design of pavement taken as 10 to 15
satisfactorily an empirical design chart was
years
developed correlating the CBR value and the
pavement thickness. The Indian Roads Congress F = vehicle damage factor, equivalent
(IRC) adopted the CBR design chart, similar to to number of standard axles
the one followed in the UK considering CBR per commercial vehicle on the road

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stretch. This is a factor for converting fracture of the bituminous layer during the
the number of commercial vehicles design life, and
of different axle loads to the number of c) Pavement deformation within the bituminous
standard axle load repetitions. layer.
The total thickness requirement is determined Based on the performance of existing designs
using a design chart considering, NS in million and using analytical approach, simple design
standard axles (msa) as obtained above and the charts and a catalogue of pavement design were
soaked CBR value of the subgrade soil determined presented for use by field engineers. The design
in the laboratory. The IRC has also suggested thickness estimation required design traffic in
minimum thickness of the pavement component terms of cumulative number of standard axles and
layers viz., sub-base, base course and surfacing CBR value of the subgrade.
course for various ranges of cumulative standard
axles expected during the design life. The design IRC Method of Flexible Pavement Design as per
chart is applicable for traffic up to 30 msa, but IRC:37-2012
users freely extrapolated for higher msa values, if Over the years, the volume and composition of
the estimated value exceeded 30 msa. commercial vehicles, viz., tandem, tridem and
IRC Method of Flexible Pavement Design as per multi-axle vehicles increased manifolds. While
IRC:37-2001 heavier axle loads were found to be common,
experience has also been gained on the use of
With increasing traffic and incidence of new forms of construction and materials, such
overloading, the arterial roads are to be designed as stone matrix asphalt, modified binder, foamed
for traffic far greater than 30 msa, and the bitumen, bitumen emulsion, warm mix asphalt,
empirical methods have limitations regarding cementitious base and sub-base, etc. Conventional
their applicability with extrapolation. Therefore, and commercially available chemical soil
analytical method of design has been used to re- stabilizers were also being used successfully in
analyse the existing designs for design traffic up some cases. Fatigue resistant bituminous mixtures
to 150 msa, making use of the results of pavement with high viscosity binders are also available to
research work done in the country and experience cater to heavy traffic load repetitions. Thus, the
gained over the years on the performance of the new design guidelines was presented, which
existing designs. included pavements with bituminous surfacing
The flexible pavement is modelled as a three- layer over:
layer structure and stresses and strains at critical a) Granular base and sub-base
locations were computed using linear elastic model
(FPAVE) developed under MORT&H’s research b) Cementitious bases and sub-bases with crack
scheme R-56 on Analytical design of Flexible relief layer of aggregate interlayer below the
Pavements. The analytical design considered bituminous surfacing
three types of pavement distresses resulting from c) Cementitious bases and sub-bases with
repeated application of traffic loads, as follows: SAMI in-between bituminous surfacing and
the cementitious base layer for retarding the
a) Vertical compressive strain at the top of the
reflection cracks into the bituminous layer
subgrade. If the strain value is excessive, the
subgrade will deform resulting in permanent d) Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) with or
deformation at the pavement surface during without addition of fresh aggregates treated
the design life, with foamed bitumen/bitumen emulsion.
b) Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the Consideration of effective CBR of the selected
bituminous layer. Large tensile strains cause subgrade and the embankment soil, Resilient

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modulus of the subgrade soil using empirical the edge loads. The wheel load stresses in the edge
relationship, fatigue and rutting models for and corner load positions were considered for the
the bituminous layers and fatigue cracking in design, and if needed, the thickness requirement
cementitious layers were some of the salient was adjusted so that the allowable stresses were
features of this code of practice. not exceeded. The spacing of joints was also
designed and the design procedures for dowel
IRC Method of Flexible Pavement Design as per
bars and tie bars were furnished.
IRC:37-2018
Guidelines for the Design of Rigid Pavements for
The fourth revision of the IRC code on design of
Highway as per IRC: 58-1988
flexible pavements is based on the experiences
on the performance of bituminous pavements in In order to accommodate the revised legal limit
general and that of bituminous layers in particular. on the maximum laden axle-loads of commercial
The salient features of the current method of vehicles from 8160 kg to 10200 kg, suitable
pavement design are: (a) recommendations on modifications have been incorporated. Therefore,
better performing binders and bituminous mixes the stipulated design wheel load was 5100 kg and
for surface and base/binder courses (b) guidelines the revised range of tyre pressures were considered
for the selection of appropriate moduli for the for the commercial vehicles as 5.3 to 7.3 kg/
bituminous mixes that are used in binder and sq.cm. The edge load stresses were calculated
surface courses (c) recommendations on the using Westergaard’s equation modified by Teller
minimum thickness of granular and cement treated and Sutherland. However, use of this equation
sub-base and base course layers from functional had a limitation, viz. non-consideration of the
requirements (d) generalized procedure for the configuration of the wheels. The temperature
estimation of the effective resilient modulus / stress at the critical edge region was calculated
CBR of subgrade (e) provision for the use of using Westergaard analysis using Bradbury’s
geosynthetics and (f) rationalization of design coefficient.
approach for stage construction.
Design charts for arriving at edge load stress and
Design of Rigid Pavements in India corner stress for various values of foundation
reaction modulus ranging from 6 to 30 kg/cu.cm
IRC Method of Rigid Pavement Design as per
for different ranges of slab thickness considering
IRC: 58-1974
a design wheel load of 5100 kg were incorporated
The IRC method of pavement design considered in the code. The adequacy of design thickness was
wheel load of 4100 kg with a tyre inflation pressure evaluated based on the factor of safety available
5.3 to 6.3 kg/sq.cm. The traffic volume was with respect to the edge stress and the residual
projected for 20 years period after construction. strength of concrete for support. Also the adequacy
The traffic intensity was classified into different of the concrete slab thickness with respect to
groups and adjustment for the pavement design the corner stress (using Westergaard’s equation
thickness was made. The temperature differentials modified by Kelley) was checked. Depending on
for slabs of different thickness for various states the traffic, adjustment factors to pavement slab
and regions were considered along with the thickness are given to account for different traffic
modulus of subgrade reaction for the design. The intensity. The guideline for design and spacing of
flexural strength of concrete for the pavement dowel and tie bars was also incorporated.
design was considered to be not less than 40 kg/
Guidelines for Design of Plain Jointed Rigid
sq.cm. The warping stress at the edge region was
Pavements for Highways as per IRC: 58-2002
calculated and this value was subtracted from the
allowable flexural stress in concrete to compute The second revision of the IRC code on design
the residual strength of the pavement to support of rigid pavements is based on revision of the

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legal limit on the maximum laden axle loads Guidelines for Design of Plain Jointed Rigid
of commercial vehicles from 8160 kg to 10200 Pavements for Highways as per IRC:58-2011
kg. The code was revised keeping in view the The revised guideline were applicable to roads
advances made in the methods of analysis and with average daily traffic volume (with laden
design all over the globe. The guidelines were weight exceeding 3 Tonne) in excess of 450.
applicable for roads catering to daily commercial The rationalized design procedure considered
traffic volume (vehicles with laden weight the present trend of vehicle fleet with various
exceeding 3T) exceeding 150. The early approach axle load spectrum, cumulative fatigue damage
to the design for rigid pavements was based on due to the combined effect of load and pavement
Westergaard’s analysis. The revised guideline temperature variations. Finite element analysis
caters to computation of the flexural stress was carried out for pavements with and without
for placement of single and tandem axle load (a) dowelled transverse joints and (b) tied concrete
configuration along the edge. Instead of factor shoulders. The salient design features considered
of safety approach, a methodology to check the in the guideline are,
adequacy of the slab thickness using cumulative
1. Combined flexural stress under simultaneous
fatigue damage approach was adopted.
action of load and temperature gradients for
The criteria for design of dowel bars were different categories of axles,
revised. To take care of the unpredicted heavy
2. Bottom up and top down fatigue cracking
truck loads in pavement design, load safety factor
caused by single, tandem and tridem axle
was introduced while computing the stresses in
configurations,
pavement. Emphasis was made in the code for
the design of pavement for 98th percentile axle 3. Inbuilt permanent curl in the analysis of
load and then the design was to be checked for flexural stresses, and
fatigue life for higher axle loads. The design 4. Pavements without concrete shoulders and
period was enhanced to 30 years from 20 years with tied concrete shoulders.
as stipulated in the previous version of the code.
For the design in absence of actual traffic data, a
The traffic growth rate of 7.5% was suggested
revised minimum growth rate of 5% was suggested.
for rural highways in absence of actual data. The
Since the edge flexural stress is influenced by the
recommendations stipulated in IRC:15-2002,
lateral distribution characteristics of wheel paths
with regard to provision of Dry Lean Concrete
of the commercial vehicles, 25 % of the total two
(DLC) in case of lesser subgrade supporting
way commercial traffic was to be considered as
capacity were included. Emphasis for provision
the design traffic for two lane two way roads for
of drainage layer below the pavement layer for the analysis of bottom-up cracking (BUC). In
the road width was emphasized. case of multilane divided highways, 25 % of total
A computer programme IITRIGID was developed traffic in the direction of predominant traffic was
at IIT Kharagpur for computation of edge load to be considered for the design of pavement for
stress for single and tandem axle loads. The code bottom-up cracking. The design traffic for top-
also recommends provision of paved shoulder to down crack (TDC) analysis was considered to
be provided up to 1.5m beyond the pavement edge be a portion of the design traffic considered for
to prevent erosions and entry of debris between bottom up cracking analysis.
pavement slab and foundation when slab curls A minimum subgrade CBR of 8 % was
upwards. Further, in order to protect foundation recommended in the design. The code stipulates
layer from loss of strength due to erosion, code a minimum thickness of 150mm DLC for major
recommends to extent the DLC by 40 to 50 cm highways. Based on the theoretical analysis,
towards the shoulder. effective K values for the DLC sub-base were to be

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computed corresponding to different K values of pavement design was considered to be not less
subgrade. However, an upper limit of 300 MPa/m than 40 kg/sq.cm for 28 days. The maximum day-
is recommended considering the loss of subgrade time temperature differential in slab and night-
support expected to be caused by heavy traffic. time temperature differential in slab in various
A minimum 28 days flexural strength of 4.5 MPa states and regions of the country are considered.
for pavement quality concrete is recommended, Cumulative fatigue Damage (CDF) analysis for
while the 90 day strength of paving concrete is Bottom-up Cracking (BUC) for day-time (6 hour)
utilized in the design. However, provision exists traffic and Top-Down Cracking (TDC) and fatigue
to have higher strength of concrete as an input analysis for night-time (6 hour) traffic were
factor in the design. calculated and ensured that they are less than 1.0
(i.e., CFD for TDC and BUC criteria put together
For a given pavement structure, charts were shall be less than 1 for thickness adequacy of
developed to obtain the edge flexural stress caused slab design). The design for spacing of joints and
by a specified magnitude of single/tandem axle in method for design of dowel bars and tie bars are
combination with a temperature differential. The given in detail. Further, the influence of good
same can also be computed using the regression drainage layer is also included in the code.
equations developed. The influence of traffic with
respect to the time duration on the cumulative Developments in Pavement Construction
fatigue damage for cracking analysis (TDC & Technology
BUC) is incorporated. The CFD for TDC and Over the last few decades, several new and
BUC criteria was to be evaluated and each shall modern construction equipment have been
respectively be less than 1 for safe slab design. introduced. With the availability of modern
To prevent the top down cracking during the construction machinery, the quality of road/
night hours, the spacing of contraction joints is highway construction has improved and
limited to 4.5m. The code recommends provision accelerated. Use of vibratory rollers, sensor
of longitudinal joints for slab widths greater than pavers etc., enhanced the quality of construction
4.5m to allow transverse contraction and warping. of bituminous pavements. Use of slip form paving
The design procedure for dowel bar and tie bar enhanced the quality of construction of concrete
design is also provided in the guidelines. pavements. New materials like commercially
available soil stabilizers improved the strength of
Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid
the lower pavement layers and reduced the total
Pavements for Highways as per IRC:58-2015
thickness of the pavement. New materials like
The fourth revision of the IRC code on design of geosynthetics are used in highway construction
rigid pavements considered projection of traffic to enhance drainage, serve as a separation layer,
volume for 30 years period after construction. cater to slope stability, improve strength of soil
The current version of the code brings in the and aggregate layers and also to retard reflection
rationalized design procedure by considering the cracking in bituminous layers. Modified binders
cumulative fatigue damage due to the combined like Crumb Rubber Modified Binder (CRMB),
effect of load and temperature gradients. Apart Polymer Modified Binders (PMB) are used to
from the salient design features considered in enhance the life of bituminous pavement layers
the previous version of the code, additionally and reduce the life cycle cost. Use of waste
concrete slabs with unbounded and bonded materials like waste plastics in bituminous mixes
cement bound sub-base course and design of is adopted extensively in rural road construction.
pavements with widened outer lanes are included. Industrial wastes like slag are also used in highway
The traffic intensity was classified based on axle construction. Cold bituminous mixes are found to
load spectrums of rear single, tandem and tridem be environment friendly and are adopted in the
axles. The flexural strength of concrete for the construction of several thousand km of rural roads

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under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana. General

As the green technology for road construction, Structural Engineering, a vitally important
porous pavements and use of recycled plastic branch of Civil Engineering, is not exactly
waste are emerging in a great way. limited in its application and importance to the
Developments in Maintenance and mother discipline of Civil Engineering. The
Management of Pavements development of Civil Engineering - bridges,
towers, buildings – residential, corporate, as well
Use of modern equipment, like HAWKEYE,
as industrial – and for irrigation, related both to
ROad Measurement and Data Acquisition System
the superstructure and the substructure, requires
(ROMDAS), Falling Weight Deflectometer
inputs from Structural Engineering. Besides this,
(FWD), hand-held roughometer, etc., enabled
space applications, generation of energy (thermal,
better evaluation of the structural and functional
hydro, wind, solar, nuclear), Oil, Chemical, and
condition of the pavements. With better
Manufacturing industries require substantial
assessment of the condition of the pavements,
inputs from Structural Engineering. In the context
the rehabilitation treatment decisions improved
however, the ambit is that of Civil Engineering.
from thumb rule based design to scientific method
of design. Preventive maintenance treatments Developments with respect to the various aspects
like fog seal, slurry seal, micro-surfacing have of Structural Engineering over the last 100
been introduced in the specifications for road years, and consequently their influence on the
construction and maintenance. Poorly performing developments of Civil Engineering, would be seen
bituminous mixes like Penetration Macadam, to be similar across the world. Only, there may be
Built-Up Spray Grout, Bituminous Macadam, phase differences – the technologically developed
Open Graded Pre-Mix Carpet are slowly getting world is experiencing these earlier than the
phased out of the construction and maintenance developing one. The main aspects are structural
practices. Recycling of pavement materials are form, knowledge of loading, analytical capability,
adopted in several road projects in India. Both materials, and constructional technology. It is
cold and hot recycling techniques are adopted in interesting to note that these aspects are not on
the rehabilitation of several highway pavements their own, but are inter-related. This section
to reduce the virgin aggregate consumption in attempts to study the aforesaid aspects and their
road construction. White Topping is adopted inter-relation, in two consecutive time-frames - a
successfully in several urban roads in many cities couple of centuries prior to 1920 (briefly), and
in the country. Road Asset Management is gaining the last 100 years (in more detail). Whereas the
momentum and guidelines are under preparation narrative embraces the International scenario too,
by the Indian Roads Congress for the maintenance the examples where cited, are from India.
and management of the road assets in the country. Structural Form
At department levels/local self-government
Starting primarily with timber and stone masonry
levels, positive attempts are made to develop a
arches for bridges, building roofs and aqueducts,
scientific approach towards the maintenance of
and domes for monuments etc., in earlier centuries,
existing road network by developing indigenous
the 19th century saw the development of steel
road maintenance management system, which
girder bridges and the early version of suspension
also facilitates planning for maintenance and
bridges, such as the Niagara Fall bridge, using
funding requirements.
steel cables and girders. The development has
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING continued unabated, and, has been strengthened in
Contributed by: Prof. Prem Krishna, Former Professor a big way with the introduction of cement concrete,
& Head of Civil Engineering, University of Roorkee and later, pre-stressed concrete. Thus, we see the
(Now IIT Roorkee) multi-storeyed building form, shells, hyperbolic

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cooling towers and chimneys. The advent and was mostly limited. Perhaps this was because
renaissance of steel as a construction material, and the affected regions were not much populated
the development of higher strength and weldable or developed. Formally, work in the field of
steels, being used in industrial buildings, latticed earthquake engineering to study in earnest its
steel space structures, membrane roof systems, implications in structural design was initiated at
and the like large industrial sheds, exhibition and the University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee) in
sports complexes, taller skyscrapers, cable stayed the 1950s. The pioneering work at Roorkee has
and suspension bridges of longer spans. Steel – been followed up through standardisation and
Concrete composites have pushed the range of practice to make it incumbent upon the designer
possibilities further. to consider earthquake effects in the design of
structures, across the board.
Capabilities in terms of spans have gone up to
3.3 km for bridges; 250 m for roofs; over one km Wind storms have likewise been known to occur
in building heights. In India, the corresponding in India ever before, mostly on the east coast.
dimensions are 500 m for bridge spans and 300 These did indeed cause considerable death and
m for building heights. It is a point to study how destruction due to the collapse of non-engineered
the various facets of Structural Engineering have huts and flooding, in some parts of the country, and
developed over the years to enable the realisation particularly in Bangladesh, then part of undivided
of such mind - boggling structures. Bengal. Engineered structures were mostly stocky
and thus wind loading was not a great concern.
Loading – related Assessment and
However, the last 100 years, as mentioned earlier
Understanding
too, have experienced great change in this respect.
Conventional loading on structures – live, Hence, a good assessment of wind loads and
dead, snow, temperature created, water current, effects on structures, including the aerodynamics
and so on, has been known and used for long. of their response, became increasingly more
As experience has grown, so has the database important. This is another area in the assessment
of information about these design loads, thus of design loads that has developed well through
enabling to bring about greater realism to their studies made at the IISc Bangalore, University of
adoption in design. However, there are loads such Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee), IIT Kanpur, SERC
as ‘dynamic’, ‘seismic’ and ‘wind’ loading, about Madras, and through standardisation and practice.
which knowhow has, by and large, developed
Analysis and Design
over the last 100 years.
This can be viewed in two parts. One is the
It was known earlier too that moving machinery
development of theories based on mechanics,
or vehicles caused vibrations in the structure
principles of which were undoubtedly understood
supporting these. This was taken into account by
for centuries. The other is the development of
using an ‘Impact Factor’, with which the static
capabilities in computing through the evolution
load values were multiplied. However, as the
of high speed digital computers, which in turn
overall scenario of structures in terms of their
owe their dramatic growth in the last 50 years to
geometry, mass, material, and loads has continued
the developments in Physics and Electronics (and
to alter substantially, the subject of structural
miniaturization). Both of these have influenced
vibrations has been studied in great detail, and its
the design of structural systems. Examples can be
implications to safety, comfort and fatigue have
given here of the developments of approximate
been understood much more clearly.
closed form or numerical solutions to overcome
Similarly, whereas there is a history of earthquakes partially the handicap of not having fast computing
having occurred in India over the centuries and facilities that became available in the post 1950
having caused damage and destruction, this period. Later, the ‘Matrix Methods’ of analysis and

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the ‘Finite Element Method’ developed primarily construction industry in adopting large or tall
in the wake of the digital computers. From the buildings, or slender long span bridge structures.
viewpoint of computing, it can be said that it was One very great advantage that steels have
a challenge to solve 06 simultaneous algebraic afforded is through their higher strength-weight
equations in the 1950s. Today that number can be ratio which leads to reduced dead weight, saving
in hundreds of thousands with the equations being in usable space, lighter load on foundations. As
nonlinear too, if necessary. Whereas one had to a structure gets taller or longer in span, the live
travel kilometers to use a mainframe computer load to dead load stress ratio becomes smaller.
located in a huge room in the 1950s, today you This implies that the structural system begins to
carry this facility in the palm of your hand, and, it be utilized increasingly by its own dead weight. It
will be farcical to compare the memory and speed is, therefore, imperative to use materials with high
of operation with that of the computers of the strength weight ratios to keep the dead weight to
1950s. Thus, in the 1950s, cable stayed bridges a minimum. In the context of a tall building, the
were being designed with very few cable stays in column cross sections will become un-manageable
order to minimize the degree of indeterminacy, with materials of low strength, and useful floor
and the resulting equations to solve. Today, long space will be wasted besides increasing the load
span cable stayed bridges can be seen to have on the foundations. With the use of high strength
hundreds of stays. Now, a steel space truss or a steels this problem can be overcomed effectively.
network of cables with thousand members, can be In the case of large covered spaces using arches
analysed without any difficulty. Use of the Matrix or space frames, the same logic is applicable. The
Method or the FEM for the analysis of frames, deployment of suspended/tension systems further
plates or shells does also indeed lend itself to a enhances this advantage. However, one needs
large number of equations to solve. to be cautioned that unduly reduced mass of the
structural elements, or increased slenderness,
Materials & Implications can give rise to the structure becoming prone to
The materials that have a lion’s share in modern unacceptable instability problems – aerodynamic
civil construction are brick, stone or block or otherwise. Some typical relative strength-
masonry, concrete in different forms, and steel weight ratios are given in the Table 1.
also in various ways. All the other developments Table 1 Typical Relative Strength-Weight
in materials have served special but limited needs, ratios
or have been used for finishing and non-structural
purposes. The growth has kept pace fairly well Mild steel 20
with the demand. Technology for higher strength Higher strength structural steel 80
concretes has been in focus over the last 75 High strength wire steel (1800 Mpa) 240
years, and the concept of ‘High Performance’ has Aluminium alloys 60
evolved. Understandably, there has been great
Medium strength concrete (M30) 04
emphasis on durability of concrete structures.
Alongside, there has been the upgradation of Construction Technology
strength in reinforcing steels, with the one major The conceptualization of Civil Engineering
breakthrough being the evolution of twisted systems, analysis and design of structures
reinforcing bars, which has virtually replaced needed preparation of drawings and construction
plain bars. sequences, must be finally translated to ground.
The other major development is through the use This is where the appropriate back up of
of metals, particularly steel – ranging from mild construction technologies comes into reckoning.
steel to super strength steels particularly used As far as the need for delivering rapidly, the
for cables. This has given great impetus to the infrastructure for habitat, transportation, power

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generation, communication, and so on, this and Prof. Jagdish Narain were the earliest PhDs
will broadly imply capacity of producing and who got their degrees from UK and USA. CSIR
in-situ pouring of large quantities of concrete, founded CBRI and CRRI in the 1950s to study,
curing and finishing; transporting large precast practice and foster this subject in the Building and
elements of concrete; fabricating large quantities Road/Highway fields, respectively. Prof. Dinesh
of steel, and, assembly and erection of elements. Mohan of CBRI and Sri Natarajan of CRRI
Though the world has taken big leaps in evolving have been instrumental in fostering geotechnical
construction techniques, India is still not that engineering. Prof. Prakash and Dr. Bhandari, as
advanced. However, it is heartening to see Directors of CBRI, have advanced the practice of
enough evidence of advancement taking place geotechnical engineering, and similarly special
in our country as well, in large and good quality mention should be made of practitioners like Sri
concrete construction, in computerized analysis, K. R. Datye and Sri Dastidar.
designing and drafting, and computer - controlled
fabrication of skeletal steel structures. Such other Academics
latest developments are the increasing use of Master’s and doctoral programs in SM & FE
drones for geometric control in construction, and started at the Indian Institute of Science in 1957,
the outlook is becoming increasingly modern. followed by University of Roorkee and then the
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING IITs. Academicians from the above institutions
who built up the profession include Profs.
Contributed by: Prof. Madhira R. Madhav, Former
Ranganatham, Siva Reddy, Sridharan, Nagaraj,
Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
etc. from IISc., Shamsher Prakash, Gopal
Technology Kanpur
Ranjan, Swami Saran, Bhavani Singh from
Genesis Roorkee, Ramamurthy, Shashi Gulhati, etc. from
The birth of Geotechnical Engineering coincides IIT Delhi, Anand Krishnan, Madhav Madhira,
approximately with that of The Institution of Kameswara Rao, Yudhvir, etc. from IIT Kanpur,
Engineers (India) with the failures of port structure Alam Singh from Jodhpur University, Nitin Som
at Gothenburg in Sweden and Transcona grain from Jadhavpur University, Ramanatha Iyer
elevator in Canada in 1910-20 period drawing the from Kerala and several others from institutions
attention of Civil Engineers to deal with ground too many to list.
and soil as distinct entities (very different from Challenges
structural materials) and with the publication of
the seminal paper on the concept of effective stress Geotechnical challenges have been because of
(erdbaumechanic) by Karl Terzaghi. Indians were the whole spectrum of difficult or problematic
part of the group that participated and founded soils and ground conditions found across the
the International Society of Soil Mechanics and subcontinent. There are soft marine clays from
Foundation Engineering at Harvard in 1936. The Kandla through Mumbai, Goa, Kochi on the
Indian Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation West Coast to Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip
Engineering (SM & FE) was founded in 1948 by to Haldia on the East, to expansive soils covering
visionaries, such as Sri Gulhati, Dr. K.L. Rao, and the Deccan Plateau, deserts over the North-
others. West, alluvial deposits from Punjab through UP,
Bihar to West Bengal and Assam in the East,
The Pioneers
laterites along Western and Eastern Ghats and
Sri Pious Cuddou, Sri Melkote and one more Chotanagpur hills, glacial deposits, soft rocks and
engineer studied under Terzaghi at MIT and Prof. unstable slopes all along the Himalayan belt from
P.C.Verghese with Casagrande at Harvard. Dr. Arunachal Pradesh though Sikkim, Uttarakhand,
J. Purushottam, Prof. Ramaih, Prof. R. K. Katti Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.

90 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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Developments International Society. Dr. K. L. Rao, Prof. Dinesh

Mohan and Prof. M. R. Madhav were the Vice
Nothing much is known nor seemed to have
Presidents for Asia of the International Society
happened in the field of Geotechnical Engineering
of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
in the pre-independence era except for the fact
Prof. Yudhvir was Vice President for International
that Terzaghi was invited for the Ramapadasagar
Association of Engineering Geology and Prof.
Dam (present day Polavarm) project. It appears
T. Ramamurthy for the International Society of
he introduced the idea of drilling holes for
Rock Mechanics. Dr. R. K. Bhandari has been
investigating the site. The world’s longest earth recognized for his contributions to geotechnical
dam was built at Hirakud near Sambalpur on the engineering by several organizations culminating
river Mahanadi. It was one of the largest multi- in an award from the Slovakian Society and
purpose projects. Several dams, viz., Nagarjuna Lifetime Achievement Award from the Indian
Sagar, Koyna (the first underground powerhouse) National Academy of Engineering.
have been built with the usual challenges of
seepage cut-offs. Development of ports at Kandla, WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
Mumbai, Goa, Kochi, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Contributed by: Prof. T. I. Eldho, Professor of Civil
Paradip and Haldia, etc. involved several deep Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Bombay),
foundations in soft marine soils. Mumbai
Indigenous and unique developments have been Introduction
under-reamed piles for expansive soils by CBRI,
Sustenance of life has the five necessary
sand-wicks (Dastidar) for accelerating radial
elements, and water is one of them. Still in most
consolidation and rammed stone columns (Datye)
cases people do not care about the importance of
for reinforcing soft soils. Recent achievements are water management and hydraulic structures in the
the 24 m and 42 m high block-faced reinforced development of the nation. Misuse of the available
earth walls at Vijayawada, the Sikkim airport water resources is very common by severely
with 76 m high gabion-faced wall and slope, the polluting it by various means. The water problems
Vallarpadam International Container Terminal on are considered whenever severe droughts or floods
about 40 m thick soft marine soil at Kochi, more occur. If we look into the history of mankind, it
than 359 m high (highest in the world) railway can be seen that all the great civilizations have
bridge at Qazigund on the Jammu-Srinagar line, come into existence in the fertile valleys of mighty
Jet grouted columns and about 115 m deep rivers; be it the Nile valley in Egypt, Yellow river
diaphragm wall for the Polavaram project, etc. in China, Euphrates in Mesopotamia or Indus in
Professional Society India [49]. In terms of Civil Engineering, as early
as around 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians built
As mentioned earlier, the Indian National Society the first dam ever known to exist. Further, apart
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, from building dams primarily to store water, the
which started in 1948, was one of the earliest Civil Engineers also dug canals for navigation as
National Societies. The name was changed to well as irrigation. These trends were continued
Indian Geotechnical Society in consonance for centuries by various civilizations. In many
with the rest of the societies in 1971. The Asian countries, flooding was a main problem, for
Regional Conferences were organized in the which dikes were first designed and constructed
years 1960 (Delhi), 1975 (Bangalore) and 2007 by the Civil Engineers, which gave rise to the
(Kolkata). The 13th International Conference on importance of hydraulic engineers and scientists
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering for proper planning, design and construction of
held in Delhi under the stewardship of Prof. S.K. hydraulic structures. In India also, Civil Engineers
Gulhati was a watershed moment in the annals have contributed immensely in the area of Water
of our society and brought recognition from the Resources Engineering for the past 100 years.

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Water Resources Engineering – World same is continuing currently [52]. The revolution
Scenario in information technology (IT) for the past 3
Particularly the last 100 years has seen decades has changed the way we design and plan,
tremendous advances in the area of Civil the water and environment related problems.
Engineering especially through the sub- area The developments in IT now play a major role in
of Water Resources Engineering. It is a unique the design, planning and execution of water and
specialization, which actively deals with available environment related projects.
water resources in terms of water quantity and Hydroinformatics is concerned with developing
quality as well as its management, which is and applying mathematical models and advanced
inherently interdisciplinary in nature [50]. Most information and communication technology
of the developments, at the beginning of 20th (ICT) to problems of hydraulic, hydrologic and
Century, were in the area of Fluid Mechanics, environmental engineering (Abbot, 1994). It
particularly in Hydraulics Engineering. In the provides the computer-based decision-support
1930s and 1940s, the efforts of various eminent systems that now enter increasingly into the offices
Hydraulics Engineers and Scientists such as of engineers, water authorities and government
Prandtl, Nikuradse, Moody, Colebrook, Reynolds agencies. Hydroinformatics fundamentally
and others provided better understanding of requires integrating expertise in the hydraulic
hydraulics of pipe and open cannel flows (www. and environmental engineering area. Such
hydraulika.fsv.cvut.cz). These developments integration is usually the most difficult task in the
enhanced the knowledge in these areas and led to development of a hydroinformatics system [53].
better design methods of channels and pipe flows.
Thus, if we look into the developments in the
They were also useful in the river engineering
area of Water Resources Engineering for the
and irrigation management. Since 1950s, the
past 100 years, we can put these into four phases
developments in computer technologies, modern
of: Experimental Hydraulics, Computational
electronics systems such as sensors and data
Hydraulics, Water Resources System Management
logging and numerical methods have modernized
and Hydroinformatics. Today’s Civil Engineer,
many aspects of Hydraulic Engineering, leading
with all these developments in the area of water
to a branch called Computational Hydraulics [51].
resources, by using a modern computational
Further insights in flow dynamics, turbulence,
techniques, has been able to provide effective
transient flows, ocean dynamics, sediment
tools for efficient project planning, design and
yield and transport have grown rapidly and led
management.
to another branch called Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). All these developments were Water Resources Engineering – Indian
matched by the advancements in computer and Scenario
software engineering. With these global trends, similar growth and
From middle of the century, most of the problems developments took place in India also, in the
were attempted using the Computational area of Water Resources Engineering. India is a
Hydraulics tools and the term Water Resources land of many rivers and its geographical area is
Engineering became prominent by considering cris-crossed by a large number of small and big
all aspects of water including hydrology, water rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty
resources management, water supply, hydraulics rivers of the world (mowr.gov.in). In India, the
of open channels and pipes, groundwater and availability of water is highly uneven, both in
environmental aspects of water resources. space and time. The annual precipitation including
By end of the century, a new topic on water snowfall, which is the main source of the water in
resources based on information technology called the country, is estimated to be of the order of 4000
“Hydroinformatics” became prominent and the cu.km [54]. For the purpose of rainfall, country has

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been divided into 35 meteorological sub-divisions further continued by adding large number of dams,
(cwc.gov.in). The total geographical area of land canal networks and various irrigation structures by
in India is about 329 m.ha. which is about 2.45% tripling the water storage and irrigation capacities
of the total global land area. The total arable land by 1970s. Civil Engineers in India, especially
(World Bank, 1998) is about 165.3 m.ha which is Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineers played
about 10% of the global figure. With a world share a key role in these developments.
of the population of about 17%, India possesses The Indian economy is said to be mainly
only 4% of the water resources. Further, in India contributed by the agriculture and farming
there is drastic spatial and temporal variation of practices, which require consistent planning of
monsoonal rainfall for about 4 months. The spatial irrigation. In the 19th century in British India
and temporal distribution of rainfall is so uneven (before independence), major irrigation canals
that the annual average has very little significance were built after millions of people died each year
for all practical purposes (World Bank, 2005). in a series of major famines (United Nations
The average annual surface water flow is about report, 2014; https://www.unwater.org). By 1900,
187 m.ha.m. of which only about 70 m.ha.m can British India (including Bangladesh and Pakistan)
be utilized if sufficient storages can be created in had about 13 million hectares of area under
reservoirs. Generally, the Indian subcontinent is irrigation and by 1947 the irrigated area increased
under threat due to either rain deficit or uneven to about 22 million ha. However, much of the
occurrence (mowr.gov.in) leading to “scarcity added irrigation capacity in the pre-independence
amidst plenty”. Further, the dynamic groundwater era was provided by groundwater (wells and
resource is also available (www.nihroorkee.gov. tanks), operated manually [55].
in) with a potential of 43.2 m.ha.m including
After independence, the Government of India
recharge due to canal irrigation (cgwb.gov.in). As
gave high priority to the construction of crucial
per an estimate, with about 230 m.ha.m availability
irrigation related infrastructure. India has spent
in 2050, there will be about 1400 m3 per capita
` 16,590 crore on irrigation development between
availability. Thus, optimum development of
1950 and 1985 (www.idfc.com). In 1950’s (post-
surface and groundwater resources is required.
independence), Indian irrigation scenario saw
The role of Civil Engineers in the area of Water
construction of canals which covered a crop area
Resources is highly challenging due to scarce
of about 22.6 million ha (along with contribution
water resources, uneven distribution, increasing from groundwater wells), which further increased
population, floods and droughts, changing climate to a potential of 90 million ha at the end of 1995
and environment etc. Though these difficulties [56]. However, the potential irrigation relies on
exist, it can be observed that the country has done reliable supply of electricity for water pumps
extremely well for various developments, for the and maintenance, and the net irrigated land has
past 100 years with great contributions from of been considerably short. According to 2001-
Civil Engineers. 2002 Agriculture Census, only 58.13 million
In India, Civil Engineers have been responsible ha of land was actually irrigated in India, when
for planning, design and construction of water the total arable land in India was 160 million ha
supply network, dams, irrigation channels, river (www.agriculture.gov.in). Between 2000-2005
bridges and so on. One cannot go ahead without and 2005-2010, India approximately invested a
mentioning Sir M Visvesvaraya, who started the sum of ` 1,03,315 crore and ` 2,10,326 crore on
design and construction of various hydraulic irrigation and flood control. At present, India has a
structures such as dams, weirs, floodgates, water storing capacity of about 200 billion cubic-metre
supply and drainage from 1903 and later went of water for a gross irrigated area of 90 million
to playing key role in major hydraulic projects hectares and an installed hydropower capacity of
in India. After independence, these trends were 30,000 megawatts [57]. These statistics show the

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key contributions of Civil Engineers in the area of supply, then irrigation, hydropower generation,
Water Resources Engineering. and lastly on navigation. In the last 100 years, India
Apart from this, we are also constructing a number has consistently grown as an economy, a greater
of dams, which serve the purpose of water storage contribution of which came from the construction
as well as hydroelectric power generation. Before sector, where Civil Engineers’ contributions are
independence, India had less than 300 large dams. unquestionable. According to the World Bank,
This number increased to 3200 by the year 2012 only about 35% of total agricultural land in India
and reached 5264 in the year 2019 (CWC 2019: was reliably irrigated in 2010. The reducing
cwc.gov.in). More than half of this number were amount of safe drinking water in India needs
built between the years 1971 to 1989. India ranks coping up by a careful planning and management
third in the world in the number of dams, after of existing infrastructure and the different water
USA and China [58]. While several dams are built resources available in the country.
for flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric Conclusions
power generation, the core purpose of most of
During the past 100 years, the Water Resources
the dams (about 96%) still stands to be irrigation.
Engineering has seen huge advances in the
These dams also have a direct impact on the
understanding, developments and applications.
increment of the groundwater table and make
The understanding of the nature of fluid flow, open
it possible to use groundwater for the irrigation
channel flow, river mechanics, sediment transport,
purpose through groundwater wells pumping.
groundwater flows and maritime phenomena
In 1951, food grain production in India was
have developed rapidly. With advancements in
nearly 51 million tonnes and that improved to
computer technologies with software along with
about 200 million tonnes in the year 2000. This
could be possible because of the improved canal web-based and Internet technologies, the solution
network system that increased the area irrigated of water resources/ hydraulics problems have
by dams [59]. This level of production is not only become more easier. With the help of modern
sufficient for the country, but also provides a computers and IT based technologies at one’s
marginal surplus to export. Further, construction disposal, the water resources engineers have better
of large number of bridges, to achieve important tools to achieve efficient and economic designs.
road and rail network connectivity, needed safe Further, advanced level research continues at
and economical hydraulic designs which shows an intensive pace, as many problems develop in
importance of Hydraulic Engineers in the growth the area of hydraulics and water resources with
of the country. The role of Civil Engineers, as changing climatic and environmental issues.
water resources experts, is prominent in all these GEOINFORMATICS AND GEOMATICS
works and contributions.
Contributed by: Prof. P. K. Garg, Professor of Civil
An increase in the irrigation facilities helps in the Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
reduction of poverty of an economy. According to
Introduction
a report of World Bank published in 1993 (World
Bank, 1993), unirrigated states are poorer than Surveying is the technique of determining the
irrigated states by two-thirds. Canal irrigation relative position of different features on, above or
expanded rapidly in the 20th century in India, and beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct
according to Whitcomb [55], net profit to Indian or indirect measurements and finally representing
economy has increased from 8.3% in 1912 to them on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
12.8% in 1945. For the management of different As the surveying technology grew, the term
water resources, various national water policies Geomatics, Geoinformatics and Geospatial
were also adopted in 1987 and revised in 2003. were introduced to encompass a wide variety of
The main focus of this policy is on drinking water processes from field data collection to analysis

94 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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to map generation. Surveying is important for cartography, geodesy, photogrammetry, remote

planning development in the physical world sensing, laser, GPS, field survey, web-mapping,
around us. Surveyors play an integral role in land socio-economic, computer science, computer
development, from the planning and design of vision, mobile and game technology, intelligent
land subdivisions through to the final construction system, and internet of things (IoT), to generate
of roads, utilities and landscaping. results in the form of maps or reports. It allows
better interpretation, management and decision
Beginning with the gnomon (a simple stick
making about various human activities on Earth’s
in the ground), wood and string, surveying
surface [60]. In the past, geospatial activities for
instruments evolved to include metal parts for
Earth’s observations, data collection and analysis
compasses, chains and rods. Telescopes, which
have undergone a rapid expansion, yet there is still
required clear glass, came into surveying in the
only limited awareness of how to use the potential
18th century. Instruments made of these basic
of all the available tools optimally [61].
materials were used in the great early surveys
of the modern era and remained the dominant Laser Scanners
instrument technologies through the 19th and
Laser based surveying technique provides 3D
20th centuries. Surveying technology witnessed
information of the ground with high precision
a rapid change in the 1950s, beginning with
and productivity. A fast growing method of Earth
electronic distance measurement (EDM) based
data collection is called Light Detection and
on light and microwaves. By the end of the 20th
Ranging (LiDAR), which is used to measure the
century, global positioning system emerged to
distances of objects using laser pulses of light.
play major roles in surveying measurements.
LiDAR collects 3D data (x,y,z) of ground objects
Survey of India, the principal mapping agency of
using laser beam. Laser scanning is either carried
the country, celebrated its 250th anniversary in
out from instrument mounted on a tripod on the
year 2017. Origin of the Survey of India is traced
ground or mounted on the vehicle in case the area
back to year 1767, when Major James Rennell was
to be surveyed is large. Mobile mapping systems
appointed as the Surveyor General of Bengal. It is
mount the LiDAR systems with GPS, scanners
the oldest scientific department in India and one
and digital video & imagery on a moving vehicle
of the oldest survey establishments in the world.
(called, Mobile Mapping System) which are
Survey of India’s achievements include starting
capable of collecting around one million points
from Great Trigonometric Survey of 1802 to
per second [62]. Mobile mapping systems have
computation of height of Mount Everest in 1849
many applications in industries, surveying, city
and many more.
modeling, traffic modeling, environmental,
Geoinformatics includes the tools and methods transportation and utility mapping [63].
used in land surveying, remote sensing (LiDAR,
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
UAV), cartography, geographic information
systems (GIS), global navigation satellite systems Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), invented in
(GPS, GLONASS, Galileo), photogrammetry, the 1970’s for military purposes, can also be
geography and related forms of Earth mapping. used for mapping the pipes and utility lines
It is an accurate and cost-effective tool used under city streets, and locating buried objects,
for measurement analysis and visualization of cavities and voids. GPR emits electromagnetic
phenomena on the Earth surface. For analysing waves and detects the reflected signals from
information related to Earth, it combines sub-surface structures. Detailed maps of
geospatial analysis, geospatial models, geospatial underground infrastructure are regularly needed
databases, computational intelligence and for infrastructure design and development. GPR
human-computer interaction. Today, geospatial systems are used to locate reinforcing and post-
technology is multidisciplinary involving tensioning in concrete, monitor airplane runways

Interdisciplinary Engineering 95
Annual Technical Volume

for structural safety, groundwater studies, detect estimation, drought monitoring and assessment,
unexploded land mines and surveying land. wasteland mapping, mineral prospects, forest
Pavement engineers can identify and delineate the resource survey etc. [67]. Today, remote sensing
voids under the surface of concrete and asphalt images have become an integral part of the
roads using GPR. Municipalities can use GPS resources planning, monitoring and management
and GPR to locate and record the underground system.
utilities for producing accurate 2D/3D maps of
Drones/UAV
buried utilities [64].
Drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
or Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) are aerial
Global Positioning System (GPS) was developed devices that can fly with a human remotely
by the Department of Defence (DoD) of USA controlling them. The UAV is armed with a built-
primarily for their military use. GPS provides in camera to photograph the land parcel which can
precise estimates of position (latitude, longitude, acquire data faster from a low height in the form
and height), velocity and time. The development of geospatial images of very high resolution [62].
of GPS is a great technological revolution as it can The valuable UAV images generated are used for
be used for multiple applications where the exact measurements in 3D, and by construction project
position of any object or phenomena on the Earth managers and planners to understand important
anytime, anywhere, and in any weather condition details in virtual environment without physically
is required. It offers the advantages of accuracy, inspecting the site [62]. It offers surveyors a
speed, versatility and economy for location-based new cost-effective and efficient technique to
data collection. GPS is being used for surveying, acquire data for medium to large-scale projects
monitoring dam, cracks, landslides, positioning that require DSMs, such as mine sites, quarries
infrastructure, time transfer for telecommunication and construction sites. Through the use of UAV
systems, automated construction and facilities photogrammetry and LiDAR mapping, DEM/
management, precision farming, forest and DTM/DSM, 3D building models, contour maps,
resource management, flood warning system, and plannimetric features (road edges, heights, signs,
natural resource exploitation [65]. building footprints, etc.) and volumetric surveys
can be carried out.
Remote Sensing
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Spectral reflectance characteristics of Earth
objects/features are used to process and analyse The GIS offers the capability of collection,
remote sensing images for generating various compilation, retrieval, analysing, manipulation,
thematic maps. Satellite images are available at and displaying the geospatial data. Goespatial
various resolutions (80m to <1m) which provide data may be defined as objects that have physical
information on land use, habitation, road, water, entity on the Earth in the form of points, line
vegetation, infrastructure, soil, forest snow, etc and polygon features. GIS can be used to create
[66]. For example, IKONOS images at 1 meter maps, integrate information, visualise scenarios,
resolution are very helpful for smart city, urban solve complicated problems, develop effective
planning, traffic planning etc. Remote sensing solutions, assess trends and patterns of the events,
systems provide a very important source of spatio- predict outcomes, and plan strategies (Bolstad,
temporal information on Earth surface processes 2002). Some of the important applications of
from regional to global scale. Temporal satellite GIS are engineering mapping, cut/fill analysis,
images can be used to assess the change scenario utility/facility mapping and management, surface
of the ground, such as monitoring flood, water water mapping, dynamic event mapping, census
pollution, deforestation, extent of forest fire, and related statistical mapping, management of
snow cover, urban sprawl, crop acreage and yield watershed and its prioritization, environmental

96 Interdisciplinary Engineering
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impact studies, e-business/e-commerce/e-

governance, mobile mapping/WAP application,
3D/4D GIS, and virtual GIS.
Way Ahead
The geospatial technology has witnessed
significant developments over the last few
decades, which have led to their widespread
use in different fields and disciplines. It has
now become an important tool for decision
makers across a wide range of disciplines, Howrah Bridge
researchers and academia, national survey &
mapping organisations, industries, environmental
agencies, and local & national governments [68].
The advantages of using geospatial tools shift
quite rapidly from manual analysis, particularly
if the data sets to be analysed are real-time and
very large. Geospatial technology along with the
ICT and new software, are being integrated into
planning and management to monitor, evaluate
and apply spatial planning of natural resources,
utilities, infrastructure and urban development
and transport sectors in India [69].
Globally, geospatial data has become an integral
part of companies and organizations to carry out
business. Companies are investing in developing
geospatial technologies that will further extend
Lotus Temple
the use of this valuable data outside traditional
markets. Drone/UAVs are expanding rapidly
to provide consumer markets new levels of
specialised geospatial data. Geospatial data is
also one of the important elements of virtual
reality (VR) development. These data would
be increasingly used to help policy-makers and
government decision processes [70].
Achievements in Pictures

Wankhede Stadium

Interdisciplinary Engineering 97
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Bellisimo Tower

Vivekananda Bridge

Infosys, Pune

Mokameh Bridge
Bridge Over Panvel River

98 Interdisciplinary Engineering
 Annual Technical Volume

Archery Stadium

GMRT Antennae Dishes

Highest Railway Bridge, Qazigund (J&K)

Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC)

Rural Roads
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium

Interdisciplinary Engineering 99
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Bhakra Dam

National Highway and Expressway

Missile Launch Tower

Nathpa Tunnel
Reinforced Soil Wall, Vijayawada

100 Interdisciplinary Engineering

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3. Environmental Engineering History - Energy,

Environmental & Chemical Engineering at
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River.

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Development of Computerization in India right

from the First Supercomputer to those being
Developed Now
Mr Bharat S Patel
COO Yudiz Solutions Pvt Ltd, and Council Member CPDB, The Institution of Engineers (India) and
CB.L.V.Rao, Founder & CEO, Innovaccel Pvt.Ltd
 [email protected]

COMPUTERIZATION IN INDIA With a strong intention to enhance technologies

of electronics, in the year 1970, establishment
1950s marks the evolution of computer
of computer division took place in ECIL.
technologies in India. The very first digital
(Electronics Corporation of India Limited). The
computer in India has been developed at
improvements in the system can be observed in
the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
a steady order. First, TDC-12, a 12 bit real time
(TIFR), Bombay. The Automatic computer, also
minicomputer has been upgraded to TDC-316,
abbreviated as TIFRAC I e. TIFR Automatic
which is a 16 bit computer. Following this, in the
Computer was started in 1955 and the completion
year 1978, MICRO-78 system that ran purely on
was done in 1959. It was developed with the air
microprocessor was built. With such escalation of
mainly to assist TIFRAC to solve physic problems
computer technologies during 1971 to 1978, ECIL
in Atomic Energy establishments. TIFRAC
has finally got the momentum to manufacture
could process upto 2048 words in memory and
and sell 98 computers to the government owned
displayed the output via Cathode ray. Here after,
laboratories, different universities for research.
designing computers in India has took a new turn
However, it’s noteworthy to look at ECIL’s
and proved to be achievable.
major involvement with the Indian Air Force by
The welcoming of International companies to designing and developing Air Defense Ground
India has soon commenced. During the 1960s IBM Environment Systems.
and ICL managed to convince the government of
1978, proved to be a year to raise hopes and
India to issue licenses and agreements to establish
dreams of technical entrepreneurs. The exit of
computer manufacturing plants in India. Later
IBM has enabled technical entrepreneurs to set
IBM begun manufacturing punch card machines,
up computer manufacturing companies. Some
and export them to multiple countries from
of them are HCL and WIPRO. These firms still
India, exposing the country to the Computer
stand out to be prominent companies among the
manufacturing Industry.
computer industries across the globe.
This was a great beginning and turning point
Liberalization of policies took place in the year
towards automation and computerization in
1984 when Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime
India. It really boosted Engineering Innovations,
Minister of India. The new policy opened
education, research & thus journey towards new
new windows for Private sector companies to
technology focus was emphasized by premium
manufacture unlimited 32-bit machines. Private
institutions and universities.
sector companies also manufactured assemble

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boards with microprocessors and imported satellites and nuclear weapons. These countries
interface electronics with application software refused to transfer the knowledge of creating super
with less imported duty. The immediate response computers to India, fearing the developing nation
to the liberalised policy is the increase of growth might use it to design missiles and warplanes
of computers by 100 percent and decline of cost rather than forecast the weather.
by 50 percent.
Within three years, the extraordinary happened.
The same year also holds the birth of With everyone involved working their socks off,
computerization of Indian Railways Seat C-DAC finally completed its work well within
Reservation System. It was proud achievement in the proposed deadline. With components that
the sense that the entire software was developed could be bought off the shelves, in 1991, C-DAC
by Indian programmers with no support from rolled out India’s first indigenous supercomputer:
foreign advisers. PARAM 8000.
1984 marks another major initiation in the For the first time ever, a developing country
banking sector. The formation of a Committee had pulled off such a feat in advanced computer
on Mechanization in the Banking Industry for development. Needless to say, the world was taken
introducing MICR (Magnetic Ink Character by surprise at this achievement and many went
Recognition) technology in all the banks in the on to express doubt about PARAM truly being a
metropolises in India. This enabled the use of supercomputer. That’s when Bhatkar decided to
standardized cheque forms and encoders. take the PARAM prototype to a major international
conference and exhibition of supercomputers.
Following this, in 1988 the RBI set up the
Here, it was demonstrated, benchmarked and
Committee on Computerisation in Banks (1988).
formally declared a supercomputer. A US
It emphasised that settlement operation must
Newspaper published the news with headline,
be computerised in the clearing houses of RBI
“Denied supercomputer, Angry India does it!”
in Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Jaipur, Patna
and Thiruvananthapuram. It further stated that A multiprocessor machine, PARAM 8000 was
there should be National Clearing of inter-city benchmarked at 5 Gflops, making it the second
cheques and MICR should be made operational. fastest supercomputer in the world at that time.
It also focused on computerisation of branches It also costed a fraction of what the legendary
and increasing connectivity among branches US machine Cray did and performed just as
through computers. It also suggested modalities well. So much so, that the US company which
for implementing online banking. The committee manufactured Cray had to slash prices to woo a
submitted its reports in 1989 and computerisation nation it spurned just eight years ago!
began from 1993 with the settlement between
PARAM 8000 also set the platform for a whole
IBA and bank employees’ associations.
series of high-performance parallel computers,
Coming years, Electronic Fund Transfer System called the PARAM series. In 2002, PARAM
(EFT) has been proposed along with development 20000, or PARAM Padma, broke the teraflop
of applications for digital currencies and (thousand billion flops) barrier with a peak speed
distributed ledgers. of 1 Tflop. The latest machine in the series are the
PARAM Ishan and the PARAM Kanchenjunga.
The supercomputer effort in India began in the late
1980s, when the US stopped the export of a Cray Installed at IIT Guwahati, PARAM Ishan can be
supercomputer because of continuing technology used in the application areas like computational
embargoes. During the 80s, USA and some chemistry, computational fluid dynamics,
other European countries had developed super computational electromagnetic, civil engineering
computers, which were critical for developing structures, nano-block self assemble, climate

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modeling and seismic data processing. PARAM of over 1100 Road Transport Offices (RTOs)
Kanchenjunga, stationed at NIT Sikkim’s across the country. RTOs issue Registration
Supercomputing Centre, is expected to be used Certificate (RC) and Driving License (DL) that
for engineering research conducted by the faculty are mandatory requirements and are valid across
and students at the institute as well as researchers the country, subject to certain provisions and
across the state. Interestingly, Param in Sanskrit permissions.
means ‘supreme’! With wide variations in state policies and manual/
C-DAC’s strategically and economically system based procedures being followed across the
important area have thus put India on the country, it had become necessary to define same
supercomputing map of the world along with standards for these documents on a pan-India level
select developed nations of the world. As of 2016, to ensure interoperability, correctness and timely
many PARAM systems have been deployed in availability of information. SCOSTA committee
the country and abroad. Today, India is designing set-up for this purpose had recommended a
Petascale supercomputers, next only to USA and uniform standardized software across the country.
Japan. The crowning glory of India’s advanced The Ministry thus entrusted National Informatics
computing and IT capability, once achieved this Centre (NIC) with the task of standardizing and
computer will be a symbol of India’s undeniable deploying two softwares - VAHAN for Vehicle
position as an IT superpower. Registration and SARATHI for Driving Licenses
With the government of India encouraging digital and of compiling the data with respect to Vehicle
revolution, it is a key sign that the infrastructure Registration and Driving Licenses of all the
necessary for supporting the digital pillar is indeed states in State Register and National Register.
established. E governance, reforming government The applications VAHAN & SARATHI were
through technology, e-kranti electronic delivery conceptualized to capture the functionalities
services, information for all are some initiatives as mandated by Central Motor Vehicle Act,
that were made possible through computerization. 1988 as well as State motor vehicle Rules with
customization in the core product to suit the
This is era of computerization impacting Defense, requirements of 36 States and UTs.
delivering of public services by government and
technology for railways, banking etc., laying the The project was a pioneer in e-Governance
roadmap for future digitization. projects initiated way back in 1992. However,
it picked up momentum in 2002 and as on date
However, it must be noticed that the e-governance this has been rolled out in all the RTO’s of all the
initiatives have been introduced for a wide range states and UT’s in the country.
of applications since the 1990s. Some major
projects include railway projects, land records LATEST DEVELOPMENTS
computerization etc. The government believes India is rapidly marching towards becoming
hoarding all the information online and linking a digitally empowered society. The push for
will ultimately speed up processes and bring the e-governance, the proliferation of smart phones,
transperancy. In addition, the government has increasing internet access and booming digital
added services like mobile number, PAN bank payments are fueling the country’s journey
account, life insurance to Aadhar card which will towards a trillion-dollar digital economy by 2025.
help in identifying citizens uniquely. It’d now The widespread acceptance of Digital transaction
be easier to avail most of the services online as is being seen as a catalyst for overall economic
everything is digitally linked. growth and with the combination of favourable
The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways demographics and policy reforms, India presents
(MoRTH) has been facilitating computerization a unique and powerful growth story.

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With Internet penetration expected to almost Moving forward, in recent times India is well
double to 60% by 2022, the country is arguably the positioned and in the forefront globally with
world’s most promising internet economy, with several government initiatives. It is creating
a rapidly increasing ‘netizen’ population. With innovations in Future Orientated and Disruptive
improving data affordability, consumption growth technologies, by leveraging power of technologies
and newer financial products, the e-commerce and delivering benefits to citizens of 1.3 billion
market is set to grow, be it across e-tail, travel, population.
consumer services or online financial services. In 2018, World Economic Forum Meet, Hon’ble
From the next set of online shoppers, three out Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has launched
of every four customers are expected to come and implemented several initiatives to solve the
from Tier II cities or beyond, and a vast majority problems of access to finance, starting businesses
of them being less tech-savvy, will seek greater and energy access among others. The Fourth
transparency from brands and prefer consuming Industrial Revolution presents a tremendous
content in local languages. opportunity for India to bypass traditional phases
of development and improve the quality of life
PAYMENT GATEWAYS
of its citizens by overcoming infrastructural and
Governments worldwide, particularly in India, other barriers through technology. India is well
are targeting electronic delivery of public positioned to create bright future not only for
services and banking activities. Also, the internet India but also globally.
is being tapped for servicing the rural populace In fact with Fourth Industrial Revolution India
due to significant cost benefits it provide and has came up with several initiatives from
the reach that it affords. However, to facilitate Government that will serve as a trusted space for
increasing volumes, security and efficiency are the government, leading companies, academia,
essential and so is the required infrastructure and civil society and international organizations to
regulatory environment. An internet E-commerce co-design, test and scale-up policy frameworks,
Payment Gateway is thus a critical infrastructural industry standards, norms and guidelines for
component to ensure that such transactions occur governing using Fourth Industrial Revolution
without any hitches and in total security over technologies. If 1985, with India hosting the First
electronic networks. Economic Summit, was an inflection point for us
in India which has now came up a far way with
A Payment Gateway facilitates a payment
the transformative technologies associated with
transaction by the transfer of information between
Industry 4.0.
a payment portal (such as a website, mobile phone
or interactive voice response service) and the Rural growth is critical from Indian economic
front end processor or acquiring bank. A Payment point of view and Industry 4.0 can be leveraged
Gateway, therefore, provides an access point to the to impact agricultural sector in a big way. As over
national banking network. All online transactions 60% of the population is directly or indirectly
must pass through a Payment Gateway to be engaged to agriculture. The agriculture sector will
processed. In effect, Payment Gateways act as a play a very important role not only in promoting
bridge between the merchant’s website and the economic growth, but also in ensuring India’s
food security, which will have the dual objective
financial institutions that process the transaction.
of fighting poverty and raising farmers’ income,
In other words, a payment gateway is a payment
and make provision for exporting our surplus and
processing service provided by an service provider
cut down food imports.
that authorizes credit card or direct payments
processing for businesses whether online retailers With the power of innovations and emerging
or traditional brick and mortar businesses. technologies like sensors along with IoT devices

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are being used for capturing data, process this data all sectors. India, with its scale, complexity and
for analytics with delivery by cloud computing diversity, is a proof of a successful model which
and with right AI- solution to have predictable can be replicated in other economies, affecting
outcomes thus enabling effective business billions of people, especially in Africa continent
decisions in each sector. Agriculture technology, and other similar economies.
with right planning, forecasting, advisory for
In the last few decades, India has opened its
regions, can assist farmers to cultivate right set of
market, became a nuclear power, reached high
crops and ensure high yield with minimal risks and
levels of growth, and lifted hundreds of millions
also control during natural disasters. Also, with an
of people out of poverty and have been able to
integrated platform to deliver benefits to Agri-tech
achieve a stable and balanced growth inclusive
stake holders with multiple benefits in reducing
for all sectors.
loss, time and yield more and help farmers to earn
more as well as the service providers. Our collective destiny is, in a way, dependent on
India’s destiny, and a bit of India is in all of our
As the well-known saying “If the 20th century was
futures.
shaped by political superpowers, much of the 21st
century will be led by technology superpowers”. As we all agree that with computerization,
leveraging merging technologies, India today is
The Fourth Industrial Revolution offers countries
the one of world’s fastest-growing economies. It
the opportunity to use technology to build a more
is the sixth-largest with a growing middle class
inclusive and sustainable society with balanced
and an unprecedented demographic advantage
growth. For a country like India, it will also
enabling prosperity of all sectors and also rural
play a pivotal role in shaping the global Fourth
sectors that are primarily dependant on agriculture.
Industrial Revolution agenda in a responsible,
Manufacturing and many such sectors like retail,
scalable and inclusive manner with growth for
logistic will also stand to benefit in a big way.

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Electrical Engineering-
Past, Present and Future

Prof S S Murthy
Professor (Rtd), Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Delhi
Formerly: Director, ERDA Baroda, Director, NIT Surathkal,
Vice Chancellor, Central University of Karnataka
 [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The paper reviews the evolution of Electrical Engineering for over a century and identifies past, present
and projected future development at Global and National levels. The study pertains to Generation,
Transmission, Distribution and Utilization of Electricity since its inception. After presenting the
historical evolution of Electricity, its generation in India during pre and post Independence era is
detailed. Manifold increase of installed capacity from about 1.3GW during independence to over
300GW by 2019 is comprehensively highlighted. Due to problems of conventional fuel based
generation, it is shown how Renewable Energy has come in the forefront with national thrust on war
footing. Transmission system has grown through National Grid while Distribution system requires
rapid modernization to avoid losses. Use of Electricity over the years has been detailed covering motor
drives, Energy Efficiency, Electric Vehicles & traction, Power Electronic applications, Energy Storage
and Smart systems. Contributions of Indian Industry and academia towards R&D and human resource
development highlighted.

HISTORY from being clean. Thomas Alva Edison (1847-

1931), founder of GE studied heating and lighting
History of Electrical Engineering, spanning
effect of electricity and invented the electric bulb;
over two centuries, is indeed fascinating. IEEE
he said – make electricity cheap to make candles
declared 20th century as the ‘Electric’ century
costly. He had over 1000 patents. Edison Electric
as inventions and developments evolved in
Illuminating Company in New York was born.
this century have few parallels. Knowledge of
On Sept 4, 1882- company supplied electricity
Electrical Engineering also leads to vision, rational
through cables to homes. 14000 electric bulbs
thinking and capacity to comprehend complex
blazed in 9000 houses. Power stations were built
concepts. Kailash Satyarthi, the Nobel laureate
in New York followed by USA, Europe and World
mentions-“Since I was an engineering student I
at large. India followed suit despite foreign rule.
used to work on transformers basics of which led
Era of electricity began.
me to think of social transformation”. Electricity
is easy to generate, transmit, convert and use apart Electrical Engineering is developed based on the

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works of a galaxy of famous scientists. Known Ampere (1775 – 1836) showed for first time that a
history goes back to 700 BC when a mathematician Magnetic Needle is deflected by a Current carrying
named Hells casually wiped away dust of an Wire. Johan Gauss (1777 – 1851) established
amber rod and found that it has started attracting Magnetic Flux Law. Michael Faraday (1791
small metal particles small paper chips etc. He – 1855) became Father Of Electricity through
recorded his observation without understanding invention of electromagnetic induction. Joseph
it. Later in 1600 AD Dr. William Gilbert studied Henry(1779 – 1878) invented Electromagnetic
about observations of Hells and carried out Telegraph . Heinrich Lenz (1804 – 1891)
some experiments. He only endowed the name established well known Lenz’s Law. Wilhelm
electricity to the property of attracting to the Weber (1831 – 1891): contributed significantly
amber as amber is called electron in Greek. After to Magnetism. James Maxwell (1831 – 1879), a
half a century an English inventor Heppen Gray Mathematician established well known Maxwell’s
successfully transmitted the electricity through a Law which correlates Magnetism and Electricity.
conducting rope and also discovered good and bad John Fleming (1849 – 1945) gave Flemings Left
conductors. Then came Charles Duffay (1698- and Right Hand Rules. Hendrich Lorentz (1852 –
1739) who observed that the electricity produced 1928) gave Lorenz Force Equation. Nicola Tesla
by rubbing glass rod with silk and amber with (1856 – 1943) introduced the Concept Of Rotating
leather are different in nature and gave them name Magnetic Field through Poly Phase Winding
vitreous and resinous electricity respectively. which finally led to invention of Induction Motor
Later these were called positive and negative by In 1886. Although India missed this electric
Benzamen Franklin in 1820. Hans Oersted (1777- evolution due to foreign rule, Tesla was inspired
1851) observed the magnetic effects and his report by Swami Vivekananda. Although Electricity
formed the basis for invention of electromagnet has a magnificent history it also projects deep
by Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836). Influenced rivalry between two great personalities-Edison
by experiments of Ampere, Michel Faraday and George Westinghouse (assisted by Tesla)-
thought that if electricity can produce magnet propagating direct current(dc) and alternating
then why magnet can not produce electricity. His current (ac) respectively. They fought many
thought took a physical shape in the discovery of legal battles unparalleled in scientific history.
theory of electromagnetic induction which led to
Jill Jones[1] in her classical book ‘Empires of
invention of generator, electric motor, dynamo
Light’ details this rivalry bordering animosity
etc. It is important to mention that fundamentals
chronicling major events in their life highlighting
of electrical engineering. are based on various
all legal battles (or wars!). She titles the book as
results achieved by experiments of Coulomb
–‘EDISON. TESLA, WESTING HOUSE AND
(1785), Ohm (1827), Faraday (1831), Kirchhoff
THE RACE TO ELECTRIFY THE WORLD’.
(1857) etc.
The three great visionaries fought for the prime
Major Scientists and milestones can be listed position to electrify America. As Edison struggled
as follows. William Gilbert (1544 – 1603) : to introduce his radical dc technology to New York
Endowed The Name Electricity and found that City, Westinghouse, the innovative and ruthless
many materials can Be Electrified. Charles businessman and Tesla, a mercurial dreamer
Coulomb (1736 – 1806): established Well Known teamed up to challenge Edison’s dominance with
Coulomb’s Law which deals with interaction their alternating current.
between two point Charges. Benjamin Franklin
in 1752 demonstrated the Identity of Lightning WHAT IS ELECTRICAL
and Electricity. Volta Invented The Battery. Hans ENGINEERING?
Oersted (1777 – 1836) of Denmark Observed Electrical Engineering broadly deals with
the Magnetic Effects –an electric Current can Generation, Transmission, distribution and
influence a Magnetic Needle nearby. Andre utilization of electricity. (Fig. 1) It plays a major

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offices, ports, plantations. India had electricity

10 years after London and 17 years after New
York. It was then charged one Rupee/unit same
as London. Calcutta Electric supply Co (CESC)
electrified Harrisson Road ( now MG Road) in
1889, the first street to be electrified with light
bulbs. The first govt. installation was Aruvakodu,
Nilgiris. Damodar Value Corporation (DVC)
and CESC were initial companies. Then gas
industry was rival to electricity growth. By early
1900 trams replaced horse driven carriages, fans
appeared and gaslight became obsolete. This
Fig. 1 Schematic of a Power Chain
ensured success of CESC. The first hydro station,
Sidrabong Power station in Darjeeling of 130kW
was set up in 1896 to electrify tea plantations.
By 1930 it had 1000kW capacity and supplied
power to West Bengal. Imambagh Power station
commissioned by CESC was the first thermal
station in India. It supplied commercial loads
in and around Calcutta from 1899. Additional
installations came up in Howrah (165 kW),
Alipore (700 kW) and Ultadanga (1200 kW).
Fig. 2 Components of Power and Energy Shivasamudram Power station under Cauvery
Power Scheme of 4500 kW initial capacity was
role in the quality of life of people. Components of commissioned in 1902 by Mysore Government
Power and Energy Engineering are schematically to supply power to Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) in
shown in Fig. 2. Generation is due to conventional addition to Bangalore and Madras Presidency.
and renewable sources. Transmission concerns This was gradually upgraded to 56000hp turbine
conductors, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), capacity. A generating station was set up near
Extra Hugh Voltage (EHV) AC and High Voltage Mettur dam in 1925 with 3300hp capacity to
DC (HVDC). Distribution concerns Electric supply power to Madras, Erode and Moyar.
circuits, Power Electronics (PE), Control system,
Electric Grid and Smart Grid. Utilization deals Tata Hydro electric power supply company set
with Motors, Electric drives, Heating Ventilation up plants in between Bombay and Pune to supply
and Air Conditioning (HVAC), Lighting Systems, power to Bombay Presidency in 1911 with a
Appliances, Storage Systems, Energy Conversion, capacity of 48000kW. Power Station was located
Electric Vehicles, Storage Systems, Instruments/ at Khopoli. Andhra Valley power supply company
measurements/meters including Smart meters, in 1916 set up plants of 48000kW Capacity in
Micro-Grid. While electricity is generated from Bhivpuri. Khapoli and Bhivpuri power stations
natural energy sources it is used broadly for were electrically tied at both sending and
lighting, heating and motion. receiving ends. Tata Power company’s generating
station in Bhira was linked to Khopali making the
GENERATION three companies to supply power to then Bombay.
a) Historical Development in India Jammu & Kashmir had two power stations,
Pre Independence: Electricity was first introduced Jammu and Mohora water power plants. Jammu
in India by the British to electrify urban centres, plant was built on river Chenab and Mohora on

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Post independence: Initiative to set up state

electricity Boards (SEBs) accelerated power
development aimed ultimately to provide
Electricity to all. Major milestones of electricity
rules to facilitate the above objective are listed in
Annexure-3.
India now is the third largest user of electricity in
the world next to China and US. Global Energy
Demand (2017,2040) of different countries is
Fig. 3 Global Energy Demand by Region : 2017 & shown in Figs. 3 & 4 shows share in Electricity
2040 generation region wise. Growth of All India
installed Capacity(MW) since 6th plan is given
in Table 1 (Source: CEA) indicating a steady
increase over the years in all type of power plants.
A major share of Renewable Energy of 81GW
compared to Thermal of 228 GW and a total of
360 GW is noticeable showing a National thrust
on pollution free electricity generation. All India
installed capacity as on 31 July 2019 resource
wise is given in Table 2 and Fig. 5. Average cost
of supply (ACS) as on 2014-15 was 520 paise/
unit while the Average revenue realization(ARR)
Fig. 4 Share in World Electricity Generation was 400 paise/unit without subsidy and 70 p/
unit with subsidy. At the time of independence
Jhelum, both commissioned in 1909 with principal
(Dec.1947) installed capacities were 854 MW
load being Srinagar.
(thermal), 508 MW (Hydro) and 1362 MW
The 6.65 MW Pykara Power station in Nilgiris (total) which increased in 2019 to 227645MW
was built in 1933. Power to Ooty and Conoor (thermal), 45399MW(Hydro), 80633MW(RE)
were supplied through a 250 kVA, 11kV/400V and 360456 MW(total). Total capacity increased
transformer. Power was supplied to Erode and to over 250 times during this 72 years.
Trichy at 66kV via Coimbatore receiving station
India’s Power Capacity (GW) and Energy
(22kV). Tailrace of Pykara was harnessed for
Generation (TWh) for 2017 are given in
Moyor station.
Table 1 Growth of Installed Capacity Since 6th plan (Source: CEA)

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Table 2 All India Installed capacity (31 July 2019)

choice of thermal versus RE. Thermal needs 3.8

cubic meters/MW of water compared to 0.1 cubic
meters/MW for Solar and nearly zero for Wind.
Third draft National Electricity Plan (NEP3)
for next two plan periods till 2027 released in
Dec.2016 concludes that beyond half built coal
based plants India need not build any new ones.
Indian plan for future electricity capacity in MW
as per CEA is given below:
Year Coal Gas Other Zero RE
Emissions
2017 192 25 51 57
2022 249 30 61 175
2027 249 30 87 275
Fig. 5 Installed Capacity of Different Type of Energy
The gross electricity generated by utilities was:
Table 3. Actual generation depends on percentage
1,106 TWh and 166 TWh by captive power
utilization of capacity.
plants during the 2014–15 fiscal. India became the
Nuclear and thermal being presently costlier world’s third largest producer of electricity in the
than RE are relegated to the background. It is year 2013 with 4.8%, global share in electricity
predicted that peak coal usage time has already generation surpassing Japan and Russia. During
arrived. Water need is also adversely affecting 2014-15, per capita electricity generation in India
Table 3 India’s Power Capacity and Energy Generation (2017) (Source: CEA)

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was 1,010 kWh with total electricity consumption and requiring existing plants to be retrofitted with
(utilities and non utilities) of 938.823 billion or emission control are closed. 89% of existing
746 kWh per capita electricity consumption. fleet is breaching prescribed emission limits.
Electric energy consumption in agriculture was Due to end of life closures net annual capacity
recorded highest (18.45%) in 2014-15 among addition gets reduced. By end 2021 coal plants
all countries. Per capita electricity consumption under construction by technology types will be
is lower compared to many countries despite : subcritical-12.9%, Supercritical- 79.2%, USC-
cheaper electricity tariff in India. By end 2015, 3%, Unknown-4.8%. Total new capacity-43,418
despite poor hydro electricity generation, India MW. USC is classified as a High Energy Low
has become power surplus country with huge Emission (HELE) technology. Technology
power generation capacity idling for want of difference as per World Coal Association is
electricity demand. Year 2016 started with steep highlighted below:
fall in international price of coal, diesel oil,
Techno- Capital Efficiency Emission
naphtha, bunker fuel and LNG which are used
logy cost rate
in electricity generation in India. Earlier, many
$Billion/
of the power stations using fuels other than coal GW (T/
were unable to operate due to high cost of LNG MWhr)
and petro products. Subcritical 1.21 32% 1.04
The Indian power sector has an investment potential Supercri- 1.46 37% 0.87
of Rs 15 trillion (US$ 222.36 billion) in the next tical
4–5 years providing immense opportunities in USC 1.70 40% 0.80
power generation, distribution, transmission, and
Not a single USC plant was operational in India
equipment. The government’s goal is to generate
till 2017. Western coal lobby group markets HELE
two trillion units (kilowatt hours) of energy by
to justify continued presence of coal in contrast to
2019 to provide 24x7 electricity for residential,
Paris climate agreement. Modi Govt has vigorous
industrial, commercial and agriculture use.
plan to build domestic coal capacity to meet all
Investment profile in electricity sector culminated
local demands and to cease imports. Coal imports
at US$55b in 2016- $20b in networks, $20b in
are declining steadily in recent years. India has
Coal and $10b in Renewables.
overtaken US to become second largest coal
b) Thermal Power Generation producer globally. Coal India Ltd (CIL) has plans
Coal based thermal continues to be the backbone to double its production to 1500MTPA by 2022.
of power generation in the country although Private players too are entering coal mining in a
emission is retarding its growth. Coal represents big way through permitted coal blocks.
58.8% of grid capacity and 75.5% of generation c) Gas/LNG Power
in 2017. 50GW of thermal capacity may be added
India has 25GW of gas fired power generating
in coming decade taking the total capacity to
capacity operating at 22-25%. India imported
268GW by 2027. However, some of the plants are
10million cubic meters of Liquefied Natural Gas
getting closed due to obsolescence, emergence of
(LNG) declining 4% year on year (yoy). High
RE and non viability. Of 218GW in 2017, 40GW
cost of imported LNG based generation compared
was over 25 year old (end of their life) with low
to surplus coal based thermal and near zero cost
utilization factor. Closure of old plants will cut
of RE is a deterrent to use gas except to meet peak
pollution. 75% of existing plants are subcritical
demands.
while rest super-critical and none Ultra
supercritical (USC). India now has legislation on d)Captive power generation: India has 43GW
emissions with minimum standards for new plants behind meter thermal Captive power generation

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apart from grid power. But 80% accelerated

depreciation tax allowance for wind projects has
made Indian Industry to shift to RE. There is a
global trend of corporate investment shifting
to RE away from thermal. Commercial and
Industrial electricity tariff in India being more
than that of residential, shifting to rooftop solar is
an attractive proposition.
RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE)
Renewable energy has come to centre stage
due to energy crisis caused by climate change,
greenhouse gases, global warming, CO2 emissions,
depleting oil-(may last 40 years), polluting coal Fig. 6 Global Emission of CO2 By Sector, 2007
(may last 200 years), pollution threat and need
for clean alternatives. Renewables supply 70 to Fig.7 shows additional supply needed to meet
85 percent of electricity by 2050. Natural-gas electricity requirement by 2030 as per IEA. On-
plants equipped with carbon capture and storage Grid generation will mainly come from fossil
produce another 8 percent. Coal would be almost fuel and nuclear (66%) and rest from RE out of
entirely phased out globally. Although India has a total 368TWh . Mini and off- Grid generation
plenty of Coal its use may be restricted due to will come from RE (36% solar, 8% small hydro,
pollution. Fig.6 shows Global Emission of CO2 21% biomass, 28% wind) and diesel (7%) out of
by sector. Bulk of the emission (64%) is due to a total 470 TWh.
power development and transport. Employing RE
and Electric transport therefore will considerably RE is classified as shown in Fig. 8. Accordingly,
reduce emission. Table 4 shows Emission data of Renewable Energy Generation is through:
India, China, US and World for 2010. Although Wind Energy Systems, Solar Energy Systems,
India’s per capita emission is low, total emission Bio Energy Systems, Hydro Energy Systems,
per unit area is significant due to high population Geothermal Energy Systems, Wave and Tidal
and smaller area compared to China and US Energy Systems. Renewable Energy Applications
making it imperative for us to reduce emission. are in Power Generation, Cooking, Heating,

Table 4 Emission Data (2010)

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Agreement at which private producers of power

from wind and solar are paid are:
Wind: US$ 14/MWh; Solar PV: US$ 35/MWh
Historical reduction in RE is given by Vivek
Wadhwa (Times of India, Feb.23, 2019) as :
SOLAR: 1954- $1000/ watt, 2018- 40c/watt
(Solar can potentially provide more power than
Fig. 7 Additional Generation Supply needed to
world need in 20 years). Wind power compared
Achieve Universal Energy Access by 2030 with coal two years ago; Battery: 2008-$1000/
kWh; 2016-$111/kWh. Indian Solar Tariff
Renewable Energy decreased from 9 Rs/kWh in 2013 to 2.5Rs/kWh
in 2017 which was lower than thermal tariff. It
is estimated that every new unit of RE creates 5
to 7 times jobs (including Electrical Engineers of
special knowledge) compared to thermal.
India has emerged as a pioneer in developing RE.
For the first time in India, new RE additions were
more than that of thermal plants in 2016/17. Role of
Scientists and Engineers is to make Conventional
Energy Sustainable and Renewable Energy
Fig. 8 Classification of RE
Available. The International Energy Agency
proposes energy related CO2 emissions to 450
parts per millions by 2030 to limit Global warming
Water pumping, Transportation, Buildings.
to less than 2OC rise mainly through energy saving
Special features of RE are: a)Non Portable except
and RE. Under the proposal CO2 emissions must
Bio Energy to some extent b)Generation must be
decrease by 13.8 billion tons compared to current
at location of source c) Solar Energy is uniformly
projected increases. India must play a major role
spread c) Wind and Hydro are location specific.
in this effort wherein Electrical Engineering can
d) Bio has different types and is more uniformly
factor in. India’s emission in 2012 as a share of
spread, e)Technology must be economical, viable,
global emission was 6.3%, lower than China
acceptable, maintainable and user-friendly (for
(26.9%) and USA(14.5%).
non techno savvy customers) f) Highly varying in
time and space; India is no exception. India’s RE potential and achievements are listed
in Table 5 (a) & (b). Total capacity of RE plants
Cost per unit energy generated for RE has been
in India stood at 42,850 MW as on April 30,
decreasing steadily as below: (Ref: IEEE Power
2016, surpassing 42,783 MW capacity of large
& Energy Magazine Nov/Dec. 2017; Dec2016
hydro projects in the country.. Cumulative solar
Data)
installations in India crossed 7.5 GW in May 2016.
l Wind: US$ 32-68/MWh India’s rooftop solar capacity addition grew 66 per
l Solar PV: US$46-56/MWh cent from last year (2015) to reach 525 MW with
a potential to grow up to 6.5 GW. India’s wind
l Natural Gas*: US$ 48-78/MWh power capacity, installed in 2016, is estimated
l Coal*:US$60-143/MWh to be 2,800 MW. India is expected to add nearly
4,000 MW of solar power in 2016. India’s Wind
l Nuclear: US$97-136/MWh Energy Market is expected to attract investments
The corresponding rates for Power Purchase totaling Rs 1,00,000 crore (US$ 14.82 billion)

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Table 5 Latest RE Data by MNRE

by 2020. India’s invest during coming decades Indian and Global Industry and Banking leaders
in billion US$ in wind power is expected to be: are heavily investing in RE capacity building in
36 (2010-20), 38 (2020-30),158 (2030-50) .Wind India. Reliance Industry has committed to be the
power capacity is estimated to almost double by leading RE investor. Tata Power, Adani, Mahindra
2020 from over 23,000 MW in June 2015, with and Aditya Birla are other players. Global Bankers
an addition of about 4,000 MW per annum in the include those from USA, Canada, UK, France,
next five years. Around 293 global and domestic Italy, Dutch, Japan and Taiwan. It is anticipated
companies have committed to generate 266 GW
of solar, wind, mini-hydel and Biomass based
power in India over the next 5–10 years at an
investment of about US$ 310–350 billion. Prime
Minister Modi’s plan in 2019 is: 175GW of RE
by 2022, 100GW solar, 60 GW wind, 10GW
Biomass, 5GW Small Hydro. National Electricity
Plan calls for future annual RE additions to 22GW
(in contrast to thermal addition of less than 5GW)
producing electricity at US$0.038/kWh. Indian
RE additions in 12th plan is shown in Fig. 9 with
Fig. 9 Renewable Energy Addition in 12th Five Year
highest addition in wind followed by solar. Plan

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that US$200-300bn likely to be invested in India CEA). This is about 30% of proven potential of
in RE will come from overseas capital. Fortune 148GW. Total Hydro-electric Power potential in
500 Companies-Apple, Google, Tesla, Microsoft, the country was assessed as 84044 MW (at 60%
Disney, GM, IBM, Walmart are entering the load factor) from a total of 845 number of identified
business of Clean and Sustainable Energy. There H.E. Schemes which when fully developed would
are pressure from shareholders, employees, result in an installed capacity of about 148701
customers as people want Clean Energy. French MW on the basis of probable average load factor.
Website has the slogan- “Make our Planet Great The total energy potential is assessed as 600
again’. billion units per year. One estimate puts targeted
hydro potential as 225 GW. Some of the recent
Estimated Direct and Indirect Jobs in Renewable
hydro plants executed by NTPC are: Koldam
Energy Worldwide, by Sector is given in literature.
(800MW), Tapovan Vishnugad (520MW), Lata
Accordingly India will generate 3,91, 000 jobs.
Tapovan (171MW), Ramman (120MW). 75% of
Table 6 lists top five countries with different RE potential new capacity is in remote North East
capacities. India is among these in Wind power with low power demand. A $2.5bn hydro electric
and Solar collectors. development fund is set up to revive stalled
(a) Hydro Capacity projects.

Hydro based power generation is broadly Among Hydro turbines and Generators it is
classified as Large Hydro and Small Hydro. Large satisfying to note that 49% are indigenously
Hydro can also be called as Mega Hydro ( as unit made (BHEL and others) and rest imported (from
sizes are normally in several MW) which caters USA,UK, France, Canada, Switzerland, USSR
to both Energy and Water security. Small Hydro ,Japan etc). We have enough ‘Make in India’
can be further classifies as: Mini Hydro(MW), capacity in this sector.
Micro Hydro (hundreds of kW) and Pico Hydro A small Hydro-Electric Plant (130 KW) established
(Few kW), we may have nano Hydro too with near Darjeeling in 1897 ushered the beginning of
less than a kW. Mega Hydro and Mini Hydro hydro-electric power development in the country.
are always grid connected. Micro Hydro may be Since then, development of hydro-electric power
grid connected or off-grid (stand alone). Pico and in the country has made rapid strides. The hydel
Nano Hydro are always off-grid. installed capacity which was only 508 MW in
As on 31st March, 2019 there were 710 Hydro- 1947 with 12 H.E. Stations, 51 units and the
Electric generating units installed in 204 Hydro- maximum unit size of 22 MW at Bhira H.E.
Electric Stations with an aggregate installed station under Tata, has risen to 45399.22 MW (as
capacity of 45399.22 MW in operation. (Source: on 31.03.2019) from H.E. stations above 25 MW

Table 6 Top Five countries with different RE Capacities

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capacity. The maximum unit size now is 250 MW potential (TWh/Yr) are:
at Koyna Stage-IV under MAHAGENCO, Nathpa
l Congo (1397), Peru (1577), Ethiopia (650)
Jhakri under SJVNL, Tehri under THDC and
China (6083)
Karcham Wangtoo of JSW Energy. Contribution
of electricity generation from Hydro Electric l Canada (2216), India (2638), Greenland (800),
Power Stations has risen from 2.2 BU during 1947 Indonesia (2147)
to about 134.9 BU in 2018-19. Hydro generation l USA (4485), Japan(718), Brazil (3040), Nepal
during 2018-19 was about 8.8 BU (i.e. 7%) more (733)
than the generation of 126.1 BU during 2017-18.
l Colombia (1000), Norway (563), Russia(2295
With about 30000 MW installed hydro capacity
by the year 2005, India stands 6th in the list of For Small hydro plants (SHP) upto 25MW
world’s top hydro-electricity generating countries Station Capacity large potential exists in India,
India has potential to be in the lead if full hydro China, Nepal, Bhutan, Latin America, and Africa
potential of north-eastern rivers is exploited. according to World Energy Council. (WEC). In
India’s Basin wise Hydro potential given in Table India 5718 sites with a Potential of 15,384MW
7 shows a total of 148 GW. Hydro Power is 87% identified-in Himalayas and 5 states in plains:
of Renewables. In 2005, 18GW of Hydro Power 50% to be tapped in next decade. 700SHP set up
added. Hydro provides power in 160 countries. with 2,558MW. Fig.10 shows a small hydro plant
Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, USA make up of 750 kW on KR canal near Mandya, Karnataka.
more than 50% of Hydro production. A 10 fold Fig. 11 Shows a micro-hydro power scheme.
increase in Africa, 3 fold in Asia, doubling River water in the hills is diverted to crate a
in S. America are expected in near future. In gradient and run a turbine via penstock pipes.
Canada additional 11GW identified. For Hydro The turbine coupled to a special generator which
technology, the factors of concern are- to improve- produces electricity for local loads. A Practical
environment performance, corrosion of blades, scheme developed at IIT Delhi is shown in Fig. 12
materials, efficiency, operating range, cost, asset and Fig. 13 shows a pico hydro power house near
management, silting. From smallest (3kW) to Sirsi in Karnataka set up under Indo Norwegian
biggest (over 100MW), each has a footprint. Environment Program (INEP). Electrical system
Small Hydro Plays an important role in remote comprising self excited induction generator,
areas, community development, multi purpose electronic load controller (ELC) and dump load
infrastructure- applicable to both developed and was developed by the Author’s team at IIT Delhi.
developing countries. Large schemes will be Turbine was developed by IISc, Bengaluru. The
environmentally benign and support grid, industry issues for viable off grid micro hydro plant are:
and urban sectors. Countries with good hydro Turbine Design, Pump as Turbine, ELC, New

Table 7 India’s Basin wise Hydro potential

Fig. 10 Small Hydro Plant (KR Canal) Near

Mandya,Karnataka (750Kw)

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of land use practices” and.“Changes toward less

resource-intensive diets; sustainable bio-based
feedstocks” and “product substitution” to less
carbon-intensive items. There are many ways to
change the way food is produced for both humans
and livestock that could reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, raising microbes to produce a natural
fertilizer for plants, growing more food in vertical
farms near cities, and producing algae in mass
quantities for people and animals to eat.
India has a potential of generating 6.38 X 1010
m3 of biogas from 980 million tones of cattle
dung produced annually. The heat value of this
Fig. 11 Micro Hydro Power Scheme gas amounts to 1.3 X 1012 MJ. In addition, 350
million tones of manure also produced along
with biogas. Biogas use is limited to nearby areas
due to difficulty in liquefying it. Government
of India has been running National Biogas and
Manure Management Program (NBMMP). 100%
Biogas engines are in operation in the country.
95% methane to make it suitable to be used as a
transport fuel and for blending with natural gas
where the gas grid is available is attempted. High
density polyethylene (HDPE) based complete and
portable family size biogas plants suitable for
rural and semi urban area are employed.
Fig. 12 Practical Micro Hydro Model
Other Urban waste projects include:
• 1 MW project based on cattle dung at
Haebowal, Ludhiana;
• 0.50 MW project for generation of power from
biogas at sewage treatment plant at Surat,;
• 150 kW pant for vegetable market and
slaughter house waste at Vijaywada.
• 300 kW project based on vegetable market
waste under commissioning at Chennai.
Fig. 13 Pico Hydro Power House
• 25 waste-to-energy projects with an aggregate
reliable generators for stand alone mode, Business capacity of about 30 MW from a variety
Model, Vendor development and O&M. of industrial wastes also been setup in the
b) Bio Energy country.

Bio-Energy can change the future. Large swaths of Indian Bio potential for power generation are:
land may shift from conventional agriculture back Forest and agro Residues: 16,000MW; Sugar
to forests and use existing parcels to grow energy Mills, Bagasse Cogeneration: 5000MW. Fig. 14
crops. This requires “sustainable intensification gives Examples of different biomass feedstocks,

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typical feedstock costs, and plant capacities. The

gases from Bio conversion through Biochemical
and thermal route are: Biogas, Methane Ethanol,
Syngas. The gas is used to run a turbine or engine
to drive a generator for grid fed or off grid
electricity. Fig. 15 shows Share of bio-energy in
world primary energy mix. A Bio thermal power
plant (20 MW) set up in Hiriyur, Karnataka is
shown in Fig. 16a and a husk power scheme
of Bihar promoted by Gyanesh Pande is shown
Fig. 16a Biomass based Thermal Plant (20 Mw)-
in Fig. 16b. A special single phase generator Hiriyur, Karnataka
developed and patented by the Author at IIT Delhi
suitable for Bio and pico hydro is shown in Fig.
17, Fig .18 shows the test set up at IITD lab with
the new generator suited for Bio Energy.
c) Wind Energy
Wind is an attractive RE exploited extensively in
the world. Windiest regions are: coastal regions
of Americas, Europe, Asia, Australiasia. Total
resource is vast-one estimate puts it as a million
GW. Even if only1% of area used with a low load
Fig. 16b Husk Power System of Bihar
factor of 15-40%, wind potential correspond to

Fig. 14 Examples of Different Biomass Feedstocks, Fig. 17 Engine Driven 1-Ph SEIG (Patented)
Typical Feedstock Costs, and Plant Capacities

Fig. 15 Share of Bio-energy in World Primary

Energy Mix Fig. 18 New 5-kW,1- ph. SEIG set-up

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total capacity of all electricity generating plants.

Offshore resource is HUGE- capable of supplying
all EU electricity without going further than 30km
offshore. Wind power global capacity is shown in
Fig. 19, showing steep increase over the years.
Fig. 20 shows the Indian wind map. Fig. 21
shows India’s RE growth in 12th plan (2012-
17) showing major additions in wind. Technical
advancement in wind machines can be seen
from Table 8 which show steep rise in size and Fig. 21 Renewable Energy Addition in 12th Five
capacity over the years. India is among the lead Year Plan
countries to exploit wind. In 1985 a program to power generation in Indian Renewables is 65 %.
map wind energy was taken up. It monitored wind Table 9 gives the list of manufacturers supplying
energy in 600 locations in 25 states. Estimated Wind machines in India. They supply both fixed
Potential in India as per National Institute of speed and variable speed systems. Fig 22 shows
Wind Energy (NIWE) is: 65-100 GW. Renewable share of different wind machine manufacturers
share (31 GW) in overall Power Capacity (234 globally. Suzlan (India) is a major player. Fig.
GW) amounts to more than 13%. Share of Wind 23 shows wind power global capacity steadily
increasing. Total installed wind capacity in India
in 2017 was 32.3 GW (4th Largest after China,
USA, Germany) Wind Equipment Export upto
$1,400Millian to USA, China, Japan, Australia,
Brazil etc. is achieved. Manufacturing is 60%

Table 8. Growth of Wind Size and Capacity

Fig. 19 Global Wind Map, Installed Capacity and

Production

Table 9. Wind Turbine Suppliers

Major manufacturers supplying wind machines in
India

Fig. 20 Wind Potential Map of India

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Fig. 22 Market Shares of Top Wind Turbine

Manufactures, 2012
Fig. 24 Grid Connected Wind Energy System
Chitradurga-Karnataka

Fig. 23 Wind Power Global Capacity, 1996-2012

indigenous-3000 MW manufacturing capacity.

Indian wind tariff declined to Rs.2.65/kWh in
Oct.2017
India’s cumulative wind capacity in GW may Fig. 24 a Wind Turbine Parts
increase from 40 in 2019 to 100 in 2027. Offshore a Wind farm in Chitradurga in Karnataka feeding
wind costs are plummeting and would be a cost to 11 kV grid below. Its internal parts are shown
competitive electricity in India by 2025 with in Fig. 24(a). Wind solar off grid hybrid system
added attraction of absence of land acquisition (1-10kW) is indigenously developed by NAL,
and ease of supplying power to heavily populated Bengaluru and installed in several locations in
coastal cities. Europe accounts for 90% of current India.
offshore wind development, but US, Japan, China,
d) Solar Energy
Taiwan are entering aggressively. India’s 3100km
coastline provides diversification of generation Solar Energy Mission in India is a major RE
with technology costs declining. activity. India has vast solar energy potential-5000
trillian kWh of energy is incident on Indian land.
As indigenous effort, the Author designed the first
Most parts get 4-7kWh/ sq.m/day. The Mission
55kW Induction Generator(IG) for fixed speed
plans to create policy framework for 20,000MW
wind system for Kirloskar Electric, Bengaluru in
by2022, aimed at 10,000 MW by 2017. Achieve
1985. Many new players entered then and India
15 m Sq. m of Solar Thermal collector area by
developed capacity to produce upto 1 MW. Most
2017; Deploy 20 m. solar lighting systems for
of the currently installed wind systems in India are
rural areas by 2022. It aims to create conditions
of this category. In recent times, Variable speed
of Solar Manufacturing Capacity-Solar Thermal.
systems using doubly fed induction generator
Solar PV and Solar thermal are two components
(DFIG) developed by GE R&D (Bengaluru) are
of RE with bulk of electricity coming from
installed in large numbers in India. Fig. 24 shows
PV panels mostly imported. Promote off grid

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applications-1000MW by 2017, 2000MW by stations. India is developing two 100kW floating

2022. 1000 MW Grid connected (33kV and solar plants , one by Surat Municipality and other
above). Targets at 2013 were:100MW Roof Top by NTPC in Kerala. In 2017 Siemens won rights
(LT/11kV), 200MW off grid, 7 m Sq.m of Solar to develop 29 MW solar combined with 50 MW
thermal collector; Financial outlay: $10 billion. wind to optimize site and grid connections. There
is good scope to complement existing wind farms
Solar Power future installation target in GW are:
with solar panels. Solar irrigation pumps is an
30 (2019), 40 (2020), 60(2021), 100 (2022) Solar
attractive option for India. Presently installed
PV global capacity is shown in Fig. 25 and solar
about 26 million agricultural pumps are powered
thermal in Fig. 26. In solar thermal India is within
by heavily subsidized grid electricity. A total of
top 10. There are both Indian and Foreign players
135545 solar pumps are installed till Sept 2017.
in Indian Solar Market such as: Tata Power (India),
Such “Make in India” pumps have export potential
ReNew Power (India) Fortum (Finland), Light
to Bangladesh and Africa.
source Renewable Energy (UK). World’s Largest
single site solar project of 648 MW capacity was India targets 40GW Rooftop Solar by 2022. 2.36
set up on Kamuthi, Tamil Nadu in Sept.2016. GW of Rooftop Solar was sanctioned till Oct.2017.
World’s largest solar projects are planned in India. Building architecture can be modified to embed
Rajasthan has a single industrial park planned such rooftop solar systems. Indian Railways has
for 10 GW solar with 2 GW installed in 2018. ambitious plan for roof top solar. By 2020 it plans
Karnataka has a 2 GW solar park commissioned solar on 8000station roofs to produce 1000MW.
by end 2018 backed by NTPC off take agreements
Since bulk of the solar system is imported there
and landowners involvement.
is apprehension that suppliers like Chinese may
In July 2017 India commenced operation of dump obsolete items needing India to prioritize
a solar powered train with ancillary power by local solar manufacture. Thus indigenous
rooftop solar combined with battery back up. technology development will receive thrust.
Indian Railways targets 5 GW solar by 2025
Schematic of a solar system is shown in Fig. 27.
mainly through rooftop schemes in Railway
Solar panel will produce dc voltage which will be
converted to ac by the inverter and synchronized
to the grid after matching the ac voltage. Power
converter technology is critical to the system
which too is mainly imported. India need to
indigenize in this area too. A major factor in solar
operation is that it is highly weather dependent

Fig. 25 Solar PV Global Capacity, Shares of top 10

Countries, 2012

Fig. 26 Solar Thermal Heating Shares of top 10

Countries, 2011 Fig. 27 PV System

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with varying utility factor of installed units. For Mini Hydro for a few MW, Synchronous
Maintenance of solar panels is also critical to generator is normally used, but grid connected
extract maximum power. induction generator (GCIG) too can be employed
with proper VAR support being brushless with
Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) is a major
lower maintenance. Similar is the case with grid
commercial factor for effective operation of
connected Micro Hydro. The turbines normally
grid connected RE systems. This too depends
do not have governor control and all power in
on performance and reforms of distribution
the water which is generally constant but for
companies.
seasonal variation will be fed to the grid minus
e) Energy Converters for Power Generation: losses. Off grid micro/pico hydro is a different
Energy Converters are needed to convert natural category needing special attention. While input
resource to electricity. Except for solar PV, which hydro power is constant output power varied
only produces dc, all other generators are rotating needing an Electronic Load control (ELC) to
electric machines driven by the prime mover. balance. Self Excited Induction Generator is an
As well known, Thermal and Nuclear plants option being pursued while SG with suitable
convert resource to steam to run steam turbine control is implemented despite their defects.
which normally runs at 3000 or 1500rpm for New techniques must be pursued for 1- phase
2-pole and 4-pole synchronous generators(SG) generators (researched by the Author). Such low
respectively for 50Hz. SGs have 3-phase stator power schemes often need special turbine design
winding and field winding in the rotor that carries and Pump as Turbine(PAT) is another option
dc fed through slip-rings. Mega Hydro plants explored as prime mover. Many vendors have
have water driven low speed turbines, bulk of sprouted in this area to electrify remote and hilly
recent installations being of vertical axis, which regions.
is now is now a mature technology. Water from a Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) have
head falls through penstock pipes to rotate pelton grown rapidly over the years in terms of size,
wheels. Governor control is through orienting the sophistication and capacity (Table 8) with 15 MW
blades to adjust power to be fed to the grid. These designs for off shore use currently in drawing
hydro turbines drive generators with large number table. Mostly horizontal axis wind turbines
of salient wound field poles and 3- phase stator. (HAWT) of 2 and 3 blades are used though a
There are exciters mounted on the same shaft smaller number of vertical axis wind turbines
to inject dc to the field via slip-rings. Brushless (VAWT) too are installed. VAWT works well
alternators with rotating exciters feeding dc to field in any wind speed direction while HAWT need
winding via shaft mounted diodes are widely used to be oriented towards wind direction through
in medium power range for grid fed and standby yaw mechanism. High end HAWTs have pitch
applications mostly driven by diesel engines. control of blades at high wind speeds. Turbine
To promote bioenergy fuel for these engines characteristics is such that the variation of power
are blended with biodiesel/ethanol. Research is with rotational speed (rpm) is a bell shaped curve
on to modify engine if needed to accommodate with peak power at one rpm for the given wind
biofuels. Large number of engine driven 1-phase speed. Ideally at any wind speed it has to run at
generators is employed for standby use in India. one rpm for maximum power through maximum
There is wide scope to use brushless self excited power point tracking (MPPT). This necessitates a
induction generators in such cases with suitable variable speed system dependent on wind speed to
voltage regulators (Author has researched in this extract maximum power. A gear box is normally
area with patents and publications). necessary to step up turbine rpm to match generator
Energy converters for Small Hydro systems speed according to grid frequency. Initially
has drawn considerable interest in recent years. brushless squirrel cage induction generators

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(SCIM) were widely used for simplicity, cost and future grids with increased future inverter
and robustness, which feed wind power to the presence.
grid without needing synchronization. A terminal
g) Micro-grid using RE
capacitor bank is needed to reduce VAR drain
from the grid. Near constant speed was the main Bulk of the above targeted population lives in
handicap as maximum power could not be tapped rural and remote regions. Here supply through
at all wind speeds. Variable speed systems were grid is not always the best solution. Off grid
rigorously explored as unit capacities went up power generation and distribution using RE is
beyond 1 MW through use of power electronic attractive. In India remote regions like Andaman
converters. Permanent magnet and wound field Nicobar, Lakshadweep. Bet Dwaraka, Ladakh
synchronous generators came into play. But etc are currently electrified by polluting diesel
doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) turned where hybriding with RE may save diesel. A
out to be leader for variable speed wind systems first practical effort was made by installing large
despite the disadvantage of slip-rings and brushes Solar-battery hybrid system in Andaman –Nicobar
for rotor access. DFIG can smoothly operate at islands with 20MW solar and 28MWh storage.
both sub-synchronous and super-synchronous This replaces costly diesel generator costing US$
rpm as per wind speed through bidirectional rotor 0.23/kWh. A peculiar feature of power supply in
power flow arrangement using dual PE converters India is its erratic and unreliable nature due to
to connect rotor to grid via dc link. For off-grid load shedding. Many consumers resort to standby
wind systems such as wind-battery, wind-solar inverters or diesel driven generating systems
and wind-diesel, turbine is of low rating without adding to emissions. RE and storage systems
pitch control. Permanent magnet, synchronous with micro-grid interface may transform such
and induction generators may be employed. Both unreliable supply to a healthy 24X7 system. An
for off- grid or micro-grid with multiple sources, integrated general off-grid energy system may
the whole system must be tailor made as per comprise Conventional Sources, Renewable
local conditions with robust energy management Sources Storage Systems Loads (see Fig. 29)
system (EMS) Dumb grids are not intelligent. Smart grids use
ICT. Use of sensors, smart meters evaluate power
f) Distributed Energy Sources (DES)
flows in real time.; Balance production and
Distributed Energy Sources mainly Wind and consumption using Energy Management System
Solar penetrating the grid are growing by leaps (EMS). A micro-grid may be a combination of
and bounds. PVs make most of its growth in both dc and ac grid. IEEE has specified 380 V dc
US(has 1650 MW) grids. AC grids are standard 415V/230V, 50/60
Large penetration of DES is both a challenge and
opportunity. There are also grids with 100% RE.
Several countries meet or mostly aim this target.
Examples are: Iceland- 100% from Geothermal
or Hydro, Norway (97% incl. Hydro, Costa Rica
(93%), Brazil(76%), Canada (62%). Most of
hydro is already a developed
Option. Variable RE penetration is the future
challenge for Electrical Engineers. – WIND and
SOLAR will have inverter dominated grids.
Inverter based devices may be more than 50% of
rated power. Denmark, Ireland, Germany have
over 20% Variable RE. Fig. 28 shows present Fig. 28 Inverter dominated future grid

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Hz.. Gadgets must be compatible to the supply.

Solar can directly handle dc. With combination of
RE sources in hybrid mode system design has to
be localized. Hybrid systems with combination of
RE and storage are shown in Fig. 30.
h) Zero Emissions Alternatives
Apart from Renewable Energy ( including Large
Hydro) there are a few zero emissions alternatives
for India as below:

Fig. 30c Wind PV Hybrid

Demand Response Management (DRM): It is a

system designed to use technology to curtail short
duration peak loads. Spread across a range of
customers voluntary curtailment of load may be
attempted that avoids involuntary load shedding
and black outs. Smart grids with smart meters
will better manage variable loads and generation
Fig. 29 Generalized Integrated Off-Grid Energy on real time basis. DRM is a peak demand
System management tool effectively employed in US
over a decade.
Nuclear Energy: India is engaged in tapping
Nuclear Energy almost since Independence.
Tarapore, Kota, Kalpakkam and Kaiga are some
of the major plants. With 6.8GW capacity it
is just 2.1% of total and 3% generation even at
70% utilization Present proposal is to have ten
fold increase in Nuclear Energy to 60GW by
Fig. 30a Wind Battery Hybrid 2030 which is considered unrealistic by experts
based on international experience and higher
than expected construction and operational costs.
Time and cost over runs are predicted. Prime
Minister Modi had a deal with President Trump
to use Westinghouse Nuclear Technology. But
Westinghouse is becoming bankrupt and seeking
Bank support to set up 6 Nuclear Plants in
Andhra Pradesh. Indian Government has halved
its planned expansion to just 7 GW ( 10 reactors)
due to high cost and declaring that the country
will reduce Nuclear option to energy needs. For
instance France’s proposal for Nuclear plant in
Fig. 30b Wind –Diesel Hybrid Maharashtra is facing financial problems.

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Solar Thermal with Storage: A 135 MW the transmission system in India which presently
Concentrated Solar Thermal Power (CSP) operates at ±500kV and ±800kV.This too is a
combined with 1.1GWh storage capacity was set great challenge with imported technology. HVDC
up in Australia in 2017 for a low cost of US$60/ controls power flow between two power systems
MWh. Dubai awarded a US$4bn 700MW CSP located at large distance. First 500MW HVDC
project to deliver peak electricity at a low price line was commissioned in Vindhyachal in 1989 to
of $73/MWh. CSP can become a viable option link Northern and Western grids. The other was
for India to address peak loads. Rihand–Delhi line. Second longest HVDC line of
1450 km links Odisha in Eastern grid to Bengaluru
International Grid interconnects and imported in south. It supplies power from Talcher to Kolar.
Hydro: India is progressively increasing grid India is in the process of building two world’s
interconnectivity with Bhutan and Bangladesh. It largest 800kV HVDC projects at Champa (1365
is planned to have new grid capacity with Nepal km, commissioned) and North-East Agra (1728
and subsea connectivity with Sri Lanka. This will km, Under construction) for better RE integration
facilitate importing and exporting of electricity and to strengthen the grid. Steady increase in
and peak load balancing. India plans to revive Circuit KM (CKM) from 6th plan till July 2019
US$4.7bn, 5.6 GW Pancheswar hydro electric can be seen from the following data: (Source:
(joint) project on Mahakali River that divides CEA).
India and Nepal.
Technical and commercial (theft) losses in
GRID STABILITY,TRANSMISSION & Transmission and distribution is a major cause for
DISTRIBUTION (T&D) concern in power sector as seen by the following
T&D is the process to transfer electricity from data of CEA indicating over 20% losses.
‘Power’ House to ‘Our’ House. Power Grid Growth of Rural Electrification and pumpset
Corporation of India is the central agency handling energisation is given in Table 10 showing steady
transmission whose mission as per Prime Minister increase reflecting Nation’s mission to electrify
Modi is ‘One Nation, One Grid’. rural sector with associated social benefits.
High voltage ac transmission was in operation India has international transmission linkage with
even before independence as Hydro stations were Bhutan and Bangladesh and planning linkages
away from load centres. First 220 kV line was set with Nepal, and Sri Lanka to enhance Regional
up in 1950 and 400kV line was commissioned energy balance.
in 1977. Presently operating High Voltage
transmission is both ac and dc. The ac voltage India has made significance progress in recent
level has increased over the years and presently years on Energy-system efficiency. Peak power
stands at 200kV, 400kV and 765 kV with deficit has declined to 1-2% in 2017. With expected
associated technical challenges for Engineers. doubling of electricity demand in coming decade,
High Voltage DC (HVDC) is a major milestone of T&D infrastructure needs significant expansion.

period ±800kV. ±500kV 765kV 400kV 200kV

HVDC (CKM) HVDC (CKM) HVAC (CKM) HVAC (CKM) HVAC (CKM)
Till 6th 0 0 0 6029 46005
Plan
Till July 6124 9432 42388 182391 176904
2019

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Table 10. Growth of Rural Electrification and Pump Energization

Smart Grid is a new concept that uses Information capacities alongwith pumped storage. Smart grid
& Communication Technology (ICT) and sensor takes advantage of Electric vehicles and lithium
technology to make the Grid intelligent with real ion battery storage.
time monitoring towards system efficiency. A
‘Distribution’ is the weakest link in the Power
$200bn
Chain in India for their failure to provide last
investment program through 2030 will have mile connectivity to customers and to provide
internationally connected smart grid capable of electricity to all despite surplus generation.
handling distributed generation of RE including Distribution companies (Discoms) are mostly
Rooftop solar and Battery storage. This requires state owned except in a couple of states and in
distribution reform program UDAY(Ujwal deep financial and technical stress due to social
DISCOM Assurance Yojana) to be carried and political factors providing heavy subsidy
through successfully. Grid stability is critical alongwith widespread power theft. But Modi
to handle increased RE penetration in coming government’s UDAY scheme for Discom reforms
decade (43% as against 43% of thermal). India’s is bearing fruit. UDAY targets to bridge the gap
large Hydro generation (45GW) and 25GW of between cost of supply and revenue realization
Gas fired plants are providing current peaking and to reduce AT&C losses.

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UTILISATION OF ELECTRICITY Supply and Realization in paise/unit showing

realization being lower which goes further down
Electricity is mainly used for lighting, heating
if agriculture is accounted- subsidy is a major
and motion. India is among the countries with
component.
low per capita electricity consumption/ utilization
compared to world average. However per capita a) Electric Motors and Drives Technology
consumption increased from 100 units in 1971 Electric Motors are the main work horses of
to 1181 in 2018-19 indicating improved quality Industry that literally make things to move.
of life of people. Current per capita consumption Motors consume nearly 60% of world’s electricity.
in India is double that of Pakistan/Srilanka and Electrical Engineering centered on motor
treble compared to Bangladesh. Fig. 31 shows development during 19th century and early 20th
per capita electricity consumption in different century as chronologically given in Annexure-1.
parts of the world with a world average of 2548 Invention of Commutator by Pixii and Richie
kWh. Fig. 32 shows estimated share of global (1832,33) led to dc motor development which
electricity demand by end use- Light, Electronics, were the earliest motors. They are available in
Electrolysis. Heat, Standby and Motor- Bulk shunt, series and compound field arrangement.
consumed by motors. Table 11 shows Cost of They are flexible for change in speed and torque.
Next major breakthrough came in 1886 through
Tesla’s invention of ac poly-phase Induction
motor supported by Dobrowolsky’s invention of
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor in 1889. Squirrel
Cage Induction Motors (SCIM) are produced in
largest number even today. The other variant is the
slip ring or wound rotor induction motor (WRIM)
produced in high power range for specific
applications due to its complex rotor construction.
Among ac polyphase motors synchronous motors
Fig. 31 Per Capita Electricity Consumption (World: which run only at a fixed speed, unlike induction
2548 kWh) motors, dependant on frequency and poles too
are in use though for limited application. Recent
competitors to induction motor are permanent
magnet (brushed and brushless) motor and
switched reluctance motor which have specific
advantages as adjustable speed motors. Single
phase ac motors are widely used with single
phase supply in low or fractional kW range. Bulk
of them are 1- ph induction motors with squirrel
cage rotor mainly used for domestic applications
such as fans, pumps, compressors. The other
widely used variety is 1- phase ac series motor
or universal motors as they can work on both ac
and dc and used for high starting torque and speed
such as food mixers and hand drills. Servomotors
for servo-drives are other widely used variety of
motors. They operate on short time on command
Fig. 32 Estimated share of global electricity demand for variety of applications such as robotics,
by end-use machine tools , door or valve openers, contactors

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Table 11. Growth of Rural Electrification and pump energization

etc. Stepper motors and permanent magnet motors through Ward Leonard (WL) method (1897)
are among the widely used servomotors. made revolutionary change. Its different variants
using Power Electronics exist even today while
We see Electric Drives in all walks of life as given
traditional WL method using motor-generators
in Annexure-2 and India has made rapid strides
are still used in some niche areas like mining and
in all sectors. Fig. 33 shows Estimated electricity
steel rolling mills. In 1930 Mercury Arc Rectifier
demand for all electric motors by sector-
emerged for voltage control of dc motors while
Industry, Commercial, Agriculture, residential
Magnetic Amplifier was employed for similar
and transport- bulk of motors used by Industry
purpose in 1930. The major milestone was the
and commercial. Motors listed above are used in
introduction of solid state method of speed control
drives with proper control of speed and torque to
of dc motors in 1960 due to invention of ‘Thristor’
suit the application. Speed control schemes are
in 1957 which led to static WL system with no
steadily undergoing improvement over the years
rotating parts and improved controllability. Most
based on R&D. For dc motors initially variable
of dc drives today use solid state power electronic
resistors were used in armature and field circuits.
control though they are gradually eclipsed by more
Scheme was inefficient due to resistance losses
elegant ac drives whose story is exciting. Squirrel
and the voltage control of shunt wound motor
Cage Induction Motor (SCIM), the backbone of
ac drives, is produced and used in largest numbers
for low cost and ease of manufacture. Its major
disadvantage in contrast to dc motor is the
difficulty of speed control as it is inherently a near
constant speed machine decided by frequency
and poles. Since rotor is closed electrically only
stator control is possible. Varying stator voltage or
adding resistance will have limited speed control
making frequency control and pole changing
viable and involved options. Pole changing
involves reconnecting stator windings but cause
only 2:1 speed change. A modification called
pole amplitude modulation was propounded to
Rawcliffe of Bristol University(UK) in 1958 that
Fig. 33 Estimated Electricity Demand for All results in two speeds other than 2:1. The method
Electric Motors by Sector

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found widespread use by industry as Rawcliffe synchronous speeds and balances power in stator,
pushed his concept vigorously. While concept of rotor and shaft.
variable frequency drive(VFD) was known from
b) New Loads
1891, it become acceptable and effective only in
1963 with the advent of solid state controller using Types of electrical loads are also changing with
power electronic (PE) converter consequent to Power Electronic based converter interface.
Thyristor invention in 1957. VFD is widely used ac These include: Efficient illumination schemes
drive today for multiple applications bypassing dc (LEDs), variable speed drives, high speed trains,
motor drives, thanks to continuous improvement electric/ hybrid vehicles, New domestic and IT
in PE converter technology. Competing SCIM based gadgets. Non-linear loads with Power
based BSD, emerged Switched Reluctance Motor Electronics create power quality issues.
(SRM) developed by Lawrenson (1974) of Leeds c) Power Electronics
University (UK), which has variable reluctance
multi tooth rotor and multi pole stator with lumped Power Electronics (PE) is a new area of
windings. Unequal stator and rotor tooth is the Electrical Engineering evolved over last few
pre-requisite for torque production. A converter decades resulting from the discovery of power
sequentially switches stator coils to cause rotation semiconductor devices. The major milestone was
at desired speed. SRM is used in many domestic the invention of ‘Thristor’ by GE in 1957. In recent
and industrial applications. Permanent Magnet times several devices emerged such as MOSFET,
(PM) motors are in the family of VFD competing IGBT, IGCT, Power transistor etc. that work
with SCIM and SRM. They are brushless with as switches in Power Converters. Thus device
PM rotors and poly phase stator winding similar technology becomes central to PE followed by
to SCIM fed by a converter outputting needed Converter technology which manipulates devices
frequency decided by the speed. Field is either in suitable topology to obtain desired outputs.
non-oriented (PM synchronous motor-PMSM) or Control technology plays an important role on
oriented ( PM brushless dc-PMBLDC). PM motors development of PE systems and for analysis and
too are in extensive use. Conventional wound design. Recent developments in Digital Signal
field synchronous motors find niche application Processors (DSP) and cheap chips have eased PE
such as cement mill drives at fixed or variable converter designs and DSP based controls. PE also
speed (VFD). But they are not brushless needing helps power conditioning to have desired power
added maintenance. Another of the same variety quality in networks polluted by non linear loads
is the wound rotor induction motor (WRIM) with and converters. PE converters are of following
rotor control. Balanced or unbalanced external types:
rotor resistances are used in cases such as crane • ac to dc converter (Rectifier)
drives for starting and speed control. Though
• dc to ac converter ( Inverter)
WRIM has deficiencies compared to SCIM on
cost and manufacture it has found wide use in • ac to ac converter ( ac controllers and cyclo-
specific high power efficient drives such as cranes converters)
and hoists through rotor or slip energy recovery.
• dc to dc converter ( buck-boost converters,
Such Slipring Motor Cascades were invented by
choppers)
Kramer and Scherbius in 1905 they involved
multiple rotating machines to recover slip power Above PE converters find wide applications
to be fed to grid or shaft. But concept got a big in adjustable speed drives, dc drive control, ac
boost as static Kramer drive in 1970 by employing drive control (Variable frequency drives(VFD),
dual PE converters, one rotor side and other grid scator control, vector control/field oriented
side, to tap slip power to be fed to grid. The motor control(FOC), Direct torque control (DTC),
operates in both super-synchronous and sub- Renewable Energy (Wind/Solar/Small Hydro/

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Bio), Power system/HVDC/power quality, in Perambur off Chennai (Integral coach factory-
Energy conversation, Electric transportation, ICF) and Kapurthala make modern Rail coaches
Medical Electronics, and Standby power supplies. with enough Electrical Engineering thrown in for
Converters in future power systems will handle above electrical loads in the coaches. BEML at
nearly 50% of system power rating. Mysuru makes Metro coaches with ACs, lighting
and controls. At the high end the superfast train
ELECTRICITY IN
planned between Ahmedabad and Mumbai will
TRANSPORTATION employ the most modern electrical systems both
The transportation sector is ripe for electrification for main drives and accessories. Japan and China
and Electrical Engineering plays a major role in have introduced Magnetically levitated (Mag-
all type of transport as below. Lev) trains which can run upto 500kmph. Future
will be Electric trains in India as Diesel use will
Rail: In old steam engine driven trains electricity
gradually diminish due to high cost and pollution.
was limited to lighting and fans in coaches
energised by wheel mounted special generators. Road: Electric vehicles will be main road
They are now phased out and Diesel Electric and transport of future. Till now petrol and diesel
Electric Engines manufactured at Varanasi and vehicles have dominated with some electricity use
Chittaranjan works are now universally adopted. in the vehicle supplied by rechargeable batteries.
Electric traction employs both dc and ac overhead However electric gadgets are increasing in recent
bus from which pantograph collects currents to years in this traditional transport. For example
drive the engine. Presently suburban trains use a normal car uses large number of motors for
dc bus and intercity trains use ac bus. Newly several operations (See Fig. 34).
established local metro trains in cities use ac bus Deployment of Electric Vehicles (EV) and Plug in
to suit imported technology. Traditional dc and ac Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) is shown in Fig.
bus connection use dc series motors coupled to 35 showing steady increase globally. In India EVs
the wheels. In dc bus resistance control is often were pioneered by Maini and family at Bengaluru
employed for starting speed control and braking through indigenous manufacture and marketing
though power electronic control is employed of (including considerable export) of their REVA
late. Conventional method in ac bus involves brand of 3 seater small electric cars. They used
tap-changing transformer and rectifier feeding dc Lead acid batteries and dc series motors with
motor. Control can be achieved by changing the needed control. Over the period technology has
taps by the driver. The dc motor is gradually phased surged dramatically with new batteries, motor
out and invertor fed a variable frequency drive drives and controls with many international
(VFD) employing 3-phase squirrel cage Induction players vying for this attractive market. REVA
Motors are new replacement. These modern is taken over by Mahindra which has put better
drives presently employed in high speed express cars on the road. Battery driven 3 wheeler vehicle
trains (like Rajdhani, Shatabdi) were introduced
a couple of decades ago with ABB technology.
Metros too use such ac drives. In Europe the
maximum speed is around 250 kmph while Indian
trains have not reached beyond 150 kmph needing
efforts to bridge this technology gap. Apart from
main drives ( mostly mounted in the Engine),
Electricity is extensively used for lighting, fans
and air conditioners in the coaches. GE(USA)
is setting up a factory in Bihar to make modern
Rail Equipment. Major coach factories such as
Fig. 34 PM Motors in a Car

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by solar or wind plants or hydrogen fuel cells. ‘All

electric ship’ is on the way using RE and storage.
Electrification of ships will increase in future.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Apart from Renewable Energy, Energy
Efficiency (EE) is the major component of
Energy Planning in India to reduce emissions
and to meet international obligations. Electricity
Fig. 35 Deployment of Electric Vehicles and plug-in consumption in India is expected to increase to
Hybrid Electric Vehicles 500% against 200% for China as per IEA. Bureau
of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under Ministry of
has become attractive in cities like Delhi and
Power (MOP) has done commendable work to
Varanasi. With the government plan to have only
promote Efficiency culture and Energy Saving in
EVs by 2030 country will see a major revolution
the country. Energy Audit is made mandatory in
in Electrical Engineering application. Apart from
most sectors. Energy Auditors accredited by BEE
private vehicles, public vehicles (Buses and mini
can be approached by customers. Energy efficient
buses) and those for goods transport will go
(smart) building architecture is promoted. India
electric soon. Another attractive market is battery
is in the forefront to produce energy efficient
operated two wheeler private vehicles with
(EE) motors of international standard mainly
relevant technology for motors and control. Some
for agricultural pumps. This Author initially
use new type of disc motors coupled to the wheel.
developed EE motor under a CBIP funded project
Companies like TVS in Hosur are leading players
built by Kirloskar Electric.
catering to Indian and foreign markets. Chain of
battery charging stations will be integral to this New Campaign from 2015 to promote Light
scheme with deployment of new technologies Emitting Diode(LED) lighting by cutting their
and creating a new market and jobs at the cost of prices by 90% has shown results on efficiency.
petrol stations. Solar Energy may be exploited for 250 million LED bulbs are installed in the country
charging apart from modern batteries like Lithium apart from 2.7 million LED street lights under PM
ion. Firms like Reliance, Hero, Adani, JSW Modi’s Ujala scheme till 2017. Govt. of India
group, Toshiba, Suzuki, Tesla are positioning to (GoI) advertisement proclaims distribution of
produce modern batteries in India. 25 crore LED lamps and fixing of 27 lakh LED
street lights. India is retrofitting with 15000 LEDs
Air: An Aircraft has plenty of Electrical
daily. By replacing all existing bulbs with LEDs
Engineering on board whose role is increasing
annual peak saving of 20GW anticipated.
over the years in ‘fly by wire aircraft’ with
sophisticated electrical controls. 400Hz supply There is considerable scope to save electricity
is used to reduce size of on board gadgets. in Heating, Ventilation and Air conditioning
Standby 400Hz generators are used for ground (HVAC). New Standards for Air Conditioner
supply. But exciting development is yet to come (AC) efficiency in 2017 are proving effective to
as hybrid airplanes could debut in as few as 15 save electricity as they are major energy guzzlers
years for shorter flights. All electric aircraft too is in urban commercial complexes and IT industry.
conceived using solar energy and battery storage With increase in middle class AC installations
would rise. Use of six star rated AC as per IEA
Water: Ships have extensive electricity use
saves annual electricity of 2 TWh.
supplied by on board generator. Cargo ship
operators are beginning to explore ways to Smart meters are other new tools for EE. UP and
transition these behemoths to electricity, produced Haryana initiated action to install 5 million smart

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meters in 2017 costing US$ 500m. This is the , some with foreign tie-ups, are Crompton greaves
first move towards universal coverage of smart Ltd (Mumbai, with unit in Ahmednagar), Bharat
meters in India, which is necessary for smart grid Bijlee(Mumbai) ABB (Vadodara with units in
with two way communication and interactivity. Faridabad, Bengaluru), Siemens (Mumbai with
It would: a) encourage deployment of distributed unit in Nashik), English Electric (Chennai) Guest
rooftop solar and battery storage, b) reduce AT&C keen Williams (GKW) and Larsen and Toubro
losses, c) help real time monitoring to reduce peak (Mumbai, Chennai). Major breakthrough was
power, d) provide accurate billing and e)allow achieved by setting up BHEL, the large central
pre-paid and remote connection of services. Public sector undertaking with several units
located in Bhopal, Delhi, Hardwar, Bengaluru,
Battery Storage will play a key role to smart two
Jhansi, Hyderabad etc. Many of India based
way interconnected Indian grid to best manage
industries have foreign collaboration. e.g. KEC
peak demand and variable RE generation. Old
had with Brush Electricals (UK) and BHEL had
Lead acid batteries have to give way to new
with Parsons (UK) which enhanced local design
Lithium ion and Nickel Cadmium batteries.
and manufacturing potential though no form firm
Battery prices are down (80%) in last 5 years.
will share latest technologies. Indigenization
Apart from Battery, Energy Storage may be
through innovation and R&D is desired. Major
of different types: hydrogen fuel cells, super
Central power generating establishments are
capacitor, pump storage fly wheel.
National thermal power corporation (NTPC),
Energy Efficient Smart Buildings & Architecture National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC) and
will be the future. Nuclear Power Corporation(NPC) dedicated to
ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES IN INDIA Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear power generation
though NTPC is diversifying to other areas of
Electrical Industries in India have grown in a big generation. BHEL, NTPC NHPC are branded as
way over the century making motors, generators, ‘Navarathna’ units for their visible contribution
transformers, drives, switchgears, substation to the country. Major MNCs such as GE and
equipment, cables, transmission towers, Schneider have entered Indian scene. They engage
components, power converters, control equipment, in both global research and manufacturing. There
measuring instruments, insulators, RE equipment, are many small firms with National reach. Mention
power supplies etc. They are in private and public may be made of ‘Su-Kom’ who has emerged
sectors besides MNCs or those with foreign tie- as a leader in UPS through indigenous efforts.
ups. Large number of small entrepreneurs have BC Jain of Baroda set up unit in Vadodara on
set up MSMEs in electrical sector often feeding to Bio Energy and developed Biofuel fed Engines.
larger industries. Indian Electrical and Electronic Ramarathnam of Besil Industries, Chennai has
Manufacturing Association is doing yeoman done novel work with international recognition
service to promote Indian Electrical Industries. in developing RE based gadgets which are
ELROMA is the prestigious exhibition arranged extensively exported. Mention may be made of
at regular intervals by IEEMA to show case contributions to Industries of visionaries like SG
Electrical/Electronic Industries , both Indian and Ramachandra(Kirloskar), KK Nohria (CGL),
Foreign. IEEMA journal regularly projects the Shenai (ABB), Sridharan (Railways and Metro),
success of these Industries for readers. PR Bapat (GKW), Swayambhu (BHEL), Naik
Notable among Indian private players are (L&T)
Kirloskar Electric Co(KEC), Bengaluru and EDUCATION, RESEARCH &
Jyoti Ltd, Vadodara led by Ravi Kirloskar and DEVELOPMENT
Nanunhai Amin respectively making mostly
motors, generators, drives, power converters and Rapid growth of electricity sector in India
control equipment. Major private Electrical firms demands that talent and trained personnel become

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available as India’s new installed capacity adds ago. While IISc focused on post graduation and
new jobs. India has initiated the process to rapidly research, Roorkee produced quality graduates.
expand energy education in the country, to enable Next in line of quality Institutions producing
the existing educational institutions to introduce Electrical Engineers were mainly Jadhavpur
courses related to energy capacity addition, University, Bengal Engineering college (now
production, operations and maintenance, in their converted as a Central Institution similar to IITs),
regular curriculum. Education and availability of Indian School of Mines(ISM-Dhanbad), BHU,
skilled workers is expected to be a key challenge and colleges at Guindy(Chennai) and Pune.
in India’s effort to rapidly expand its electricity Major breakthrough was achieved by setting up
sector. IITs (in Kharagpur, Bombay, Kanpur, Madras and
Delhi) post independence which overshadowed
To create human resources for RE, MNRE
all earlier colleges except IISc. Regional
announcement claims State Renewable Energy
Engineering Colleges(RECs) were the next level
Agencies are being supported to organize short-
central institutions operated jointly with states
term training programmes for installation,
which proved to be of quality higher than most
operation and maintenance and repair of
of the other Engineering Colleges. RECs were
renewable energy systems in such places where
converted to National Institutes of Technologies
intensive RE programme are being implemented.
(NITs) in 2003, decoupled from states and
Renewable Energy Chairs have been established
provided similar facilities and status as IITs. They
in IIT Roorkee and IIT Kharagpur. Capacity
are closely trying to catch up with IITs though
building and HRD for energy sector is central
the gap is significant. In recent years GoI took
to execute new plans. At present national
a significant step to increase Centrally Funded
expert level in different sectors is inadequate.
Technical Institutions (CFTIs) by converting
Skilled manpower is critical for successful
some old reputed institutions like Roorkee, BHU
implementation of sustainable energy (SE). New
and DSM to IITs and establishing new IITs across
Educational programs (Technician, diploma,
the country now totaling 23. Number of NITs too
UG, PG, research) be started from ‘ITI to IIT’ to
were increased to nearly 30 by having one NIT in
produce such a manpower at all levels based on
each state and prominent UT. Thus we have over
employment needs. Curriculum and courses in
50 autonomous centrally funded campuses with a
academic institutions both at UG and PG levels
potential to compete with world class ones, though
need to be modified to create suitable manpower
the path is hard. With these quality institutions
for SE.
India can produce competent Electrical Engineers
Graduate Electrical Engineers are produced by to tackle technological challenges as detailed in
Technical Institutions and Universities over a earlier sections. Private Universities, deemed
century to meet country’s needs. Polytechnics to be universities and autonomous colleges are
are producing diploma holders as next level sprouting recently which may compete for quality
manpower while Industrial Training Institutes as they are unshackled compared to colleges
(ITIs) are producing technicians with necessary tightly affiliated to universities. But competition to
skills. As non-formal education The Institution survive has made some of these new ones to resort
of Engineers(India) is facilitating practicing to short cuts and unethical practices. Another
professionals to get graduate equivalent AMIE. But threat faced by traditional Electrical Engineering
the picture is not rosy as the quality of manpower discipline is the newly emerging IT, computer
over the spectrum of Institutions vary widely with Science and Electronics& Communication areas
very few comparable to world standards. Initially which are attracting bright students at the cost of
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bengaluru and core areas. Salary packages of these new areas
Roorkee University (and its earlier versions) being higher the core EE discipline has suffered
were the prime institutions started over a century with risk of the country deprived of needed

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skills and expertise. It is seldom recognized that and consultancy. As some of the high end test
EE area can exist in harmony with Electronics, facilities of specific equipment are not available
communications, computers and IT in the many Indian firms are forced to use foreign test
emerging inter- disciplinary technologies like centres. This gap must be bridged. For majority of
smart grids, power electronics, HVDC, renewable CPRI Engineers testing is a comfort zone . The
energy, efficiency, EVs , drives and power line CCAR centre at CPRI established for research has
communication detailed in earlier sections. EE just become a guest house. It is of National interest
students may have challenging opportunities by if MoP insists CPRI to give thrust for research
dovetailing with emerging disciplines. To make which yields long term benefits. Thus CPRI needs
EE attractive, renaming it to ‘Electrical and major reform to lift it from a mere test house to
Electronics’ is widely practiced. a true research institute of global standing suited
to Industry and utilities. It can even become
EE research in India has taken multiple forms
a deemed to be technical university offering
and grown steadily. Academic research is in
post-graduate and research degrees. Electrical
forefront reflected by large number of papers
Research and Development Association (ERDA)
and PhDs from leading Institutions. They
at Vadodara started by Electrical Industries is a
take the form of theoretical, experimental and
private venture used extensively by Industry
computational. There are some fundamental
for testing and quality control mainly for Low
and breakthrough research while many are
Voltage (LV) products. ERDA competes with
incremental. Some Industries are engaged in
CPRI for similar items while engaged in limited
‘Industrial Research’ which mainly centers on
research and continuing education program for
development with commercial objective. ABB
practicing Engineers. Its testing revenue has been
(Bengaluru), BHEL(Hyderabad), CGL(Mumbai),
increasing steadily which is fed back to create
Kirloskar (Bengaluru), Jyoti (Vadodara) are
new facilities. ERDA is also active in ‘Energy
active in Industrial R&D . GE Global research
Audit’. Research Development and Standards
Centre at Bengaluru is perhaps the most active
Organisation (RDSO) at Lucknow under
MNC in conducting R&D for their units located
Railways is involved in R&D for Railways which
worldwide. It has hired largest number of PhDs
too deals with EE. Central Electronic Engineering
by any organization in India and secured largest
Research Institute(CEERI) at Pilani researches
number of patents by any firm in India. We can be
in some niche areas like Power Electronics and
proud that Indian researchers located in India have
Electric Traction.
produced global level research for its overseas
establishments. Although they have a theme ‘in USA, Canada, UK, European Union, China,
India for India’ same is not translated to practice. Japan and Australia have given big boost to
Bengaluru GE centre has active research groups Energy Research. India cannot relax presuming
in Energy, Drives, Water etc. Schlumberger too is others will solve its problems. Sustainable Energy
involved in global level industrial research. interdisciplinary research groups must be formed
in leading institutions as prevalent abroad. A
There are dedicated research establishments for
compendium of all organizations engaged in SE
Electrical Engineering in India. Central Power
(Academia, Industry, R&D, Government agencies,
Research Institute(CPRI) at Bengaluru under
energy agencies) must be prepared. Consortium
MoP is one such unit. Since MoP mandated CPRI
based research involving academia, industry,
to emphasize on revenue generation through
R&D centres and users need to be encouraged
testing and consultancy, research has suffered
for National mission projects. Many local and
and just a misnomer yielding little revenue. Even
global funding agencies can be tapped to support
the existing test facilities are not optimally used.
SE research. World Bank, UNDP, GEF, EU, Asia
Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) is a useful
Pacific consortium, USAID and S&T agreements
facility at CPRI having vast potential for research

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between India and some leading countries such including EE and propagated through National
as Canada, Australia, Israel, Japan, USA. Such program on Technology Enhanced Learning
cooperation will succeed only in a “win-win” (NPTEL). Such open source courses could be
situation participated by all stakeholders. Clear helpful to EE students to gain ‘true ‘knowledge.
time frame and deliverables must be identified. But there in no evidence that many EE students
Multiple or co-funding must be facilitated with are using these tools as their motivation is marks
clear norms. and not skill. This needs education reforms and
the proposed National Education Policy of MHRD
Regular updating of curriculum and courses
constituted Kasturirangan committee may address
is critical in fast growing EE discipline to
this issue. ‘Flipped Class Room’ is a new concept
compete with global levels. Software tools for
attempted globally to improve teaching learning
analysis and design are extensively used in EE
process wherein students go through apriori such
in recent years. EE students and professionals
video lectures (even available in YOUTUBE) and
must acquire expertise in such tools to tackle
discuss in class with teachers to clarify doubts.
real life problems. MATLAB/SIMULINK
This may be experimented widely in India which
containing many simulation tools relating to EE
requires large number of tutors as discussion takes
is a great resource for any researchers and recent
place after splitting the class in small groups.
publications heavily reflect use of MATLAB.
There are many design software for Electric India has produced large number of dedicated
machines and electromagnetics based on Finite Electrical Engineering teachers who have
Element methods (FEM). PRDC Bengaluru has inspired thousands of their students. Among
specialized in power system software. Very useful the teachers I know, I may mention CS Jha, PV
software for power system, power electronic Indiresan, SC DuttaRoy, & J Nanda (IIT Delhi),
converters and Drives too are available. These Bedford, Kamath, KVV Murthy (IIT Bombay),
tools Virtual instrumentation, internet of things, VGK Murthy( IIT Madras), Kesavamurthy
machine learning and artificial intelligence are (IIT Kharagpur), VT Ranganathan (IISc), MK
new technologies to impact EE. Vasantha (IIT Roorkee). Recently some IITs
have started recognizing good teachers which is
Teaching has been a casualty in Engineering
a healthy trend though the process is complex.
Education and EE is no exception. In leading
We should be proud of many EE professors in
institutions over emphasis on teaching and
foreign universities with basic degree from India
consultancy has often led to under emphasis
and are of international fame. Mention may be
on teaching. At tier-2 institutions and below
made of Om Mallick, Chanan Singh, Sachdeva,
best talent is normally not attracted to teaching.
Enjeti, Kaushik Rajashekhara, Bimal Bose,Tomy
Thus Motivation and dedication among teachers
Sabastian, Ned Mohan, Deepak Divan, Baliga,
are missing with a few exceptions. Due to
Ambrish Chandra, Arindam Ghosh (I may be
examination orientated education, private tuition
excused if some famous names are missing).
and ‘bazaar’ notes based books are flourishing
Just like China, India should tap their expertise
leading to most students lacking fundamentals.
for National good. Good EE training helps in
Most students prefer self study and attend classes
analytical and innovative skills and some bright
only for attendance. While self study may help
individuals have used this background even
them score in examinations, they will not be good
in non EE areas. Rajinder Pawar, Tadani and
at knowledge. This situation is a liability to the
Rajendran who founded NIIT are EE graduates
country if persons handling electrical sector are
from IITD. Same is the case with Bansal duo
mediocre; hence good teaching is a necessity.
of Flipkart. Vinod Khosla, Narayana Murthy,
Education technology centres of IITs have Nandan Nilakeni and Raghuram Rajan are a few
produced large number video lectures by other names with basic Indian EE degree with
subject experts in almost all Engineering subjects exceptional contributions of global impact.

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CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
Electrical Engineering is and exciting story 1. Jill Jones, “ Empires of Light”, Random House
that electrified people’s lives over a century, Trade Paperbacks, New York, 2004
and still going strong. While bulk of scientific 2. Online: www. powermin.nic.in – Ministry of
inventions (dominated by Faraday) were carried Power, GoI
out in Europe technological transfer to make 3. Online: www.mnre.gov.in – Ministry of New and
it work was initiated in USA by Edison, Tesla Renewable Energy, GoI
and Westinghouse who also fought on dc Vs 4. Online: ww.npp.gov.in – National Power Portal,
ac. First power plants were set up in New York GoI
Europe followed about seven years later. India got
5. Online : www.cea.nic.in – Central Electricity
electricity ten years after London and hydro plants Authority, GoI
were set up starting from Darjeeling. The process
6. Online: www.ieema.org - Indian Electrical &
continued with installed capacity around 1.4GW at
Electronics Manufacturers’ Association (IEEMA).
independence which now stands around 360GW.
Coal based thermal generation dominated for last 7. Anil Kumara, Nitin Kumara, Prashant Baredara,
half a century. Peal use of coal has arrived due to Ashish Shuklab “A review on biomass energy
resources, potential, conversion and policy
aggressive arrival and development of renewable
in India” Renewable and Sustainable Energy
energy dominated by wind, solar and hydro. Coal Reviews, 45, 2015, 530-539.
use may almost vanish by 2050. Nuclear and gas
8. K. Ramanathan P. Abeygunawardena
too may be in background. Future would be off
“Hydropower Development in India: A Sector
grid, mini grid and decentralized generation with
Assessment” Asian Development Bank, 2007
the system highly inverter dominated. Several
electricity laws were passed during this period to 9. Annual Report 2017 -18, Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power, GoI,- www.
push reforms. EHV and HVDC are dominating
beeindia.gov.in
transmission aimed at total National grid apart
from linkages with neighbours. Distribution 10. Annual Report 2017 -18, Bharat Heavy Electricals
is a sick child being revived through UDAY to Limited – www.bhel.com
reduce theft and losses. Emission control to limit 11. P.R. Shukla “Biomass Energy in India: Policies
global warming mandated by Paris resolutions and Prospects” - http://www.e2analytics.com
are deciding Electrical technologies. Proper 12. Annual Report 2017 -18, Central Electricity
utilization electricity has become critical through Regulatory Commission (CERC) - www.cercind.
energy efficiency, electric transportation, aided gov.in
by power electronics. Smart meters and Smart 13. Changing rules of Indian power sector:
grid will be the future. Electrical Industries have Empowering the economy, CII –PWC report, 2015
grown in a big way in India as they have to become 14. S.K. Jain “Nuclear Power in India – Past, Present
stronger to face global competition and ‘make in and Future” NPCIL, 2015
India’ diktat. Electrical Engineering education 15. Thomas Spencer, Raghav Pachouri, G Renjith,
and research will be the important tool to take Sachi Vohra “Discussion paper on Coal Transition
the country forward through skilled manpower in India” TERI, November 2018.
and innovations. Our Institutions should be put to 16. Lari Shanlang Tiewsoh, Jakub Jirásek and Martin
reforms to make them of world standard. Sivek “Electricity Generation in India: Present
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT State, Future Outlook and Policy Implications”
Energies 2019, 12, 1361.
Thanks are due to Dr V Sandeep, Asst. Professor, 17. Energizing India – A joint project report of NITI
Electrical Engineering, Central University of AAYOG and Institute of Energy Economics Japan
Karnataka, for providing useful data for this paper. (IEEJ) 2017.

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18. The Evolving Energy Landscape in India: George Westinghouse took tesla’s patents and
Opportunities for investments, Deloitte, April started manufacturing motors
2018 • B. G. LAMME - TWO PHASE DISTRIBUTED
19. Sandhya Madan, Swetha Manimuthu, S. WINDING POLYPHASE GENERATOR
Thiruvengadam “History of Electric Power in
• 1892 : WETHS - 1ST AC MOTOR
India (1890 – 1990)” IEEE Conference on the
History of Electric Power, 3-5 Aug. 2007, Newark, • 1893 : DEMONSTRATION OF 300 HP
NJ, USA. TWO PHASE 220V INDUCTION MOTOR AT
CHICAGO WORLD FAIR
18. Mohan Menon “History, Evolution and Institutional
Structure of the Indian Power Sector : Pre & Post • 1893 : G E - 3 KW , 500 RPM 110V 50 HZ
Reform era” 2016, www.sari-energy.org MOTOR
21. India Country Report: Research, Development, dc Motor Drives Development
Demonstration, and Deployment of Smart Grids • 1830-1850: Henry,Davenport- Pract. Elec.
in India, Department of Science & Technology Motor
(DST), GoI, June 2017.
• 1838: Jacobi-Elec. Boat Propulsion
22. Tim Buckley and Kashish Shah “India’s Electricity
Sector Transformation Momentum Is Building;
• 1840: Davidson- Elec. Car Propulsion
Peak Coal in Sight” Institute for Energy Economics • 1879: Siemens- Elec. Train Propulsion
and Financial Analysis, November 2017. • 1897: Ward Leonard System For Low Loss
23. Indian Electrical Equipment Industry Mission Speed Control
Plan 2012-2022, Ministry of Heavy Industries & • 1930: Mercury Arc Rectifier For Speed Control
Public Enterprises Government of India, 2013
• 1955: Speed Control Through Magnetic
24. Vasant Surdeo “Power Sector Policies In India : Amplifiers
History and Evolution” Jindal Journal of Public
Policy, Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp. 115 -129. • 1960: Thyristor Based Speed Control
25. Power Transmission: the Real Bottleneck, FICCI, ac motor drives development
September, 2013 • 1884: SIEMENS-1-PH. COMMUTATOR
26. Transitions in Indian Electricity Sector 2017 -30; MOTOR
Report-TERI, India. • 1885-87: TESLA, FERRARIS: ROTATING
27. S.C. Bhattacharya and Chinmoy Jana MAGNETIC FIELD, AC INDUCTION
MOTOR
“Renewable Energy in India: Historical
Developments and Prospects” Energy 34 • 1887: WILSON, MULTI- PH COM. MOTOR
(2009) 981–991. • 1889: Dobrowolsky- Sq. Cage Ind. Motor
ANNEXURES • 1891: Var. Freq. Drive
Annexure-1 • 1895: Multi Speed Motor
Motors and Drives development Historically • 1905: Kramer,Scherbius- Slipring Motor
• 1821: Faraday’s compass needle deflected by Cascades
current • 1910: Schrage-Rotor Fed Ac Com. Motor, Var.
• 1832: H. Pixii – split tube commutator which Speed
could change the frequency mechanically • 1960: With Solid State Convertor
• 1833: W. Ritchie – commutator for motor (led to • 1958: Rawcliffe, PAM 2 Speed Motor
dc motor development. • 1963: Var. Freq. Drive With Solid State
• 1830 – 1850 : J. Henry - practical electric motor Converter
• 1886 : Ferrasis and Tesla - rotating magnetic • 1970: Slip Ring Motor Cascade
field, Tesla and Scott worked on induction motor, • 1974: Lawrenson- Variable. Speed Switched

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Reluctance Motor, PM Motor – PMSM Motor • TEXTILE,PAPER MILLS

(Brushless), PMDC (Brushless) • MACHINE TOOLS, drills, nc machines, lathes,
Annexure-2 spindles
Applications of Electric Drives in different • MELALLURGY- steel, aluminium, copper
sectors • PETROCHEMICALS-oil rigs, pumps, oil
• PERSONAL-watches refineries
• DOMESTIC: food mixer, fans, refrigerator, • MINING-drills, excavators, robots, conveyers,
air conditioner, pumps, coolers, room heaters, blowers, fans, pumps, lifts, cranes
washing machines, dish washers, sewing • CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY-
machine, music &video systems. cranes,pumps,drills,conveyers
• TRANSPORTATION: electric vehicles, electric • SHIPPING-,cargo handling, all electric ships
rail traction, conveyers
• PROCESS INDUSTRIES-sugar,
• AGRICULTURE: irrigation pumpsets, farm pharmaceuticals, food processing
machinery
• IT & OFFICE EQUIPMENT-PC, server,
• AVIATION-fly by wire systems printers, scanners, CD drives
• SPACE • INSTRUMENTATION
• COMMUNICATIONS • ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY
• DEFENCE

Annexure-3
Major Milestones of Power sector in India

Year Event
1910 Electricity act 1910 enacted
1948 Electricity Supply act 1948, SEBs formed.
1964 Five Regional Electricity Boards formed
1975 Creation of Centra Generating Companies, NTPC,NHPC, NEEPCO
1991 ES act 1948 amended to permit private generating companies.
1998 Electricity Regulatory Commission act enacted to set up central and state regulatory
commissions CERC, SERC.
1999 Privatisation of Distribution in Odisha
2000 Indian Electricity Grid Code
2002 Privatisation of Distribution in Delhi
2002 Availability Based Tariff (ABT)
2003 Electricity Act 2003 enacted by Parliament ( replacing old laws)
2004 Open Access Regulations
2006 Tariff Policy, Set up Ultra Mega Power Projects, Competitive bidding for procurement
of power.
2007,08 Power Exchange guidelines and establishment
2008 Allotment of Coal Blocks to Power Generators for Captive mining
2011 Competitive bidding for interstate transmission lines
2015 Auction of Coal Blocks for Power generators for Captive mining

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Electrical Engineering 100 Years

Mr Vijay Kumar Dutt

IRSEE Ex Addl. Member Railway Board
 [email protected]

Electrical engineering has evolved with in last 100 Years has become one of the largest
development of science. In 1847 when Thomson disciplines in the world. Therefore, the object
College of Engineering was started in Roorkee of this article is to cover the basic discipline of
it was called Civil engineering. The intention Electrical Engineering comprising of Electrical
was to differentiate between Civil and Military Generation, Transmission and Distribution. Also,
applications of engineering. Therefore, the Renewal Energy and some major applications
objective of Word ‘Civil’ was to cover all aspects like Transportation etc., are also covered.
of Engineering applied to Civil matters.
REPLACEMENT OF FOSSIL FUELS BY
With development of the subject the Machines RENEWAL ENERGY IN ELECTRICITY
became complex and need for specialization in GENERATION
this field lead the development of Mechanical
engineering. However, with invention of Motor India’s electricity sector is dominated by fossil
applications quickly shifted from Engine based fuels, and in particular, coal, which during
applications to Electric motors-based applications. the 2017-18 fiscal year produced about three-
This heralded the development of Electrical fourths of the country’s electricity. However, the
Engineering as an Independent discipline. With government is pushing for increased investment
advent of Electronics to control the Systems a in renewable energy. The National Electricity Plan
separate Discipline of Electronics was born. The of 2018, prepared by the Government of India,
subject of Telecommunication was also a similar states that the country does not need additional
application involving low voltage Engineering non-renewable power plants in the utility sector
and Technology and hence the department of until 2027, with the commissioning of 50,025
Electronics and Telecommunications came into MW coal-based power plants under construction
being. The invention of Microprocessors in and achieving 275,000 MW total installed
around 1972 brought in revolution in the control renewable power capacity after the retirement of
systems and Digital Electronics was born. This nearly 48,000 MW old coal-fired plants.
further lead to advent of Computers in a big way PROGRESS IN GRID MANAGEMENT
and Computer science as a Discipline came into
existence. With the need to parallel computers India began using grid management on a regional
came the need of internet and age of Information basis in the 1960s. Individual State grids were
Technology started. interconnected to form 5 regional grids covering
mainland India. The grids were the Northern,
With such a vast canvass the Electrical Engineering Eastern, Western, North Eastern and Southern

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Grids. These regional links were established to has become a net exporter of electricity. India
enable transmission of surplus electricity between exported 5,798 GWh to neighbouring countries,
States in each region. In the 1990s, the Indian against a total import of 5,585 GWh.
government began planning for a national grid.
(a) Demand Trends
Regional grids were initially interconnected
by asynchronous high-voltage direct current During the fiscal year 2017-18, the utility energy
(HVDC) back-to-back links facilitating the availability was 1,205 billion kWh with a short
limited exchange of regulated power. The links fall of requirement by 8 billion kWh (-0.7%)
were subsequently upgraded to high capacity against 1230 billion kWh anticipated. The peak
synchronous links. load met was 160,752 MW with a short fall of
requirement by 3,314 MW (-2%) against 169,130
The first interconnection of regional grids was
MW anticipated. In LGBR 2018 report, India’s
established in October 1991 when the North
Central Electricity Authority anticipated for the
Eastern and Eastern grids were interconnected.
2018–19 fiscal year, energy surplus and peaking
The Western Grid was interconnected with
surplus to be 4.6% and 2.5% respectively. Though
the aforementioned grids in March 2003. The
few states are expected to face energy shortage,
Northern grid was also interconnected in August
power would be made available adequately from
2006, forming a Central Grid synchronously
the surplus regions with the available excess
connected operating at one frequency. The sole
capacity inter regional transmission links.
remaining regional grid, the Southern Grid, was
synchronously interconnected to the Central Grid (b) Demand drivers
on 31 December 2013 with the commissioning Nearly 0.28% of households (0.6 million) have
of the 765 kV Raichur-Solapur transmission line, no access to electricity in India. The International
thereby establishing the National Grid. Energy Agency estimates India will add between
DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF ELECTRIC 600 GW to 1,200 GW of additional new power
POWER generation capacity before 2050. This added
new capacity is equivalent to the 740 GW of
By the end of the calendar year 2015, despite
total power generation capacity of European
poor hydroelectricity generation, India had
Union (EU-27) in 2005. Other drivers for India’s
become a power surplus nation with huge electric
electricity sector are its rapidly growing economy,
power generation capacity. All the segments of
rising exports, improving infrastructure and
the electricity sector such as fuel suppliers, fuel
increasing household incomes.
transporters (railways, harbours, pipelines, etc.),
electricity generators, electricity transmission CAPTIVE POWER GENERATION
companies and distribution companies would New Electricity Act 2003 provided for Captive
be facing severe competition to cut down the Generation Reforms. It has helped in boosting
prices and improve their operating efficiency in generation and unburdening Generating Utilities.
a final consumer dictated market. Due to rapid
growth in electricity consumption, coal stocks are The installed captive power generation capacity
continuously building up at power stations as well (above 1 MW capacity) in the industries is 58,000
as coal mines. MW as on 31 March 2019 and generated 175,000
GWh during the fiscal year 2018-19. Industries
New installations of renewable energy in India like Railways, Sugar, Steel have benefitted by this
surpassed installations of fossil fuel for the first reform and this reform has enabled in reduction of
time in 2016-17. cost of Energy in these sectors. Added benefit of
On March 29, 2017, the Central Electricity Co-generation in sectors like Sugar, Textiles etc.,
Authority (CEA) stated that for the first time India has resulted in turnaround of Industries.

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RURAL AND URBAN Pumped storage schemes are perfect centralized

ELECTRIFICATION peaking power stations for the load management
in the electricity grid. Pumped storage schemes
As on 28 April 2018, 12 days ahead of the set target,
would be in high demand for meeting peak load
all Indian villages were electrified. India’s Ministry
demand and storing the surplus electricity as India
of Power launched Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram
graduates from electricity deficit to electricity
Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) in July 2015 with the
surplus. They also produce secondary /seasonal
objective of providing round the clock power to
power at no additional cost when rivers are
the rural areas. It focuses on reforms in the rural
flooding with excess water. Storing electricity
power sector by separation of feeder lines (rural
by other alternative systems such as batteries,
households & agricultural) and strengthening of
transmission and distribution infrastructure. India compressed air storage systems, etc. is more
has achieved 100% electrification of all rural and costly than electricity production by standby
urban households. generator. India has already established nearly
4785 MW pumped storage capacity which is part
RETIREMENT OF OLD THERMAL of its installed hydro power plants.
PLANTS
SOLAR ENERGY
India’s coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired
The solar power potential of India can meet
thermal power plants are inefficient and offer
perennially to cater per capita energy consumption
significant potential for greenhouse gas (CO2)
at par with USA/Japan for the peak population in
emission reduction through better technologies.
its demographic transition.
India’s thermal power plants emit 50% to 120%
more CO2 per kWh produced when compared to Indian solar PV power tariff has fallen to `2.44
the average emissions from their European Union (3.5¢ US) per kWh in May 2017 which is lower
(EU-27) counterparts. The central government than any other type of power generation in India.
has firmed up plans to shut down 11,000 MW of
Solar thermal power plants with thermal storage
coal-based power generation capacity that are at
are emerging as cheaper (US 5 ¢/kWh) and
least 25 years old and contributing more pollution.
clean load following power plants compared to
A proposal to convert some of these plants into
fossil fuel power plants. They can cater the load/
Nuclear Power Plants which have nearly zero
demand round the clock perfectly and work as
emission has merits and need to be evaluated.
base load power plants also when the extracted
RENEWAL ENERGY solar energy is found excess in a day. Proper mix
India’s renewable energy sector is amongst of solar thermal and solar PV can fully match the
the world’s most active players in renewable load fluctuations without the support of costly
energy use, especially solar and wind electricity battery storage or costly non solar power plants
generation. As of 31 March 2018, India had grid with dispatchability and reliability.
connected installed capacity of about 69.02 GW Land acquisition is a challenge for solar farm
non-conventional renewable technologies-based projects in India. Some state governments are
electricity capacity and conventional renewable exploring means to address land availability
power or major hydroelectric power capacity of through innovation; for example, by exploring
45.29 MW. The total renewable power generation means to deploy solar capacity above their
capacity as of 31 March 2018 was 114.31 GW. extensive irrigation canal projects, thereby
Solar, wind and run of the river hydro being must harvesting solar energy while reducing the loss
run power generation and environment friendly, of irrigation water by solar evaporation. The state
base load coal fired power is transforming in to of Gujarat was first to implement the Canal Solar
load following power generation. Power Project, to use 19,000 km long network

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of Narmada canals across the state for setting up NUCLEAR POWER

solar panels to generate electricity.
As of 31 March 2019, India had 6.78 GW of
WIND POWER installed nuclear power generation capacity
or nearly 2% of total installed utility power
India has the fourth largest installed wind power
generation capacity. Nuclear plants generated
capacity in the world. The development of wind
37,812 million kWh at 63.67% PLF in the year
power in India began in the 1990s in Tamil Nadu
2018-19.
and has significantly increased in the last decade.
As of 31 March 2018, the installed capacity of In 1971, India set up its first pressurized heavy
wind power was 34.05 GW, spread across many water reactors with Canadian collaboration in
states of India. The largest wind power generating Rajasthan. In 1987, India created the Nuclear
state is Tamil Nadu accounting for nearly 23% of Power Corporation of India Limited to
installed capacity. commercialize nuclear power.

In the year 2015-16, wind power accounted for Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited,
8.5% of India’s total installed power capacity, and a state-owned company has ambitious plans to
2.5% of the country’s power output. India targets establish 63 GW generation capacity by 2032, as
a safe, environmentally benign and economically
to install total 60 GW of wind power capacity
viable source of electrical energy to meet the
by2022.The wind power tariff of around 2.5 INR/
increasing electricity needs of India.
kWh is cheapest of all power generation sources
in India. In 2011, India had 18 pressurized heavy water
reactors in operation, with another four projects of
TIDAL ENERGY
2.8 GW capacity launched. The country plans to
A very innovative approach to harvesting implement fast breeder reactors, using plutonium-
tidal energy consists of ocean thermal energy based fuel. Plutonium is obtained by reprocessing
conversion (OTEC) technology. This approach spent fuel of first stage reactors. India is in the
tries to harvest the solar energy trapped in process of launching its first prototype fast breeder
ocean waters into usable energy. Oceans have a reactor of 500MW capacity in Tamil Nadu.
thermal gradient, the surface being much warmer ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AND
than deeper levels of the ocean. This thermal DISTRIBUTION
gradient may be harvested using the modified
Rankine cycle. India’s National Institute of Ocean The spread of high voltage transmission lines is
Technology (NIOT) attempted this approach over such that it can form a square matrix of area 266
km2 (i.e. on average, at least one HV line within
the last 20 years, but without success. In 2003,
8.15 km distance/vicinity) in entire area of the
with Saga University of Japan, NIOT attempted
country. The length of high-voltage transmission
to build and deploy a 1 MW demonstration plant.
lines is nearly 20% more than that of the United
While the plant was not successful due to damage
States (322,000 km of 230 kV and above) but
to the pipeline during Tsunami, drinking water
transmits far less electricity. The HV transmission
plants from sea water based on this technology
lines (66 kV and above) installed in the country
are working in Lakshadweep Islands. Location is 649,833 km (i.e. on average, at least one ≥66
of India on the tropic of Cancer gives scope kV transmission line within 4.95 km distance).
for harnessing this technology for increasing The length of transmission lines (400 V and
efficiency of Sea shore based Thermal and above and excluding 220 V lines) is 10,381,226
Nuclear Power Plants by utilizing the Waste heat km (6,450,595 mi) as on 31 March 2018 in the
of Condenser cooling. country.

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The all-time maximum peak load met is 182,610 TRADING

MW on 30 May 2019. The maximum achieved
Trading is a major reform in Electricity sector
demand factor of substations is nearly 60% at 220
brought in as a result of Electricity act 2003.Bulk
kV level. The operational performance of the huge power purchasers can buy electricity on a daily
capacity substations and the vast network of high basis for short, medium- and long-term duration
voltage transmission lines with low demand factor from reverse e-auction facility. The electricity
is not satisfactory in meeting the peak electricity prices transacted under reverse e-auction facility
load. Detailed forensic engineering studies are to are far less than the prices agreed under bilateral
be undertaken and system inadequacies rectified agreements. Multi Commodity Exchange has
to evolve into smart grid for maximising utility sought permission to offer electricity future
of the existing transmission infrastructure with markets in India. The Government of India is
optimum future capital investments. also planning reverse procurement process in
Introduction of Availability Based Tariff (ABT) which generators and discoms with surplus power
has brought about stability to a great extent in the can seek e-bids for power supply up to one-year
Indian transmission grids. However, presently it period to put an end to bilateral contracts and find
is becoming outdated in a power surplus grid. out market-based price discovery for electricity.

India’s Aggregate Transmission and Commercial IMPORTANT PUBLIC SECTOR

(ATC) losses are nearly 21.35% in 2017-18. ORGANISATIONS IN POWER SECTOR
Whereas the total ATC loss was only 9.43% out These include National Thermal Power
of the 4,113 billion kWh electricity supplied in Corporation, Damodar Valley Corporation,
USA during the year 2013. The Government has National Hydroelectric Power Corporation and
set a target of reducing them to 17.1% by 2017 Nuclear Power Corporation of India. The Power
and to 14.1% by 2022. A high proportion of non- Grid Corporation of India is responsible for the
technical losses are caused by illegal tapping of inter-state transmission of electricity and the
lines, faulty electric meters and fictitious power development of the national grid.
generation that underestimate actual consumption The Ministry of Power works with various state
and also contribute to reduced payment collection. governments in matters related to state government-
REGULATION AND owned corporations in India’s electricity sector.
ADMINISTRATION Examples of state corporations include Telangana
Power Generation Corporation, Andhra Pradesh
The Ministry of Power is India’s apex central Power Generation Corporation Limited, Assam
government body regulating the electrical energy Power Generation Corporation Limited, Tamil
sector in India. It is also responsible for the Nadu Electricity Board, Maharashtra State
administration of India’s Electricity Act (2003), Electricity Board, Kerala State Electricity Board,
the Energy Conservation Act (2001). and Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Limited. The state-
Electricity is a concurrent list subject at Entry owned DISCOMs invariably maintain a large
38 in List III of the seventh Schedule of the amount of overdues to the electricity suppliers
Constitution of India. This means that both the affecting their finances.
central government and India’s state governments India’s Ministry of Power administers Rural
are involved in establishing policy and laws for Electrification Corporation Limited and Power
its electricity sector. This principle motivates Finance Corporation Limited. These central
central government of India and individual government-owned public sector enterprises
state governments to enter into a memorandum provide loans and guarantees for public and
of understanding to help expedite projects and private electricity sector infrastructure projects in
reform electricity sector in respective state. India.

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HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT litre. The affordable electricity retail tariff (860
Kcal/kWh at 90% heating efficiency) to replace
India has initiated the process to rapidly expand
kerosene (lower heating value 8240 Kcal/litre at
energy education in the country, to enable the
75% heating efficiency) in domestic cooking is
existing educational institutions to introduce
6.00 Rs/kWh when Kerosene retail price is 48 Rs/
courses related to energy capacity addition,
litre (without subsidy).
production, operations, and maintenance, in
their regular curriculum. This initiative includes In the year 2014-15, the plant load factor (PLF) of
conventional and renewable energy. coal-fired thermal power stations is only 64.46%
whereas these stations can run above 85% PLF
State Renewable Energy Agencies are being comfortably provided there is adequate electricity
supported to organise short-term training programs demand in the country. The additional electricity
for installation, operation and maintenance generation at 85% PLF is nearly 240 billion
and repair of renewable energy systems in units which is adequate to replace all the LPG
such places where intensive RE program are and kerosene consumption in domestic sector.
being implemented. Renewable Energy Chairs The incremental cost of generating additional
have been established in IIT Roorkee and IIT electricity is only their coal fuel cost which is less
Kharagpur. Central Training Institute Jabalpur than 3 Rs/kWh. Enhancing the PLF of coal-fired
is a primer Power Distribution Engineering and stations and encouraging domestic electricity
Management Training Institute. NTPC School consumers to substitute electricity in place of
of Business Noida has been started recently with LPG and kerosene in household cooking, would
Energy centered two-year PGDM program and reduce the government subsidies and idle capacity
one-year PGDM (executive) program to cater to of thermal power stations can be put to use
the growing need of management professionals in economically. The domestic consumers who are
this domain. willing to surrender the subsidized LPG/kerosene
ELECTRICITY AS A SUBSTITUTE TO permits or eligible for subsidized LPG/kerosene
PETROLEUM BASED FUELS permits, may be given free electricity connection
and subsidized electricity tariff.
The net import of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is
6.093 million tons and the domestic consumption Since 2017, IPPs are offering to sell solar and
is 13.568 million tons with Rs. 41,546 crores wind power below 3.00 Rs/kWh to feed into the
subsidy to the domestic consumers in the year high voltage grid. After considering distribution
2012-13. The LPG import content is nearly 40% costs and losses, this electricity price is quite
of total consumption in India. The affordable profitable for the solar power to replace LPG and
electricity retail tariff (860 Kcal/kWh at 90% Kerosene used in the domestic sector.
heating efficiency) to replace LPG (lower heating ELECTRIC VEHICLES
value 11,000 Kcal/Kg at 75% heating efficiency)
The retail prices of petrol and diesel are high
in domestic cooking is 6.47 Rs/Kwh when the
in India to make electricity driven vehicles
retail price of LPG cylinder is Rs 1000 (without
more economical as more and more electricity
subsidy) with 14.2 kg LPG content. Replacing
is generated from solar energy in near future
LPG consumption with electricity reduces its
without appreciable environmental effects. The
imports substantially.
retail price of diesel is 65.00 Rs/litre in the year
The domestic consumption of kerosene is 7.349 2017-18. The affordable electricity retail price
million tons with Rs. 30,151 crores subsidy to (860 Kcal/kWh at 75% input electricity to shaft
the domestic consumers in the year 2012-13. The power efficiency) to replace diesel (lower heating
subsidised retail price of kerosene is 13.69 Rs/ value 8572 Kcal/litre at 40% fuel energy to crank
litre whereas the export/import price is 48.00 Rs/ shaft power efficiency) is 12.21 Rs/kWh. The

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retail price of petrol is 70.00 Rs/litre in the year to be an increasingly important component of
2017-18. The affordable electricity retail price energy consumption as the country pursues
(860 Kcal/kWh at 75% input electricity to shaft energy resource diversification and overall energy
power efficiency) to replace petrol (lower heating security.
value 7693 Kcal/litre at 33% fuel energy to crank The country already produces some coalbed
shaft power efficiency) is 17.79 Rs/kWh. In the methane and has major potential to expand this
year 2012-13, India consumed 15.744 million source of cleaner fuel. According to a 2011 Oil
tons petrol and 69.179 million tons diesel which and Gas Journal report, India is estimated to have
are mainly produced from imported crude oil at between 600 and 2000 Tcf of shale gas resources
huge foreign exchange out go. (one of the world’s largest). Despite its natural
Electricity driven vehicles would become resource potential, and an opportunity to create
popular in future when its energy storage/ energy industry jobs, India has yet to hold a
battery technology becomes longer lasting and licensing round for its shale gas blocks.
maintenance free. V2G is also feasible with RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
electricity driven vehicles to contribute for catering
Railway Sector is one of the most energy efficient
the peak load in the electricity grid. Electricity
sectors in Transportation. The Energy Consumed
driven vehicles can also be continuously charged
is about one sixth – one tenth of corresponding
with Wireless Electricity Transmission (WET)
Energy in Road sector. The consumption in
technology which transmits electricity over 5 km
Railways is about 2% of National Electric
distance without wires to charge devices (mobile
Energy consumption. With decision of 100
and stationary) between the range of 3-12 volts % Electrification on Railways which will get
under any weather conditions. sourced mostly from Renewal Energy as share of
ENERGY RESERVES Renewal energy like Solar and Wind in National
Energy Consumption is set to grow to almost 30%
India being located mostly in Tropics, its abundant
and more.
solar power potential along with its wind, hydro
and biomass power potential can meet all its As per white paper on Railways while Road
energy needs perennially without depending on Network in India grew from 4 Lakh km in 1950
fossil fuels. The renewable solar and wind power to 58 Lakh km in 2017-18 (1450%) the railway
potential of India is also capable to achieve food network grew by only 26% (From 59000 km to
security in addition to energy security as high 66000 km) in the corresponding period. With
protein rich feed for fish / poultry / cattle can be various technological measures on this network
produced from water with electricity which is the Passenger traffic was increased by 1600 % and
known as power to food Freight Traffic by 1400 %. But the demand was
even higher and as a result the share of Railways
According to Oil and Gas Journal, India had in Passenger segment reduced to 10% from 80
approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of % and in Freight segment from 80% to 30% in
proven natural gas reserves as of January 2011, the corresponding period. Apart from saving in
world’s 26th largest. The United States Energy Oil Import the increase in Railway share has the
Information Administration estimates that India potential of freeing precious land space also as on
produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in Railways the same traffic can be carried in less
2010 while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural than one third of land area as compared to Road.
gas. The electrical power and fertiliser sectors This various reports of Govt have stressed the
account for nearly three-quarters of natural gas need to increase the railway share in Transport by
consumption in India. Natural gas is expected Network Expansion of Railways.

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WORLDS FIRST DIESEL LOCO TO Balancing of conversion loco prepared at DLW,

ELECTRIC LOCO CONVERSION- A Para solid model sent to RDSO for FEA &
FEAT BY INDIAN ENGINEERS Validation and design confirmation was received
from RDSO on 18 January 2018. Thereafter the
The decision of 100 % Electrification on Railways manufacturing of conversion started in DLW
being the first ever in the world is perhaps one Varanasi from 19 January 2018. By March 2018
of the most innovative. The team of Railway both the units of Converted locomotive were
Electrical Engineers has undertaken to complete turned out from the DLW. Rigorous testing of all
this mammoth task in next 3-4 years which is also aspects was done between March and September
one of the fastest. The decision evoked a lot of 2018. Based on RDSO report and actual trial the
criticism from some sceptics. One of the major approval of The Chief Commissioner of Railway
factors cited was that this country has got more Safety was received on 14 Nov 2018 and on this
than 5000 Diesel Locomotives and not using basis Railway Board approved running of this
these will be a national waste. locomotive on Indian Railways on 27 November
The team of Railway Engineers mostly Electrical 2018. 3rd December 2018 was the historic day
and Some Mechanical took upon the decision of when 1st run of 10000 HP WAGC3 loco with 59
converting the existing 5000 Diesel Locomotives BOXN/HL GVKK load (5141 Ton) took place
into Electric Locomotives. This task has never meeting all technical requirements.
been tried before in the world and even in TRAIN 2018 -FIRST MAIN LINE TRAIN
advanced countries like Europe and USA even SET ON INDIAN RAILWAYS
after electrification of many routes substantial
routes are still on diesel traction there by creating Increasing average speed on existing corridors with
avoidable Polluting gases emission by burning of minimum input in fixed structures like Track and
Diesel oil and opportunity to make Transportation Over Head Traction is one of the fastest methods
by railways by renewal energy is lost. in this direction. Use of Train Set technology with
higher acceleration is a proven method for this
This feat is achieved in a short period and Flagging end the world over. While introduction of train
off of First Electric Locomotive converted from sets has been regularly announced in various Rail
Diesel by Prime Minster Hon Shri Narendra Modi Budgets since year 2000 and even before the train
ji in presence of Hon Railway Minster Shri Piyush 2018 is the first realisation of the concept in India
Goel from Diesel Locomotive Works Varanasi on and is most welcome.
19th February 2019 is a great event show casing
While it is said that it is the first Train without
ability of Indian Engineers in not only creating
engine, to a common main it is the same
Know How but Know why also which can be used
Technology which is in all metro Railway Trains
by other countries of the world. The objective is
and Suburban EMU trains of Indian Railways.
to high Light some of the challenges in this path
What is new is that the technology is being
breaking work.
extended for Semi high speed and High-speed
Indian Railways created history by converting 02 Trains in India which is a long overdue reform.
Diesel Locos to Electric Loco of 10,000 HP at The important point is that the train is made with
DLW. At the same time, huge increase of 92% in fully indigenous technology in ICF Chennai.
traction HP (From 2x2612 HP to 2x5000 HP) was The indenisation is maximum and much more
achieved. Conversion was achieved in 69 days than Metro Railway Trains operating in India. As
from Design to roll out of 1st prototype unit. a result, there is about 40 % saving in cost and
The project started with Railway Board decision development of Indigenous technology which will
on 22 Dec 2017. Equipment layout finalised also benefit Metro Railways in faster Indenisation
jointly with CLW & RDSO, 3D Model & Weight as well cost reduction. Also, it may make India

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as exporter of this technology. At the same time based series 7000 alloys in near future and
the indigenisation of Bullet trains in India may be improved welding technologies like Friction Swirl
faster. welding . Also, newer materials like Aluminium
To the rail user there are many benefits. Foam to replace composites are emerging. Also,
there is case of change over to Aluminium Bodies
Reduction in Travelling Time. The Delhi Mumbai for Trucks Buses and cars. Only few components
and Delhi Kolkata will be overnight journeys. like Aluminium Welding may needs introduction
The much annoying jerks to the passengers in initially. Hence going into industry may really
Loco Hauled existing Trains Like Shatabdi and ensure maximum utilisation of resources across
Rajdhani and other trains will be the thing of the various sectors and timely updation of technology
past. rather than being saddled with obsolete technology
for a long time. This will greatly help Mission
Since the space occupied by Locomotive is freed
Electric Mobility on Roads.
it may be possible to Run 26 Coaches trains as
against existing 24 Coaches without additional To improve the design of Traction system for
investment in OHE, Track, Signaling and Other Higher Tractive effort so that more journey time
assets (8 % more passenger carrying capacity). saving is realised. To this end more power on
However, this concept is just the beginning. It is train is required. While Train 2018 will have in
announced that shortly next edition Train 2020 16 Coaches 8 Motor and 8 trailer (1M + 1 T unit
will be coming. formation) DMRC have already gone in for 2M +
1 T formation for Magenta and Pink Lines (16 %
Following may be added in train 2020 to make it more Power) and Mumbai metro has planned 3M
really world class + 1 T (25% more Power) for line 3 & 4.
Used of Aluminium Body with latest technology Also use of Indigenous bogies is welcome. But at
to aim at reduction of train Tare weight by 6 the same time earlier efforts of importing proven
tonnes per coach to ensure 10 % more saving Motorised Bogies and indigenising them which
in Energy as well as more passenger capacity. were put on the back burner should be revived
Rather missing of Aluminium Revolution which so that the in the vital areas of technology benefit
is in most developed railways of the world is
of latest developments in the interest of safety,
proving very costly to energy starved nation like
Reliability, Maintainability and availability are
India. While in Similar Rail systems in the world
ensured.
like Canadian Pacific 80% of the wagon stock is
on Aluminium alloy thereby realising 10 % and What is not so tangible but will be ensured by
more energy saving on Indian Railways almost all the train Set technology is better safety, better
Wagon Stock is very old-fashioned steel. All High reliability, Better maintainability and better
and Semi High-Speed trains and Metro Railways availability all of which will benefit Rail customer
like Washington Metro are on Aluminium Body which is the core traveller in our country the
coaches for last 30 years and more. Our Delhi maximum.
Airport line coaches are also Aluminium bodied.
There is a case for change over to Aluminium alloy PULL PUSH WORKING ON INDIAN
not only on Train Sets but also on all wagons and RAILWAYS- ANOTHER MILESTONE
coaches in Railways and Metro Railways in India. IN PROGRESS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS:
Also there is a case for sourcing the shells from In the world there are two different technologies
industry like shells of Locomotives being done at which have emerged for High Speed and Semi
present rather than being laden with technology high-speed Traction.
transfer as the Aluminium alloy Welding and
associated technologies are improving very fast The Train Set Technology and Pull Push
in the world and with introduction of Scandium technology.

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Shinkansen system of Japan Railway is the best Pull-Push train over Indian Railway on 13.2.2019
example of Train Set concept. between CSMT and NZM.
In case of Push Pull technology TGV system of Their meticulous planning & mission mode
France, Euro star of Channel Tunnel, Acela Train execution of RDSO Ghat trials of Pull-Push
in USA and many other systems are prevalent. train operation resulted in successful & timely
With introduction of train no 22221 Mumbai completion of RDSO Ghat trials of and thereafter
CSTM to Hazrat Nizamudin train on Pull Push issue of final speed certificate by RDSO for Pull
concept Indian Railway may claim to be proud Push mode train operation.
owner of both the technologies. Due to cohesive & coordinated team working
This development in its present form, historically RDSO Pull-Push trials in Kasara-IGP Ghat section
started with decision by Central Railway to work could be completed as per schedule between 9 Jan
WAP-5 locomotive in push-pull mode. 2019 and 19 Jan 2019.
The objective was Operation of Twin WAP5 loco The first pull-Push passenger train with WAP7
in push-pull mode, which has been planned so locomotives over Indian Railway was run by
that the train can have faster acceleration, faster Central Railway on 13.2.2019 between CSMT
braking and substantially lowered coupler forces, and NZM, Train 22221 (CSMT-NZM Rajdhani).
thereby attaining the advantages to increase Advantages of Pull Push train operation: The
average speed of the train and thereby reduce Pull Push mode offers many advantages. Some of
the journey time with existing maximum speed these are:
initially .
A. Improvement is Safety in Train Operation
One pair of WAP-5 loco and rake was modified in Western Ghats in NE & SE Sections of
and Confirmatory Oscillograph Car Runs (CoCR) Mumbai Division and in other Sections
Trial was carried out by RDSO from Delhi (NZM)
In Western Ghats in NE & SE sections of Mumbai
to Mumbai (Bandra Terminal) from 07.10.18 to
Division there are sharp gradients and curves
13.10.18. During the trials, a saving of 83 minutes
requiring a banker engine to be provided in the
running time was recorded.
rear of the train for safety of operation. At times
Brief description of Pull Push Train Operation & there are derailment cases due to lack of proper
its background: synchronization between banker in rear & leading
loco. In Push Pull mode train operation such a
The existing rolling stock, carriages & locos,
potential safety hazard is eliminated.
can be operated in Pull Push mode operation
by attaching one WAP7/WAP5 loco at the front The buffing load of a Locomotive is 400 Tonnes
of the train & one WAP7/WAP5 loco in the while that of EMU and coaches is about 100
rear of the train and establishing their master- tonnes. Therefore, provision of engine on both
slave relationship by software modification in ends of the train provides for a greater safety as
locomotives & communication train line from compared to the conventional loco hauled train
one loco to the other through the train carriages. and EMU type Train Set. This is more important
The WAP7/WAP5 locomotives in fleet of Indian in Indian Railway context as the same track is
Railways are the locomotives provided with the shared by Passenger as well as goods trains.
State-of-the-Art VVVF control and Regenerative B. Reduction in Train Running Time
Braking technology.
Time taken by a train to clear a section is a very
Team of officers, supervisors, inspectors, precious resource to improve train mobility.
technicians and staff of Electrical Department of Any saving in running time is very important on
Central Railway played key role in running first saturated train routes of Indian Railways.

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In Pull-Push train operation there is no The running time of CR Rajdhani Train 22221
requirement of attachment of bankers at Kasara or (CSMT-NZM Rajdhani) have been reduced by
Karjat and its detachment at Igatpuri or Lonavala 95 minutes by using the Pull-Push mode train
respectively in Western Ghats sections. operation with WAP7 locomotives with effect
from 17.4.2019.
Pull-Push mode train operation offers faster
deceleration and faster acceleration which helps 2. The Pull-Push mode technology offers a
in reducing time taken to stop & start and to strategic advantage to Mumbai Division of
negotiate various Permanent Speed Restrictions Central Railway due to steep Ghats in Kasara
(PSR), Temporary Speed Restrictions (TSR), –Igatpuri and Karjat-Lonovala sections.
Caution Orders (CDO) enroute. Successful introduction and implementation
of Pull-Push technology in Indian Railway
The running time of CR Rajdhani Train 22221
hold great promise of reduction in running
(CSMT-NZM Rajdhani) have been reduced by
time of trains on Indian Railways.
95 minutes by using the Pull-Push mode train
operation with WAP7 locomotives with effect 3. Similarly, trials are progress for reduction of
from 17.4.2019. running time of CSMT-PA Intercity express
12127/28. In a short route of 193 kilometre
Also, regenerative braking of WAP7 locomotives
between CSMT-Pune, with pull-push mode
in pull-push mode regenerates energy consumed
train operation train competed its journey in
and feeds it backs to the OHE grid.
less than 3 hours in comparison to nearly 3
Benefits achieved by Pull Push Train & half an hour in normal operation (schedule
Operation duration 3 hr. 17 minutes).With availability of
The running time of CR Rajdhani Train 22221 clear path train can easily complete CSMT-
(CSMT-NZM Rajdhani) have been reduced by PA & PA-CSMT journey within targeted 2
95 minutes by using the Pull-Push mode train hours and 35 minutes with pull-push mode
operation with WAP7 locomotives with effect operation.
from 17.4.2019. This reduction in running time In addition, we have benefits like,
has been achieved by following aspects of Pull-
- The block section will never get blocked because
Push mode train operation:
both locos would never fail at a time.
i. In Pull-Push train operation there is no
- Trains with platform return or where loco
requirement of attachment of bankers at
reversal is required can be operated without time
Kasara or Karjat and its detachment at
delay.
Igatpuri or Lonavala respectively in Western
Ghats sections. Couplers forces have reduced and distributed
evenly in push pull operation. This means
ii. Pull-Push mode train operation offers faster
reduction of Jerks due to couplers to passengers
deceleration and faster acceleration which
as compared to the normal trains.
helps in reducing time taken to stop & start
and to negotiate various Permanent Speed The existing Acceleration at starting = .46 m/sec2
Restrictions (PSR), Temporary Speed
Starting TE per loco 330 KN, for two locos in
Restrictions (TSR), Caution Orders (CDO)
push pull = 660kn. Therefore, the Required TE
enroute.
is much less than the starting TE thereby giving
Effectiveness of Pull Push Train Operation the train advantage for faster starting acceleration.
1. Pull Push train operation of Train 22221 The successful translation of the concept by
(CSMT-NZM Rajdhani) proved to be very Electrical Engineers of Indian Railways ably
successful & highly effective. assisted by all other branches of Railways have

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paved the way of much faster introduction of in place of DC Traction motor thereby solving
Semi High Speed and High-Speed era on Indian many maintenance problems like Commutator
Railways. The successful trial has resulted in maintenance. Also, it has made problem of
setting up the requirements of introduction of interference with signalling circuits less severe as
similar trains all over Indian Railways. With these triplons in the harmonics are reduced.
specifications in place the trails on other sections
(b) 2x25 kV System of Electrification
like Howrah-Delhi, Delhi-Mumbai Western
Railway route are in progress which will result This technology has enabled transmission of
in immediate gain to the passengers in terms of Power at 50 kV while the working voltage
the reduced journey time with greater safety and of Locomotive/ EMU remains 25 kV thereby
comfort. The Railways are to be congratulated for increasing the inter sub-station distance. This
this success coming on the heels of world’s first reduces maintenance effort and improves problem
successful Diesel to Electric Loco Conversion. of interference with signalling circuits less severe.
TECHNOLOGIES WHICH HAVE CONCLUSION
SHAPED THE MORDENISATION IN Electrical Engineering has come a long way
ELECTRIC TRACTION: enabling India to be one of the Top Economies of
(a) Variable Voltage and Variable frequency the world. To be the top Economy of the world we
(VVVF) Control have to mater not only Know How but the know
why in this world of fast changing technology.
This technology in which while starting a
motor frequency of the Power supply is varied This places great responsibility on Indian Electrical
proportionally with voltage, has made possible Engineers to produce quality work in all fields
that Induction Motor becomes the traction Motor of engineering- Maintenance, Manufacturing,
construction, Operation etc.

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Transformation in the World of

Telecommunication

Dr Tara Singh Kamal

Council Member, The Institution of Engineers (India)
 [email protected]
Dr Jagtar Singh
Professor and Head, Yadavindra College of Engineering
Talwandi Sabo Bathinda Punjab

ABSTRACT
Worldwide Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specific organization for data
and correspondence innovations. It was established in 1865 to encourage universal availability in
interchanges systems. We allot worldwide radio range and satellite circles, build up the specialized
guidelines that guarantee systems and advances consistently interconnect, and endeavour to improve
access to ICTs to underserved networks around the world. In this paper, history of different forms
of communication is discussed. It describes the how the transformation takes place in the world of
tele-communication, beginning from wired communication to wireless communication. The brief
description of each technology is given. It also gives information about the e concept of International
Telecommunication Union, how it works, its standardization and the development.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF crosswise over transmit lines [1]. In 1844, Morse

TELECOMMUNICATION sent his first broadcast message, from Washington,
D.C., to Baltimore, Maryland; by 1866, a transmit
Telegraph
line had been laid over the Atlantic Ocean from
Created during the 1830s and 1840s by Samuel the U.S. to Europe. Despite the fact that the
Morse (1791-1872) and different designers, broadcast had dropped out of far-reaching use
the broadcast changed long-separation by the beginning of the 21st century, supplanted
correspondence. It worked by transmitting an by the phone, fax machine, and internet, it laid
electrical flag over a wire lay between stations. the basis for the interchanges transformation that
Notwithstanding designing the broadcast, Samuel prompted those later developments [2].
Morse built up a code (bearing his name) that
The Electric Telegraph
allocated a lot of spots and runs to each letter of
the English letters in order and took into account In the mid-nineteenth century, two improvements
the basic transmission of complex messages in the field of power paved the way for the

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generation of the electric broadcast. To begin Telephone

with, in 1800, the Italian physicist Alessandro The concept of the telephone dates back to the
Volta (1745-1827) created the battery, which string telephone or lover’s telephone that has been
dependably put away an electric flow and enabled known for centuries, comprising two diaphragms
the flow to be utilized in a controlled situation[3]. connected by a taut string or wire. Sound waves
In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans Christian are carried as mechanical vibrations along the
Oersted (1777-1851) showed the association string or wire from one diaphragm to the other[4].
between power and attraction by diverting an The classic example is the tin can telephone, a
attractive needle with an electric current[1]. While children’s toy made by connecting the two ends of
researchers and innovators over the world started a string to the bottoms of two metal cans, paper cups
exploring different avenues regarding batteries or similar items. The essential idea of this toy was
and the standards of electromagnetism to build that a diaphragm can collect voice sounds from the
up some sort of correspondence framework, the air, as in the ear, and a string or wire can transmit
credit for imagining the broadcast by and large such collected voice sounds for reproduction at
can be attributed to two arrangements of analysts: a distance. One precursor to the development of
Sir William Cooke (1806-79) and Sir Charles the electromagnetic telephone originated in 1833
Wheatstone (1802-75) in England, and Samuel when Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard
Morse, Leonard Gale (1800-83) and Alfred Vail Weber invented an electromagnetic device for
(1807-59) in the U.S [2]. Original Samuel Morse the transmission of telegraphic signals at the
telegraph is shown in Fig.1. During the 1830s, the University of Göttingen, in Lower Saxony, helping
British group of Cooke and Wheatstone built up to create the fundamental basis for the technology
a transmit framework with five attractive needles that was later used in similar telecommunication
that could be pointed around a board of letters and devices[5].
numbers by utilizing an electric flow.
Radio
The possibility of remote correspondence
originates before the disclosure of “radio”
with trials in “remote telecommunication” by
means of inductive and capacitive enlistment
and transmission through the ground, water,
and even train tracks from the 1830s onwards.
James Representative Maxwell appeared in
hypothetical and numerical structure in 1864
that electromagnetic waves could engender
through free space. Almost certainly, the principal
purposeful transmission of a sign by methods
for electromagnetic waves was performed in an
investigation by David Edward Hughes around
1880, in spite of the fact that this was viewed
as enlistment at the time [3]. In 1888, Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz had the option to indisputably
demonstrate transmitted airborne electromagnetic
waves in an investigation affirming Maxwell’s
hypothesis of electromagnetism [6]. After the
revelation of these “Hertzian waves” (it would
Fig 1. Original Samuel Morse Telegraph [4] take very nearly 20 years for the expression

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“radio” to be all around embraced for this sort of

electromagnetic radiation) numerous researchers
and innovators explored different avenues
regarding remote transmission, some attempting to
build up an arrangement of correspondence, some
purposefully utilizing these new Hertzian waves,
some not. Maxwell’s hypothesis demonstrating
that light and Hertzian electromagnetic waves
were a similar marvel at various wavelengths
drove “Maxwellian” researchers, for example,
John Perry, Frederick Thomas Trouton and
Alexander Trotter to accept they would be Fig 2. Radar System [7]
practically equivalent to optical flagging and the
Serbian American designer Nikola Tesla to think 1934–1939 period, eight countries grew freely,
of them as generally pointless for correspondence and in extraordinary mystery, frameworks of this
since “light” couldn’t transmit more remote than sort: the Unified Kingdom, Germany, the US, the
observable pathway. USSR, Japan, the Netherlands, France, and Italy.
Furthermore, England imparted their data to the
Radar US and four Republic nations: Australia, Canada,
The historical backdrop of radar (Fig. 2) (where New Zealand, and South Africa, and these nations
radar represents RAdio Identification And likewise built up their radar frameworks. During
Going) began with tests by Heinrich Hertz in the war, Hungary was added to this list.[1] The
the late nineteenth century that demonstrated term RADAR was begotten in 1939 by the US
that radio waves were reflected by metallic Signal Corps as it dealt with these frameworks for
articles. This plausibility was recommended in the Naval force.
James Representative Maxwell’s original work Television
on electromagnetism [2]. In any case, it was not
until the mid-twentieth century that frameworks (a) Mechanical Televisions
ready to utilize these standards were winding up Preceding electric TVs, we had mechanical TVs
broadly accessible, and it was German creator (Fig. 3). These early TVs began showing up in
Christian Hülsmeyer who initially utilized them the mid-1800s. They included precisely checking
to manufacture a straightforward ship recognition pictures at that point transmitting those pictures
gadget proposed to help stay away from crashes onto a screen. Contrasted with electronic TVs,
in the mist (Reichspatent Nr. 165546). Various they were amazingly simple. One of the primary
comparative frameworks, which gave directional mechanical TVs utilized a turning circle with
data to objects over short ranges, were created gaps orchestrated in a winding example. This
over the next two decades. gadget was made autonomously by two designers:
Scottish innovator John Logie Baird and
The improvement of frameworks, ready to
American creator Charles Francis Jenkins[3]. The
deliver short beats of radio vitality, was the key
two gadgets were concocted in the mid-1920s.
development that enabled present-day radar
frameworks to appear [5]. By timing the beats Before these two creators, German innovator
on an oscilloscope, the range could be resolved Paul Gottlieb Nipkow had built up the principal
and the bearing of the radio wire uncovered mechanical TV. That gadget sent pictures through
the precise area of the objectives. The two wires utilizing a pivoting metal circle. Rather than
joined, delivered a “fix”, finding the objective considering the gadget a TV, be that as it may,
comparative with the receiving wire. In the Nipkow considered it an “electric telescope”.

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The gadget had 18 lines of goals. In 1907, two framework caught moving pictures utilizing a
creators – Russian Boris Rosing and English light emission (fundamentally, a crude camera).
A.A. Campbell-Swinton – consolidated a cathode Somewhere in the range of 1926 and 1931,
beam tube with a mechanical filtering framework mechanical TV designers kept on tweaking and
to make an absolutely new TV framework. At last, test their manifestations. Be that as it may, they
the early endeavors of these innovators would were altogether bound to be outdated in contrast
prompt the world’s first electrical TV in a couple with present-day electrical TVs: by 1934, the sum
of years after that [6]. total of what televisions had been changed over
into the electronic framework [1].
(b) Electrical Televisions
Digital Communication
The world’s first electronic TV (Figure 4)
was made by a multi-year old creator named Computerized correspondence ended up being
Philo Taylor Farnsworth who lived in a house used only for across the board appropriation after
without power until he was aged 14. Beginning the innovation of the PC. Claude Shannon, a
in secondary school, he started to think about a Ringer Labs mathematician, is credited for having
framework that could catch moving pictures, established out the frameworks of digitalization
change those pictures into code, at that point in his spearheading 1948 article, ‘A Scientific
move those pictures along radio waves to various Hypothesis of Correspondence’. The advanced
gadgets [4]. upheaval changed over innovation that had been
simple into a computerized organization. By doing
Farnsworth was miles ahead of any mechanical
this, it ended up conceivable to make duplicates
TV framework designed till then. Farnsworth’s
that were indistinguishable from the first [2]. In
computerized correspondences, for instance,
rehashing equipment had the option to enhance
the advanced sign and pass it on with no loss of
data in the sign. Of equivalent significance to the
upheaval was the capacity to effectively move the
computerized data among media, and to get to or
disperse it remotely [4]. The defining moment of
the transformation was the change from simple to
carefully recorded music. During the 1980s the
advanced configuration of optical conservative
circles bit by bit supplanted simple arrangements,
Fig 3. Mechanical Television [8] for example, vinyl records and tape tapes, as the
well-known mode of decision.
(a) Origins (1947–1969)
In 1947, the main transistor, the germanium-
based point-contact transistor, was created by
William Shockley, Walter Houser Brattain and
John Bardeen at Ringer Labs [10]. This drove
the best approach to further developed advanced
PCs. From the late 1940s, colleges, the military,
and business created PC frameworks, to carefully
imitate and mechanize already physically
performed scientific computations, with the LEO
Fig 4. Electric Television [9] being the main financially accessible universally

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useful PC. In the late 1950s, Ringer Labs engineer record of refraction. Light is kept in the center
Mohamed Atalla exhibited the adequacy of silicon using absolute inner reflection which makes
as a semiconductor material with his procedure the fiber serve as a waveguide. Filaments that
of surface passivation by warm oxidation [2]. help numerous proliferation ways or transverse
This prompted a few significant achievements in modes are called multi-mode strands, while those
silicon semiconductor innovation during 1959: that help a solitary mode are called single-mode
the planar procedure by Jean Hoerni and solid filaments (SMF). Multi-mode filaments, by and
incorporated circuit (IC) chip by Robert Noyce large, have a more extensive center width and are
at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the metal-oxide- utilized for short-separation correspondence joins
semiconductor field-impact transistor (MOSFET, and for applications where high power must be
or MOS transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon transmitted. Single-mode filaments are utilized
Kahngat Ringer Labs [6]. These improvements set for correspondence interfaces longer than 1,000
the stage ready for the large scale manufacturing of meters (3,300 ft).
silicon semiconductor gadgets. In 1968, Fairchild
Fiber-Optic Communication
engineer Federico Faggin made an enhancement
for MOS innovation, with an improved silicon- Fiber-optic correspondence is a strategy
entryway MOS chip, which he later used to build for transmitting data starting with one spot
up the Intel 4004, the renowned microchip. It then onto the next by sending beats of light
was adopted by Intel in 1971, and established the through an optical fiber. The light structures an
frameworks for the microcomputer transformation electromagnetic bearer wave that is regulated to
that started during the 1970s. convey data. Fiber is favoured over electrical cable
when high data transmission, long separation,
Optical Fibre or resistance to electromagnetic impedance are
An optical fiber (Fig. 5) is an adaptable, required. Optical fiber is utilized by numerous
straightforward fiber made by drawing glass media communication organizations to transmit
(silica) or plastic with a breadth somewhat thicker phone signals, internet correspondence, and
than that of a human hair. Optical filaments satellite TV signals. Analysts at Bell Labs have
are utilized regularly as a way to transmit light arrived at web velocities of more than 100
between the two parts of the bargains and find
wide use in fiber-optic correspondences, where
they grant transmission over longer separations
and at higher transfer speeds (information
rates) than electrical links. Strands are utilized
rather than metal wires since sign travel along
with them with less misfortune; what’s more,
filaments are insusceptible to electromagnetic
obstruction, which limits the use of metal wires.
Filaments are likewise utilized for brightening
and imaging and are frequently enveloped by
packs so they might be utilized to convey light
into, or pictures out of bound spaces, as on
account of a fiberscope. Uniquely structured
strands are likewise utilized for an assortment of
different applications, some of them being fiber
optic sensors and fiber lasers [5]. Optical strands
commonly incorporate a center encompassed by
a straight forward cladding material with a lower Fig 5. Optical Fiber [11]

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petabit×kilometer every second utilizing fiber- Cellular Communication

optic correspondence [5]. It was first created A cell phone, PDA, cellphone, or hand telephone,
during the 1970s, and since then the fiber-optics is a convenient phone that can make and as well
have changed the broadcast communications as receive a radio recurrence connect while
industry and have a significant role in this the client is moving inside a telephone utility
Information Age. The field of applied science territory. The radio recurrence connection sets up
and engineering, concerned with the design an association with the exchanging frameworks
and application of optical fibers, is known as of a cell phone administrator, which gives
fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian- access to the open exchanged phone arrange
American physicist Narinder Singh Kapany, (PSTN)[4]. Notwithstanding communication,
who is widely acknowledged as the father 2000s-witnessed cell phones bolster an assortment
of fiber optics [12]. On account of its distinct of different administrations, for example, content
advantages over electrical transmission, optical informing, MMS, email, Internet get to, short-
filaments have to a great extent supplanted extend remote correspondences (infrared,
copper wire correspondences in the modern era. Bluetooth), business applications, computer
The operational mechanism of data transfer games, and advanced photography. Cell phones
using fibre-optics involves: offering just those abilities are known as highlight
telephones; cell phones which offer enormously
• creating the optical sign including the propelled figuring capacities are alluded to as
utilization of a transmitter,[6] normally advanced cells. The primary handheld cell phone
from an electrical sign was shown by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper
• relaying the sign along the fiber, of Motorola in 1973, utilizing a handset gauging 2
guaranteeing that the sign doesn’t turn out kilograms (4.4 lb). The main business mechanized
to be too mutilated or powerless cell organizes (1G) simple was propelled in Japan
by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This
• receiving the optical sign was followed in 1981 by the synchronous dispatch
• converting it into an electrical sign. of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) framework
in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. A few
Applications different nations at that point followed the suit.
Optical fiber is utilized by numerous broadcast These original (1G) frameworks could bolster
communications organizations to transmit phone unmistakably progressively synchronous calls yet
signals, internet correspondence, and satellite at the same time utilized simple cell innovation.
TV signals. Because of much lower impedance, In 1983, the Dyna TAC 8000x was the first
optical fiber is favoured over the existing copper industrially accessible handheld cell phone [5].
wire in long-separation, popularity applications. In 1991, the second-age (2G) computerized cell
Framework advancement inside urban areas innovation was propelled in Finland by Radiolinja
was generally troublesome and tedious, and on the GSM standard. This started the challenge
fiber-optic frameworks were intricate and in the segment as the new administrators tested
costly to introduce and work[4]. Because of the occupant 1G organize administrators.
these challenges, fiber-optic correspondence After ten years, in 2001, the third era (3G) was
frameworks have essentially been introduced in propelled in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the
long-separation applications, where they can be WCDMA standard. This was trailed by 3.5G,
utilized to their full transmission limit, balancing 3G+ or turbo 3G upgrades dependent on the
the expanded expense. The costs of fiber-optic rapid bundle get to (HSPA) family, permitting
interchanges have dropped impressively since UMTS systems to have higher information move
2000. paces and limit. By 2009, it had turned out to be

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certain that, sooner or later, 3G systems would • ITU facilitates the world’s satellites through
be overpowered by the development of transfer the administration of range and circles,
speed escalated applications, for example, spilling bringing you TV, vehicle GPS route, oceanic
media. Therefore, the industry started looking for and aeronautical correspondences, climate
information advanced fourth-age innovations; data and online maps, and empowering
with the guarantee of speed enhancements up to interchanges in even the remotest pieces of
ten times over existing 3G advances. The initial earth.
two economically accessible innovations coined • ITU makes the internet get to conceivable.
as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in Most of the internet associations are
North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, encouraged by ITU measures.
first offered in Scandinavia by Telia Sonera.
5G is innovation and term utilized in research • ITU helps bolster interchanges in the wake
of debacles and crises – through on-the-
papers and undertakings to mean the following
ground help, devoted crisis correspondences
significant stage in versatile media transmission
channels, specialized norms for early
guidelines past the4G/IMT-Advanced measures.
notice frameworks, and viable assistance in
DOT TO DATA rebuilding in past disaster situation.
Each time you make a phone call through the • ITU works with the business to characterize
portable, get to the Internet or send an email, the new advances that will bolster tomorrow’s
you are profiting by crafted by ITU [13]. ITU is systems and administrations.
focused on interfacing all the world’s kin – any • ITU powers the versatile upset, fashioning the
place they live and whatever their methods are. specialized norms and strategy structures that
ITU is at the very heart of the ICT area, facilitating make portable and broadband conceivable.
concurrence on advancements, administrations,
and distribution of worldwide assets like radio- • ITU works with open and private division
recurrence range and satellite orbital situations, accomplices to guarantee that ICT access and
to make a consistent worldwide interchanges administrations are reasonable, fair and all-
framework that is hearty, solid, and continually inclusive.
developing. The worldwide global broadcast • ITU engages individuals around the globe
communications system is the biggest and most through innovative instruction and preparing.
modern building accomplishment at any point
Institutionalization
made. One has to use it each time one signs on
to the web, send an email or SMS, tune in to the ITU standards are crucial to the activity of the
radio, stare at the TV, request something on the present ICT systems. Without ITU principles one
web, travel via plane or ship – and every time you couldn’t make a phone call or surf the web. For
utilize a cell phone, cell phone or tablet PC. the internet to get to, transport conventions, voice
and video pressure, home systems administration,
The majority of this is conceivable, on account of
and horde different parts of ICTs, many ITU
ITU and its participation:
models enable frameworks to work – locally and
• ITU makes telephone calls conceivable: internationally. For example, the Emmy grant-
regardless of whether to the workplace winning standard ITU-T H.264 is presently one of
nearby or a companion in another nation. the most well-known models for video pressure.
ITU benchmarks, conventions and universal In a normal year, ITU will deliver or overhaul
understandings are the fundamental upwards of 150 benchmarks covering everything
components supporting the worldwide media from center system usefulness to cutting edge
transmission framework. administrations, for example, IPTV.

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Advancement 2. “The wireless revolution” The Economist. 21

Jan1999.
ITU’s Telecommunication Development Sector
(ITU-D) has a program on offer – regardless of 3. Jean-Marie Dilhac, From tele-communcare to
whether one is keen on entering or extending Telecommunication, 2004.
your quality in developing markets, showing 4. Anton A. Huurdeman, “The Worldwide History of
worldwide ICT authority, figuring out how to try Telecommunication”, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN
a great strategy, or seeking after your order for 978-0-471-20505-0.
corporate social duty. In an inexorably arranged
world, growing access to ICTs comprehensively is 5. “Telecommunication” Collins English Dictionary.
to everyone’s greatest advantage. ITU champions 6. Telecommunication, tele- and communication,
various significant activities which include New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd Edition),
ITU’s globally concurred order to ‘connect the 2005.
computerized gap’ for example, its ITU Connect
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar
occasions or Connect a School, Connect a
Community. ITU likewise consistently distributes 8. https://www.vox.com/2015/3/25/8285977/
the business’ most extensive and dependable ICT mechanical-television
insights. 9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
CONCLUSION television
This paper explains about the history of different 10. https://www.itu.int/en/about/Pages/default.aspx 9.
forms of communication. It describes the how https://www.itu.int/en/about/Pages/default.aspx
the transformation took place in the world of 10. https://www.itu.int/en/about/Pages/whatwedo.
tele-communication, beginning from wired aspx 11.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_
communication to wireless communication. The Morse#targetText=Samuel%20Finley%20
Breese%20Morse%20(April,system%20
brief description of each technology is given.
based%20on%20European%20telegraphs.
It also gives information about the e concept of
International Telecommunication Union, how it 11. https://www.scienceabc.com/wp-content/
works, its standardization and the development. uploads/2016/07/Optical-fiber.jpg
Acknowledgement: Author thankful to Chairman, 12. Sanjay D. Jain, Manish Shukla, Vivek M. Nanoti,
RRB, ITU Geneva for 2013, Wireless advisor Science Reporter, NISCAIR, CSIR, Dr KS
to Govt. of India (Retd.) for his extraordinary Krishnan Marg, New Delhi - 110 012. p. 35 (ed.
support in writing this paper. February 2016) [1] Archived 28 May 2016 at the
Wayback Machine.
REFERENCES
13. ITU Radio Regulations International
1. “Telecommunication Magazines”, World- Telecommunication Union, 2012.
Newspapers.com Retrieved Aug 15, 2018.

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Growth and Contribution of Environmental

Engineering in India

Prof S K Singh
Head, Department of Environmental Engineering
Delhi Technological University, Delhi
 [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Environmental Engineering has seen a tremendous rise in India over the last few decades. Earlier
seen as a sub-discipline of Civil Engineering and called either Public Health or Sanitary Engineering.
Today, Environmental Engineering has now found its own niche in the light of growing environmental
concerns in our world. This paper evaluates the growth and development of Environmental Engineering
as an independent technical discipline and as a field of study. The important areas where environmental
engineers have contributed in the last few decades have also been studied. Finally, with the advent of
a highly technologically advanced society, the need for more Environmental Engineers in the country
has been emphasised on to achieve the concurrent goal of environmental protection.
Keywords: Environmental engineering; Technical education; Public health; Sanitation; Global
environmental issues

INTRODUCTION A major part of the evolution of human civilisation

is sanitation and provision of clean drinking water.
Since the dawn of civilisation, human beings
From meeting the need to acquire fresh water to
have used the tools of engineering in order to
maintaining its cleanliness for drinking purposes
survive and grow. Engineering is essentially the
and from construction of pits for disposal of waste
application of scientific knowledge to provide
to preserving important water resources, humans
solutions that will benefit the society. Evidence
have placed great focus on sanitation and used the
of engineering can be found in both ancient and
tools of engineering to accomplish these tasks.
modern civilizations. From constructing simple
Without sanitation, we would be victims of water-
houses during historic times to designing complex
borne disease and illness more often which would
water supply systems during the modern era,
raise our mortality rates and lower our quality of
engineering has been vital in driving the growth
life. Humans, thus, have always looked for better
of civilizations. Engineers achieve their goal by
ways of removal of sewage and provision of clean
using the basics of science and applying them
water for our health and environment. Designs
to their targeted set of problems. Engineering as
for sanitation date as far back as the Indus Valley
a profession today is more important than ever
Civilisation. Drainage and sanitation were major
as mankind strives towards a technologically
characteristics found in both the Harappa and
advanced society.

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Mohenjo-Daro archaeological sites. Their notable structures, water supply systems, irrigation,
achievements in engineering were seen in grid- pollution control systems, sewer systems, and
planned cities with intricate networks for water flood control systems. Water supply systems came
supply and waste disposal. The bigger households under the purview of Public Health Engineering,
had their own wells for drinking water. The poorer sewer systems came under the purview of Sanitary
households used shared water, but these were also Engineering and pollution control systems under
connected with wells. They also had provisions the purview of Environmental Engineering.
for public toilets and baths. Domestic waste
With the increase in environmental problems in
from these toilets and bathing platforms were
our world today, Environmental Engineering
transported by connected sewer systems made
has found its own niche. As a multidisciplinary
from terracotta pipes (Jansen 1989; Wright 2010;
subject, Environmental Engineering combines
Fardin et al. 2014). Both Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro used such centralized wastewater collection knowledge from various fields of science as
systems (Singh 2008).In smaller sites of the Indus well as engineering to understand environmental
Valley Civilisation, decentralised systems of issues and design solutions for these problems.
waste water collection were discovered. In such For example,creating landfills for solid waste
systems, outflows from toilets and baths were or treatment plants for wastewater. Typically,
collected in U-shaped channels which were made Environmental Engineering in corporates concepts
of terracotta bricks, clay bricks or wood. From and ideas from physics, chemistry, and biology
there, these wastes were made to discharge into and also from Civil, Mechanical,Chemical and
a jar in the main street (Chakrabarti 2004; Bisht Electrical Engineering.
1984; Fardin et al. 2014). According to Mackay The work of both Civil and Environmental
(1936), sometimes this jar had perforations that Engineers is to develop and design projects
allowed the wastewater to flow out. From such for the survival and growth of society. While
archaeological evidence and reports, it is clear the Civil Engineer is involved in construction
that the Indus Valley Civilisation had placed projects of roads, highways, bridges and tunnels,
immense emphasis on their sanitation and clean the environmental engineer is involved in
water needs. finding solutions to protect the environment.
THE DIVERGENCE OF CIVIL AND Sometimes these projects may have a common
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING goal but the purpose may be different for Civil
and Environmental Engineers. For example, in
Over the medieval and modern era, technology designing a sanitary landfill, Civil Engineers
had developed into elaborate systems of water and will focus on its structure and construction
sewage transportation. This field of engineering while Environmental Engineers will focus
traditionally was a branch of Civil Engineering on management and treatment of leachate
and was either called Sanitary Engineering or and reducing landfill gas emissions into the
Public Health Engineering. Civil Engineering atmosphere. Similarly, in designing a waste
conventionally encompassed fields such as water treatment plant, the Civil Engineer will
analysis and design of structures, construction, focus on the building and tank designs while the
hydraulics, transportation and Sanitary environmental engineer will develop the treatment
Engineering. It is difficult to trace the history of process.
Civil Engineering since construction of structures
and buildings has been observed throughout all The industrial revolution in the 19th century has
civilisations in history. Some major examples of marked the onset of environmental degradation
Civil Engineering are- planning, construction, through pollution and contamination. By the mid-
and maintenance of power plants, design 20th century, environmental issues received global
and construction of bridges, roads, railways, attention. As concerns over topics like pollution,

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ozone depletion and global warming grew, primary objective of the CPHEEO is to solve
Environmental Engineering became an important water supply and sanitation issues in the country.
profession. It developed its own discipline, away The CPHEEO was affiliated to the Ministry of
from Civil Engineering. Environmental Engineers Urban Development in 1973-74. It functions as
find solutions to the growing environmental the technical section of the Ministry. Policies,
problems, control pollution, innovate new methods strategies and guidelines for water supply and
of recycling and treating wastewater for reuse. sanitation are being provided by CPHEEO to the
The modern environmental engineer has the task Governments of the States & Union Territories as
of keeping our air and water free of contaminants well as Municipal Corporations and Committees.
and thus, promoting good health. They are also Apart from policies and guidelines, the CPHEEO
tasked with the protection against toxic materials, processes the schemes for World Bank/Bilateral &
study the potential effects of climate change and Multilateral agencies and institutional financing
global warming and find solutions to these global such as LIC. Its role at the Central level is to act
issues. They also have the responsibility of taking as an advisory for the State agencies and Urban
care of clearances needed for projects, performing Local Bodies (ULBs) in – (a) sanitation and solid
quality control checks, checking for compliances waste management projects, (b)implementation,
in operating procedures and inspecting industries operation & maintenance of urban water supply
to ensure they meet the relevant standards. As the and (c) assist in adoption of the latest technologies
need for Environmental Engineering arises, two in these sectors (CPHEEO/WHO 2005).
types of institutions gain prime focus –
Another journey of Environmental Engineering in
1. Organizations that will carry out research in India started in 1958 when the capital of the country,
the field of Public Health and Environmental Delhi faced a serious issue of water pollution.
Engineering, assist government bodies This fuelled the formation of an organization
with water supply and waste management that would evaluate and solve any problem in the
strategies, develop methods of pollution field of public health. The Central Public Health
abatement and carry out environmental risk Engineering Research Institute (CPHERI) was
assessments of projects. thus established on 8th April 1958 by the Council
2. Educational institutions that will impart of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The
the necessary degrees and training in main goal of the CPHERI was to assess water and
Environmental Engineering. The development air pollution problems in urban settlements and
of technical education in Environmental provide solutions. Water supply, sewage disposal
Engineering is an important requirement and control of infectious diseases were the
to provide the country with enough well primary focus areas of the CPHERI. By the 1960s
qualified and well-trained engineers who will and 1970s, environmental degradation garnered
work towards solving various environmental public attention. India was a participant of the
issues. United Nations Inter-Governmental Conference
ORGANIZATIONS IN INDIA on Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972
where environmental issues gained worldwide
FOR PUBLIC HEALTH AND
focus. The CPHERI was renamed to the National
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Environmental Engineering Research Institute
According to the recommendations of the (NEERI) in 1974. This was done to combine
Environmental Hygiene Committee,the Central all aspects of research and development in
Public Health and Environmental Engineering environmental science and engineering. The main
Organization (CPHEEO) was founded under the focus areas are - Environmental Monitoring, Solid
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Directorate & Hazardous Waste Management,Environmental
General of Health Services (DGHS) in 1953. The Biotechnology,Environmental Impact & Risk

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Assessment, Environmental Systems Design of the first engineering colleges in India that are
Modelling and Optimization and Environmental in existence till date. The All India Council for
Policy Analysis. Currently, CSIR-NEERI has Technical Education was established in 1945 to
headquarters at Nagpur. NEERI also has five supervise all technical education in India including
Zonal Laboratories situated at Mumbai, Kolkata, diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate
Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad. programs. The Sarkar Committee was set up
in 1945 to propose suggestions for advanced
EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL technical education in the country. Based on the
ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN INDIA Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
India’s potential to be a global technology giant in the United States of America, the Committee
is well known. The Indian industry is competitive recommended the establishment of institutes for
worldwide in different sectors, be it agriculture, higher education in four regions of India – North,
industry or services. An important contribution to South, East and West (Singh 2010; Karkare et al.
this success is the quality of technical education 2013; Mohanty and Dash 2016).
in the country. The demand of engineers has Technical Education in the Post-Independence
increased as the world races towards technological Era
advancements and India strives towards increased
economic growth. The demand for engineering After independence, the Indian government
disciplines has been the highest in the 21st leaders and planners realised that to build roads,
century. The number of engineering institutions dams, bridges, tunnels, communication systems,
has increased tremendously over the last few power grids, water supply systems and industries,
decades. Scientists are interested in finding out more manpower was required who were skilled
what occurs and why and in investigating into in engineering and technical fields. As the
the basics of phenomena that occur in nature Government of India moved rapidly towards
while engineers work towards finding solutions industrialisation, the importance of technical
to specific problems. Engineering involves the and engineering education grew manifold.
practical applications of scientific know-how to Engineering degrees were thus found to be highly
solve real world problems. Engineering education rewarding and this became one of the most
thus requires knowledge of basic science as well desirable career options in independent India.
as its practical applicability to solve problems for Before independence, options to study engineering
societal benefit. were available only in a few engineering colleges
Technical Education before India’s and institutes. Each region only had one or
Independence two engineering colleges where graduate level
education led to B. E. degrees given in the fields
Engineering education started in India during the of Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering.
British rule. During that time, the main discipline Till 1950, there was a phase of planning and
of focus was Civil Engineering. The engineering from 1951, the country entered into a period of
education was based on the British model with creation of engineering institutes at the national,
primary attention being given to professional state, regional or divisional level that would
practice. The engineering college at Roorkee impart graduate degrees in engineering (Bhargava
established in 1847, the Poona Civil Engineering 2001). The Sarkar Committee’s recommendations
College established in 1854, Bengal Engineering resulted in the establishment of five Indian
College in Shibpur established in 1856, Institutes of Technology (IIT) at Kharagpur,
Banaras Hindu University established in 1916, Mumbai, Kanpur, Chennai and Delhi from 1951 to
Visvesvaraya College of Engineering established 1961 (Singh 2010; Karkare et al. 2013; Mohanty
in 1917 and Harcourt Butler Technological and Dash 2016). IIT Delhi was added to the four
Institute in Kanpur established in 1920 were some regions.

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The years until 1990 saw a rapid period of growth current generation as well as seriously challenges
for establishments of engineering institutes which opportunities for the future generation. The
were based on the British or American patterns of protection of the environment,natural resources
education (Bhargava 2001). During this phase, the and bio-diversity was recognised as a vital issue
disciplines of study were not limited to only Civil, for the sustainable development on all aspects
Electrical or Mechanical Engineering. Several (MOSPI). The method to accomplish that was to
more courses and disciplines of study were added streamline the track of development in such a way
such as Chemical, Agricultural, Electronics, that does not harm nature and the environment.
Textiles, Aeronautical, Mining, etc. The focus This became an eye opener for both developed and
was given mainly on graduate level of education developing nations. There was a need to strategize
and training during this time. The 1990s saw a
differently if both the goals are to achieved –
boom in computer technology in USA and thus
industrial growth to meet the needs of mankind
resulted in the introduction of computer science
and protection of the environment for future
and engineering courses in the Indian colleges at
the graduate level. In the last couple of decades, sustenance. This in turn meant that education
India has been one of the hotspots for the high and training for meeting this dual goal of nations
number of computer science and engineering as needed to be provided at the graduate level. It was
well as information technology graduates in the not enough to educate students in public health
world (Bhargava 2001). or sanitation only. Thus, came a rapid growth of
environmental science and engineering courses at
Education in Environmental Engineering
the graduate and postgraduate levels. While the
Public Health Engineering and Sanitary environmental science disciplines can be found in
Engineering were all sub-disciplines of Civil degree colleges and universities, Environmental
Engineering. Thus, education and training in Engineering disciplines can be found in most
these fields were achieved by taking graduate engineering institutes in the country today.
level courses in Civil Engineering offered in Environmental Engineering initially found its
engineering institutes and colleges (Hussain et place at the postgraduate level where engineering
al. 2011). Before the United Nations Conference graduates, particularly Civil Engineers could
on Human Environment, held in Stockholm in specialize in environmental training. However, as
1972, development issues were the main focus
the world moves towards rapid industrialisation
which did not take into consideration the resulting
and technological advancements, it has become
environmental degradation. Thus, as part of the
important to train people in Environmental
Civil Engineering discipline, courses on public
Engineering at the graduate level. Graduates
health and sanitation focused mainly on designing
of water supply systems and sewage disposal in Environmental Engineering learn to not only
systems. find solutions to major environmental issues
but are also motivated to find novel methods of
The emphasis on pollution and environmental production that would result in minimal waste and
degradation as a result of rising industrialization negligible environmental degradation. They work
and urbanisation came much later by the 1990s. closely with engineers and scientists from all the
Issues such as environmental protection and
other disciplines as Environmental Engineering
sustainability received worldwide attention in
is considered a multidisciplinary field of study.
the “Earth Summit” held in Rio de Janeiro in
The environmental engineer graduate is thus an
1992. The conclusion of the Summit was that the
present speed of development, industrialisation important individual for any nation today and the
and urbanisation would result in rapid depletion of need for Environmental Engineers is expected to
resources that threatens meeting the needs of the rise in the coming decades.

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CONTRIBUTION OF controlling the pollutants at source, tackling the

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING IN pollutants itself and managing the polluted areas.
INDIA The management of pollutants at source have
been achieved mainly by formulation of emission
Environmental Engineering has found its own standards. The aim of tackling the pollutants is
independent position in India and its contribution to minimise the quantity of pollutants released
to the country has been immense over the in the atmosphere by use of clean and low waste
years. Some of the major sub-disciplines of production technologies, tackling pollutants
Environmental Engineering are – from vehicles by improvement in fuel quality
• Supply of clean drinking water and modifications in engine design, clean coal
initiatives and utilisation of fly ash. The third
• Waste water treatment
approach of managing the polluted areas involves
• Air pollution control regular monitoring of air quality (Gargava et al.
• Municipal solid waste management and 2000). Air pollution abatement and control is
sewage disposal expected to see a rise of 10-20% in the coming
years in India.
• Pollution monitoring and check
The third sector in which Environmental
• Hazardous waste management Engineers have contributed significantly to the
Environmental Engineering has contributed most country is municipal solid waste management.
in the water and waste water treatment sector in In conjunction with the local municipal bodies,
India. The contribution of this sector to India’s Environmental Engineers have designed systems
environmental industry is approximately 26% and for municipal waste collection, composting,
is expected to grow at 15-20% every year in the incineration and emission control from
next five years. The central and state governments, incineration facilities, landfills and treatment of
along with local municipal bodies, place great leachates. Environmental Engineers have also
emphasis on treatment of raw water for drinking focused on waste to energy projects such as refuse
and its distribution, collection of waste water and derived fuel (RDF) and use of landfill emissions as
treatment and disposal of sewage. Environmental CNG and there are a few notable initiatives taken
Engineers are vital for designing systems for in this regard in India. In the future, municipal
these issues as well as implementing concepts solid waste management is expected to grow at
such as waste water reuse and zero discharge 6-8% in India.
systems. Environmental Engineers also look at PRESENT SCENARIO AND WAY
the best available technology or techniques (BAT) FORWARD
that are suitable for the Indian environment for
waste water treatment such as sequencing batch As the country moves towards economic
reactor (SBR), activated sludge process, up-flow development and a technologically advanced
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) and membrane society, the need of the hour is to develop more
bio-reactor (MBR). Depending on several factors, manpower that will achieve this without harming
they have suggested the best technology to be the environment. Environmental Engineering
adopted and designed treatment systems for the education has become an important discipline
same. that needs to be provided at all levels – graduate
and postgraduate. However, even with the rapid
Air pollution abatement is another sector where growth of this discipline in recent decades,
Environmental Engineers have contributed environmental problems still persist in India at
significantly in India. There are three approaches large. Air pollution, solid waste management and
that have been undertaken by Environmental polluted water bodies are issues that have plagued
Engineers for air pollution control. These are

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the country and its citizens. Contamination of ancient South Asia. In: Angelakis A N and Rose
rivers is increasing and landfills in the major J B (Eds) Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater
cities are overflowing with waste. Unhealthy air Technologies through the Centuries, IWA
in densely populated cities feature in the global Publishing House, UK.
news almost every day. India needs a massive 9. Gargava P, Sengupta B and Biswas D 2000.
inflow of educated and highly trained personnel in Strategies for Prevention and Control of Air
environmental science and engineering to tackle Pollution in India. Conference Paper at the
these problems immediately, innovate cleaner Seventh International Conference on Atmospheric
production technologies and pollution mitigation Sciences and Applications to Air Quality.
strategies. Environmental Engineering is a rising 10. h t t p s : / / s h o d h g a n g a . i n f l i b n e t . a c . i n /
need and young students should be encouraged bitstream/10603/119923/12/12_chapter-3.pdf.
to take up this discipline for the betterment of Accessed on 23rd August 2019.
their environment and sustenance of their future 11. Hussain MA, Sharma K and Zodpey S 2011.
generations. Public Health Engineering Education in India:
Current Scenario, Opportunities and Challenges.
REFERENCES Indian Journal of Public Health55 (2), 100-106.
1. Bhargava RN 2001. Present Engineering 12. India- Environmental Technology2019. https://
Education in India — An Emerging Economy — www.export.gov/article?id=India-Environmental-
And a Glimpse of the Scenario in the 21st Century. Technology. Accessed on 25th August 2019.
In: Weichert D, Rauhut B and Schmidt R. (Eds)
Educating the Engineer for the 21st Century. 13. Jansen M 1989. Water supply and sewage disposal
Springer, Dordrecht. at Mohenjo-Daro. World Archaeology, 21(2),
177–192.
2. Bisht R S 1984. Structural remains and town-
planning of Banawali. In: Frontiers of the Indus 14. Karkare S, Rawat S and Mali A 2013. Development
civilisation, B. B. Lal and S. P. Gupta (eds), Books of Technical Education in India. Conference Paper
and Books, New Delhi, pp. 89–97. at the 43rd ISTE National Annual Convention,
Empowering Technical Education to Address
3. Central Public Health and Environmental Sustainability and Global Competitiveness.
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO),
Government of India. http://cpheeo.gov.in/index. 15. Mackay E J A 1936. La Civilisation de l’Indus:
php. Accessed on 25th August 2019. Fouilles de Mohenjo-Daro et d’Harappa. Payot,
Paris, p. 206.
4. Central Public Health and Environmental
Engineering Organisation/World Health 16. Mohanty A and Dash D 2016. Engineering
Organization 2005. Manual on Operation and Education in India: Preparation of Professional
Maintenance of Water Supply Systems. Engineering Educators. Journal of Human
Resource and Sustainability Studies4: 92-101.
5. Chakrabarti D K 2004. The Archaeology of
Ancient Indian Cities. Oxford University Press, 17. Singh D V 2010. Historical Glimpses of Technical
Delhi, p. 296. Education in India. In Profile of Education
Engineering in India – Status, Concerns and
6. CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Recommendations, Narosa Publishing House.
Research Institute. http://www.neeri.res.in/.
Accessed on 24th August 2019. 18. Singh U 2008. History of Ancient and Early
Medieval India: from the Stone Age to 12th
7. Environment Statistics, Ministry of Statistics and century. Pearson Education/ Dorling Kindersley,
Programme Implementation (MOSPI). http:// New Delhi, p. 704.
www.mospi.gov.in/97-environment-statistics.
Accessed on 24thAugust 2019. 19. Wright R P 2010. The Ancient Indus: Urbanism,
Economy, and Society. Cambridge University
8. Fardin H F, Holle A, Gautier-Costard E and Haury Press, New York, p. 396.
J 2014. Sanitation and water management in

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Development in Marine Engineering

in Last Few Decades

Dr Brijendra K Saxena
Former Chairman, MRDB; Past President, Institute of Marine Engineers (India)
Retd. Founder Principal, Tolani Maritime Institute
 [email protected]

INTRODUCTION generation, distribution and various automation

and control systems are also maintained on board
One of the greatest factors that united civilisations
ships. A commercial ship usually has a total of
across the globe has been the oceans and multitude
20 crew members on board. The engineering
of ships plying on them. The growth of Marine
department consists of four marine engineers and
Engineering over the years ensured faster and
a small group of ratings to assist. Most of the time
more efficient means to transport men, material
an electrical engineer may also be onboard. All
and delivery of ordinance far and wide across the
regular maintenance, including any breakdowns
globe. These propulsion plants and its auxiliaries
have to be handled by this small group as
which is the heart of a ship determine the speed &
assistance from shore is not possible as ship may
endurance of a ship thus giving the axiom “The
be thousands of miles from land. Naval defense
ship is alive till her engines throb”. Inventions,
ships also have marine engineers though their
innovations and improvements in the field have
training is slightly different, and the operating
been at a rapid pace in the last 70 years and
environment is entirely different.
induction of a bewildering variety of engines and
the boilers bears testimony to this fact. Internationally the trade has been going on for
ages and ships, being the most economical means
Informatively Marine Engineering is a unique
of transport, have been servicing this need. Today
branch of engineering with substantial focus on
thousands of ships move globally transporting
both education and training. It is really a multi-
different kinds of goods.
disciplinary discipline with about 60% mechanical,
35% electrical/ electronics/ instrumentation and This paper aims to provide information not only
remaining environmental engineering. There is on the developments in marine engineering
lot of emphasis on safety and security with fire in India and abroad since last hundred years
fighting, survival and medical first aid also being but also addresses the changes in the complete
part of the curriculum. Marine engineers work environment where a marine engineer works and
onboard large ocean-going commercial ships operates. This will allow the reader to see a better
which are worth millions of dollars and are like picture. India is the second largest supplier of
a floating industry. The ship machinery includes, seafarers, after Philippines, to the global shipping
main propulsion engine, auxiliary engines for industry. Indian nautical officers and marine
producing electricity, boilers, heat exchangers, engineers are preferred and are in much demand
pumps, AC and refrigeration equipment etc. Power worldwide. Many Indian marine engineers have

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excelled globally and will be discussed later. a factory in Punjab or in a dedicated facility in
The development in marine engineering in India middle of the country. Thereafter, the shipping
is therefore intertwined with such development company would make the arrangements for the
globally. This still becomes important as the container to be carried by train, ship, truck etc till
Indian ships are very few and more than 97% of it is delivered to the warehouse of the importer,
Indian marine engineers work abroad. truly a door to door service. This resulted in
Ships and their Development development of dedicated cellular container ships
which too became larger and larger and could
The cargo ships of the 20s were mostly small and carry thousands of such boxes. The largest such
main propulsion was by steam triple expansion ship could transport more than 20,000 containers.
system and thereafter newer ships, especially
during the two world wars were with steam Marine Engineering Education and Changes
turbines. The boilers were earlier coal-fired and Marine engineering education is controlled
then oil-fired. The ships were mostly DC ships and in India by the Director General of Shipping,
were manned by many crew members, sometime Ministry of Shipping. The curriculum of all
as many as 70 or 80. Maritime Education & Training (MET) programs/
In 50s and 60s ships with slow speed diesel courses and as per STCW Convention of the
supercharged engine started taking over. Changes International Maritime Organization, which is
in the global geopolitical scenario led to improved an UN agency for commercial shipping. ME
trade between developed and developing education is compulsorily residential and is semi-
countries. Large bulk carriers emerged that could regimented. The students are referred as cadets
carry large amount of loose iron ore, coal, grains and must wear uniforms and undergo a tough
and fertilizers. The reliance on oil also led to daily routine which, besides classes, has many
development of special ships, called oil tankers hours of practical skill development training,
which could carry crude and oil products. The physical exercises, games and other extra and
closure of Suez Canal in 1967 led to phenomenal cocurricular activities. A dedicated four-year
increase in sizes of the ships, especially oil program is offered by some instituted that are part
tankers. Due to economy of scale it made sense of or affiliated to a university.
to transport large quantity at a time so that per Indian Maritime University, Chennai is the central
tonne transportation cost could be reduced. Till
government university and has many campuses
the late 60s largest oil tanker was of about 60,000
and affiliated colleges. Besides IMU some other
DWT (Dead Weight Tonnage which signifies the
universities also offer this program. A BE in
total weight a ship can carry). By early 70s it was
Mechanical Engineering has to complete a one-
common to see the Very Large Crude Carriers
year GME program to become a marine engineer.
(VLCC) which could carry more than three lakh
Similarly, a diploma holder in Mechanical
tons of crude oil. In fact the largest tanker could
Engineering can also become a marine engineer
carry more than five lakh tons at a time.
by completing a two-year DME program. The
The decade of 60s saw the emergence of cargo curriculum is regularly updated considering
container, a steel box which could be filled changes in technology, operational systems and
with cargo well before the ship reached port, international regulations.
custom formalities completed and box sealed.
The container then sailed on ships and reverse Career Progression of a Marine Engineer
procedure was adopted when the cargo reached the A fresh marine engineer has to complete a minimum
destination. This further led to the development six-months work on board a ship so that he can
of the multimodal operations where a shipping appear in the first certificate of competency (CoC)
company could take delivery of the cargo from examination, called Class IV. These examinations

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are conducted by the Director General of The thrustors could have controllable propellers
Shipping and are universally accepted. After that and this leads to better manoeuvrability of the
he becomes a certified engineer and may be called ship.
a fourth engineer and then a third engineer. Next
Another development is to have LNG propulsion
CoC examination is Class II and he can become
for the ship. A 400-meter-long 23,000-TEU
second engineer. The last CoC examination is
capacity ship of French company CMA CGM has
Class I and then he becomes eligible to be the
been launched recently and will be the world’s
Chief Engineer of a ship. Usually it takes about
largest containerships to run on LNG propulsion.
8 to 10 years after graduation to become chief
engineer. Besides these he also has to regularly Auxiliary Diesel Engines
complete short-term courses in survival, first- A commercial ship may have three such medium
aid, fire fighting and some ship specific courses. speed engines couples to alternators for producing
After few years of sailing, he may like to change electricity. Same through a main switch board is
to some shore jobs. A marine engineer is a very distributed to different equipment. These engines
practical hands-on engineer and therefore much normally use marine diesel oil which is heavier
in demand in various shipping as well as non- than the high-speed diesel oil used in vehicles on
shipping industries. e.g. the chief engineer in any roads. High fuel prices led to use of the furnace/
five-star hotel would invariably be an ex-marine heavy oil for these engines. In gas carriers, which
engineer. are ships that carry LPG/ LNG, such engines may
Main Propulsion Engine and Its Development use dual fuel, i.e. both diesel as well as the boil-off
gas. Some ships may even have shaft-generator
The ship moves by a propeller which is directly
which is connected to the main propulsion shaft
coupled to a slow speed long stroke diesel engine.
and is used when the ship is sailing.
The RPM could be as less as 84. The fuel used is
the residual furnace/ heavy oil which is purified Other Machineries and their Development
on board by separators/ purifiers. It is then heated As indicated earlier, a ship is like a large industry
to the required viscosity, filtered and then injected with assorted machineries and their control
in the cylinders. The engine has a camshaft systems. Some of these are large compressors
which is used for operating fuel pumps and the providing the required compressed air that is needed
exhaust valves. Some of the recent development for starting the diesel engines, instrumentation
is the cam-less engines with electronic injection etc. Large steering system operates the gear that
system. Initially the power was only about 5,000 turns the rudder which is used to turn the ship.
HP, however, presently the large ocean-going Oil tankers have huge demand of steam which
ships may develop extremely large power. In fact, is used for operating large turbo pumps used for
main engine on the huge container ships may discharging the oil cargo, heating the cargo and
have more than 100,000 HP. fuel oil etc.
In fact, the largest main propulsion engine in used The technological development, including a
is a Wartsila-Sulzer slow speed engine (102 rpm) constant need to reduce manpower to save costs,
developing 1,08,920 HP. The stroke is 2.5 meters. led to optimising the designs and operating
Its crank shaft weighs 300 tons and each piston systems. A marine engineer has to ensure that
weighs 5.5 tons. the equipment is not only well operated but
Few special ships may have electrical propulsion. more importantly, well maintained and ready
The ship will have many medium speed diesel for uninterrupted operations. Maintenance is
engines producing electricity which operates therefore an important part of marine engineering.
thrusters that move the ship. This leads to space Newer techniques like planned maintenance to
saving and better availability for cargo purpose. conduct monitoring are used on board.

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Marine Engineering and International Another major point is that in spite of our large
Regulation coastline, shipping is never considered seriously
The UN Convention on Laws of the Seas in the country, both by the government as well
(UNCLOS) requires that each commercial ship is as the society. It is not realised that shipping is a
registered with a country. This allows jurisdiction silent contributor to all that happens in our lives.
of that country on that ship, with the ship becoming A former Secretary General of IMO has famously
a territory of that country with a right to fly its said that “half the world would freeze, and the
flag. However, when a foreign ship visits another other half would starve if there was no shipping”.
country it comes under a different jurisdiction and The Marine Engineering profession too has not
has to follow the rules of that country. Shipping bloomed like other engineering discipline. The
being international, therefore, requires similar port-graduate program is offered by only one or
type of requirements. Various UN bodies like the two universities, research is non-existent and very
IMO and the International Labour Organization few meaningful technical papers are published.
develops different Conventions which are In comparison many highly technical papers are
ratified by different countries and are included published in China. PhD and post PhD studies are
in their national laws. The ships, and therefore carried out in Shanghai Maritime University. The
the marine engineers have to follow strict laws marine engineers from the Indian Navy do get,
regarding safety and security of ship; prevention thanks to the Government initiative, opportunities
of pollution of environment by oil, chemicals, to complete PG programs in IITs etc.
garbage, sewage, hull paint and exhaust gases. Ship building and ship repairing are the ancillary
The ships also have to follow a management industries and continue to remain neglected as
system called ISM Code which is like ISO quality the national shipping industry also has not really
management system. In other words, shipping expanded. Most private and public sector shipyards
is highly regulated and all ship board personnel are producing small ships for the Indian Navy and
have to strictly adhere to such regulations. the Indian Coastguard. Only Kochi Shipyard is
Professional Challenges building the aircraft carrier and Mazagaon Docks
has been regularly building bigger warships and
The life at sea is extremely demanding and submarines. Mostly the large Indian commercial
requires complete dedication, discipline and ships go to China, Korea or Singapore for repairs
commitment. Improvement in cargo operations and drydocking.
and productivity has resulted in very limited time
in port for loading or discharging the ships. With Indian Female Marine Engineers
fewer people on board the life is rather monotonous Marine engineering as a profession has always
and lonely. The change in social values in our life been a man-dominated one. This is primarily
the patience, tolerance, discipline, and physical considering the tough life onboard ships for long
activities have come down. Overall the life has periods, strenuous physical activities, very few
now become rather difficult. The progress in the crew members and especially a stigma attached
Indian economy has resulted in reasonably high to the name ‘seafarer’. With change in social
salaries for different jobs. Many youngsters from systems and inclusion of instrumentation and
big cities are reluctant to opt for a tough life at control engineering in marine equipment, the
sea and prefer a job ashore with good salary. scenario started changing. Sonali Banerjee was
It is imperative that the awareness about such the first Indian woman to become a maritime
good career option is spread in smaller cities engineer after she completed her four-year marine
and hinterland. Marine engineers from smaller engineering program in Kolkata. Till today more
countries like Vietnam, Myanmar etc are already than 80 female marine engineers have joined
making an entry in this profession. shipping. Few have reached to the apex position

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of the Chief Engineer of a large ocean-going ship. submarines have all thrown numerous challenges
Many have left the active sailing life and joined in maintenance and operation, which our Marine
associated career in shipping and have become Engineers have overcome with ease.
surveyors, administrators, maritime academicians
The commissioning of INS Kamorta in 1968
etc.
introduced the combined propulsion mode
Development in Marine Engineering in the heralding Indian Navy’s tryst with Gas Turbines.
Indian Navy The M2B Gas Turbines with high power density
and rugged design introduced new terminologies
The magnificent growth of Marine Engineering in
such as ‘cold turn’, false start, steam washing etc
the Indian Navy gathered steam with the induction
which have remained in the naval lexicon since
of HMIS Delhi in 1948 which came with the
then.
high pressure Admiralty three drum boilers and
the Parsons geared turbines. The arrival of INS The mere sight of the mighty R-class Destroyers,
Vikrant in the early 60s’ made others take note of inducted in the 1980s’, charging ahead with four
the Indian Navy and the multitude of machinery gas turbines running at full power sent shivers
onboard including deck machinery such as steam down the spine of adversaries and spearheaded
catapult and arresting gear, kept the engineers on IN’s dominance in the Indian Ocean in the past
their toes. The Whitby Class ships (INS Trishul three decades.
& Talwar) revolutionised steam engineering by
The commissioning of INS Nilgiri in Jun 1972 saw
induction of the Y 100 propulsion system with
the revival of Indian Ship building and indigenous
compact high pressure 2 drum boilers coupled
production of warships has grown from strength
to high power GEC turbines. Steam propulsion
to strength since then, with regular upgrades
continues to be relevant even today with the
which include corvettes, frigates and destroyers.
Brahmaputra class and the mighty aircraft carrier
Designing and building our own aircraft carrier
INS Vikramaditya ruling the oceans with boilers
has taken the indigenous ship-building abilities to
in their bellies.
a different level altogether.
Till the 1950s’ all ships were steam propelled
The past three decades saw the induction of
and used steam even for power generation. The
predominantly Gas Turbine propelled ships such
Brahmaputra class ‘all diesel’ ships inducted in
as the Delhi Class, Talwar Class, Teg Class,
the late 50s’ were an engineering marvel of their
Kolkata Class etc with considerable improvements
times. The configuration of four engines per
in terms of machinery fit, cleaner engine spaces
shaft coupled with controllable pitch propellers
and new generation machinery controls. The
provided these ships enormous flexibility in
2000s’ laid emphasis on stealth features wherein
operations with higher fuel efficiency. Induction
machinery noise reduction and infrared signature
of the superlative Russian technologies such as
suppression were the key focus areas. The
opposed piston engines and the 56 cylinder radial
Shivalik class fitted with a CODOG system has an
engines (with a power to weight ratio unsurpassed
Integrated Platform management system (IPMS)
even today) added thrill to the already exciting
which controls state-of-the-art LM 2500 GTs and
life of a Marine Engineer.
Pielstick diesel engines enabling better monitoring
A major milestone was achieved with the of system parameters and ease of watch keeping,
commissioning of India’s first submarine INS thereby paving the way for lean manning of
Kalvari in 1967 which gave birth to a new breed ships. This period also witnessed considerable
of Marine Engineers handling engines with the improvements in auxiliary machinery, wherein
ability to work against back pressure with exhaust better materials with high resistance to corrosion
arrangements that could blow out ballast tanks. have been extensively utilised. Introduction of
The EKM, SSK and the latest Kalvari Class Plate type heat exchangers replacing the erstwhile

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shell and tube type is one of the examples of a is also presently the Chairman of the International
contemporary technology finding its way into Association of Classification Societies, which has
marine engineering. members like Lloyd’s Register.
Induction of Waterjet propelled ships since 2009 Arun Gupta was the only marine engineer to be the
has heralded a new era in coastal patrolling CMD of the prestigious Shipping Corporation of
capabilities. Their performance in shallow India. On retirement he is heading the Indian Ports
waters coupled with high manoeuvrability and Global which is engaged with the strategically
low underwater noise has made it a versatile located Chabahar port in Iran. Hari Taneja started
technology for the future. the Indian Register of Shipping and was also the
first member of the Institute of Marine Engineers
The most beautiful feather in the cap of Marine
(India). The list is long and it is not possible to
Engineering fraternity, however, was the induction mention all however, some names are R L Pai
of the indigenously designed INS Arihant into and Ramamurthy (Reliance); S Godbole (ship
the Navy in 2016. The nuclear propulsion plant repairs); Dr R Prasad and yours truly in maritime
operating in the confined spaces of a submarine is education; many in maritime administration etc.
the ultimate challenge that any Marine Engineer
can dream of. Antony Prince excelled internationally in ship
design sector. Similarly, P Jairaj Kumar realised
Eminent Indian Marine Engineers from the importance of the support services that would
Merchant Navy be required for offshore oil exploration and
The first on the long list is obviously Rear Admiral production in the Indian coast. He started Ocean
T B Bose in whose memory the Memorial Lecture Sparkle co. which is the market leader in the
is presented every year in the National Convention support ships sector for this industry.
of Marine Engineers organized by IEI. He started Besides these many have excelled in civil services,
his career as a Lieutenant in the Royal Indian Navy financial field, other industries etc. It is pertinent
in 1938 and held various appointments. He was an to mention here that life at sea makes the marine
able administrator and was the Principal Officer, engineers very confident in whatever they do and
Mercantile Marine Department at Calcutta in therefore even after leaving the active sea life they
1952 and the Chief Surveyor in DG Shipping. are able to do well for themselves and contribute
He had valuable contribution while setting up the to the society.
first marine engineering cellage in 1949, called
Eminent Indian Marine Engineers from
DMET in Calcutta and also the Naval College of
Indian Navy
Engineering (INS Shivaji) at Lonavala.
Like from merchant marine, engineers from
Indian Marine Engineers have excelled globally
the Indian Navy have also excelled themselves
and in India. R K Mehrotra was the advisor to
in their line of duty. It is indeed impossible to
Ayatollah Khomeni in Iran and went on to become
acknowledge the contributions of all however, an
a large ship owner in UK. In fact his yearly bar-b-
attempt is made.
que party at his home at London is looked forward
by the cream in maritime world. Rajesh Bajapee, The first name is of course our own VAdm Kishore
Kishore Rajwanshi, B S Tikka, Ashwin Atre and Thakare who not only reached the highest rank for
many others have made a name for Indians in ship an engineer in the defence services but is also the
management in Hong Kong, Cyprus, Singapore only marine engineer to have been the President of
and other places. Kasturi, Srisailam, K Kishor, The Institution of Engineers (India). Besides other
DC Agnihotri, OP Mehta were pioneers in starting engagements he oversaw an extremely sensitive
marine engineering education. Arun Sharma is the and important vessel construction. VAdm (Hon)
Chairman of the Indian Register of Shipping and Daya Shankar was the first Indian to Command

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INS Shivaji. He was also Secretary, Defence Agarwal initiated Navy’s Nuclear Propulsion
Production (the one and only to carry out the Program.
duties of Secretary to Govt of India). VAdm B R
Other significant names are Adm I C Rao, Adm J
Choudhary was Engineer Officer on INS Vikrant
T G Perirera and Adm Y N Inamdar.
during 1971 Operations and was awarded Veer
Chakra. Cmde Chauhan was the founder of Boiler CONCLUSION
Erection Shop in Naval Dockyard Mumbai which Like other disciplines, Marine Engineering too
made all boilers for Indian War ships. VAdm has changed substantially in last few decades.
Dinesh Prabhakar has been Director, Shipbuilding This has brought in tremendous responsibility on
Centre where first Nuclear Submarine was made. Indian marine engineers. This becomes especially
He was subsequently Director General ATV important as they work in a global industry
Programme and is now on DRDO Chair at ATVP and are much in demand. They have to be
Prog. constantly competitive against marine engineers
Adm RM Bhatia was CMD of Hindustan of other nationalities, both in terms of technical
Shipyard, Vizag and Mazagaon Docks, Mumbai; competence as well as from the cost point of view.
Adm DV Taneja had been the CMD of Garden India’s education and training system, coupled
Reach Shipbuilders, Kolkata as well as the with the strict examination system in place by the
Mazagaon Docks. Directorate General of Shipping, Government of
India, ensure that our marine engineers remain in
VAdm M B Ghosh had been ASD of both Naval
demand.
Dockyards at Mumbai and Vizag. Adm PN

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Growth and Contribution of Mechanical

Engineering in India – Since 1920

Prof P B Sharma
Vice-Chancellor, Amity University, Gurugram
Earlier- Founder Vice Chancellor, DTU, Delhi
Past President of Association of Indian Universities
 [email protected]

Let me at the outset express my profound at $2.97 trillion in 2019 [1]. Much of this growth
happiness in being a mechanical engineer and the and advancement, apart from the vibrant Indian
Fellow of The Institution of Engineers (India), democracy and India’s leadership, owes to the
the prestigious professional society of practicing engineering and technology fraternity of this great
engineers devoted to the advancement of the nation that made the agro-industrial revolution a
profession of engineering and technology and great success in India and still continues to do so in
service to the humanity. the age of global competition propelled by science
It also gives me immense pleasure to express and technology innovations in the industrial
my gratitude to The Institution of Engineers and service sector. we, the engineers, take great
(India) for giving me the privilege to reflect upon pride in being a part of India’s highly impressive
the monumental contributions that mechanical march on path to excellence in engineering and
engineering has made to the socio-economic technology that includes India’s emergence as
advancement of our great Nation during the a great Space Power, a Great Nuclear Power
last 100 years of dedicated service to the nation for Peace, Self reliance in strategic defence
and to the growth of the engineering fraternity, and a world leader in the IT sector. Mechanical
including nurturing the professional rejuvenation Engineering, by its nature of being a versatile and
of young inspired minds of great many shop-floor all pervading nature of activities has, immensely
professional engineers throughout the country. contributed to such an impressive growth and
Today, with its one million strong members, in advancement of India and also the glory of
15 engineering disciplines, 125 Centres and six engineering and technology profession as whole.
overseas chapters in India, the IEI stands as an Be it highly sophisticated manoeuvring of the
illustrious professional body of great national and space craft, seamless integration and automation
global eminence. of additive manufacturing, intelligent robots, and
During the last 100 glorious years, the Institution unmanned aerial and ground vehicles including
has witnessed, and also contributed significantly the most recent Rover of Chandrayan-2, code
to the rise of India to the 3rd largest economy named “Pragyan” all are the finest examples of the
of the world on purchase power parity, PPP at engineering prowess of mechanical engineering
$11.9 trillion and the 6th largest world economy in action.

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HISTORICAL RADIANCE and the great engineering fraternity work together

to create a world full of growth and advancement
Traversing the trajectory of growth and
and at the same time assure peaceful co-existence.
advancement of mechanical engineering during
the last 100 years is an onerous task and also Advent of Steam Engine - Wheels of Power
a great opportunity now that the mechanical for Industrial Revolution
engineering has gained tremendous strength The 1st Industrial revolution that came in power
as well as capability to lead the advancement on the advent of the discovery of steam engine
of the industries in the age of Knowledge and by James Watt in 1776 provided the wheels of
Innovation. power that became fundamental to the changes
Let us look back at the year 1920, when our brought by the industrial revolution both in Great
prestigious IE(I) was established by Sir Thomas Britain and the rest of the world. A mechanical
RJ Ward as its Founder President, later received engineer of great eminence from Scotland in
its Royal Charter in 1935 and full membership of Great Britain, James Watt was, thus at the cusp
the Engineers Mobility Forum (EMF) in 2009 at of great industrial revolution that was rolled out
Kyoto, Japan. The Institution itself has grown to once steam engine became the major prime mover
a great eminence with its 6 major Foundations/ of the vast industrial power around the world.
Forums, including National Design and Research In India, it was 1851 that the first engine powered
Foundation (NDRF), Water Management Forum railway was used with two wagons to transport
(WMF), Safety and Quality Forum (SQF), earth materials from Roorkee to Piran Kaliyar,
Sustainable Development Forum (SDF), Rural some 30 kilometres. This marked the beginning of
Development Forum (RDF), National Skill the rail transportation in India. Soon in 1853 the
Development Forum (NSDF). Its mission of passenger railway train powered by Thomason
revitalising India’s Engineering and Technology Steam Locomotives was introduced that carried
fraternity continues with the establishment of approximately 400 people in 14 bogies, covering
Engineering Staff College of India in Hyderabad a distance of 34 kilometres from Bombay to
in 1982. Thane. Today of course Indian railways cover a
The year 1920 in itself was a great year that total mileage of 115000 kilometres with 12617
witnessed the establishment of the League of passenger and 7421 goods trains each day and
Nations that later became the United Nations, UN carry 23 million people and 3 million tonnes of
in 1945 after the Second World War. You may goods and franchise daily all across India[1].
wonder as to how such a pleasant coincidence Thanks to the advancement of mechanical
is there in year of establishment of IE(I) and engineering for facilitating such a stupendous and
the United Nation. It gives me reason to believe rapid expansion of public mobility on rails. Same
that as science and technology became a great is case with mobility on road and in air.
power to empower the nations around the world Starting from the first automobile in India in
with its enormous power of science and might of 1897, the car manufacturing began in 1942
technology of the kind that was witnessed during with the establishment of Hindustan Motors in
the world war one and two, it became imperative Calcutta under the licence from Morris Motors of
to ensure that the science and technology UK. The car was later christened as Ambassador
advances should be utilised in a manner that that remained as an icon of India’s Automobile
creates peace, prosperity and an environment of industry for a very long time and along with Fiat
peaceful coexistence for nations around the world. of Premier Motors Bombay served the needs of
For this to happen you need both the League of the elite in India till in 1983, the Maruti Udyog
Nations and The Institution of Engineers so that Ltd, rolled out its colourful range of Maruti Suzuki
the statesmanship of the nations around the world cars on roads of India with an energy efficient

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Fig. 1 From black smoke chimneys to Industry 4.0- Mechanical engineering in action

Suzuki engine. In the commercial and speciality Industry has exponentially grown to US$ 51.2
vehicles, the Nissan Truck and Jonga jeep for billions in 2017-18, contributing to 7.5% of
military usage manufactured by Defence Vehicle India’s GDP and accounting for 49% of the
Factory in Jabalpur and Willy Jeep of Mahindra manufacturing GDP, providing employment to
and Mahindra ruled the automobile sector till a 37 million professionals while contributing to
major up-gradation of the Automotive Industry in India’s export to the tune of US$13.5 billion[2].
India took place in the post globalised economy
era, July 1991 onwards.
Indian Automobile Industry-Major Growth
Engine
The Indian auto industry became the 4th largest
automotive industry in the world with sales
increasing almost at 9.5 per cent year-on-year
to 4.02 million units (excluding two wheelers)
in 2017. This made India the 7th largest
manufacturer of commercial vehicles in 2017.
As of today India has (as per Society of Indian
Automobile Manufacturers) a total of 23,63376
units including two wheels that were produced Hindustan Ambassador, 1948
during April 2019. The Indian Automobile https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Motors

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Toyota Fortuner, 2019

Thanks to mechanical engineering education

and R&D in India to make such an impressive Read more at: //economictimes.
show of mobility engineering. During the last indiatimes.com/articleshow/1973726.
c m s ? u t m _ s o u rc e = c o n t e n t o f i n t e re s t & u t m _
100 years, major technology up gradations have
medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst
taken place in automobile industry. These were
largely related to improving energy efficiency
and reduction in emission levels by multi-jet fuel
direct injection carburettor free petrol engines,
catalytic convertors, microprocessor controlled
engine control and power steering besides a better
understanding of vehicle aerodynamics. All this
was very well till recently that the electric vehicles
have begun to threaten the conventional petrol or
diesel vehicles. Tesla in US made a great beginning
and in India too electric vehicles shall rule the
roads in the next one or two years, given the high
pressure on government for massive reductions
https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/
in air pollution from vehicular emissions. I feel president-flags-off-solar-powered-passenger-car/
immensely delighted that we at DCE were way article3861728.ece
ahead of time in designing and developing the
first Gasoline-Electric Hybrid in 2006. The DCE engineering. Beginning with the establishment
Fledge was a major attraction at the Tour deSol, of the first steel plant under Tata Iron and Steel
the American green car festival at New York were Company, TISCO, established by Dorabji Tata
it received the first Prize in student category. in 1907 at Jamshedpur, Mysore Iron Works
We later designed and developed the first true established by Sir Visvesvaraya in 1923, the iron
Solar Car of India in 2012 that was flagged off by and steel industry also grew to a great eminence in
Hon’ble President of India for SAE South African India during the last 100 years. Prime Minister Pt
Solar Challenge. Jawaharlal Nehru, decided that the technological
revolution in India needed maximisation of steel
Indian Iron and Steel Industry- the backbone production. He, therefore, formed a government
of Manufacturing owned company, Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL)
Likewise, the iron and steel industry, the backbone and set up three steel plants in the year 1955 at
of manufacturing in India grew leaps and bound Durgapur in West Bengal, Bhilai, Durg in MP
on the strength of mechanical and metallurgical and Rourkela in the state of Odisha. Today we

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all can take immense pride in our iron and steel Indian Heavy Engineering Industries-
industry in India that has grown to become the Foundation of Robust Industrial Development
second largest producer of steel with a turnover In the Heavy Engineering sector, India
of 106.5 million tons in 2018 over taking Japan. undoubtedly did remarkably well beginning with
China, of course, retains its first position with a the establishment of Hindustan Aircraft Ltd,
record turnover of 928.3 million tons ( 51% of HAL in 1940 at Bangalore by Seth Walchand
the total steel production of the world), while Hirachand, that was later taken over by Govt of
Japan, US, South Korea occupying third, fourth India in 1947. Further, with the establishment of
and fifth position [3]. Heavy Engineering Limited, HEL at Bhopal in
Indian Power Sector- the lifeline of Socio- 1956 in collaboration with Associated Electricals
Industrial Growth Ltd of UK, Heavy Engineering Corporation,
HEC in 1958, Bharat Earth Movers in 1964 at
The Power Sector is yet another marvel of Kolar in Karnataka and subsequent establishment
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering. Starting of BHEL plants in Hardwar, Tiruchirapalli,
with the first electric power station in Calcutta in Bengaluru, Jagdishpur, Ranipet, Hyderabad and
1879 for street lighting, followed by first Hydro- Visakhapatnam, Hindusthan Machine Tools in
electric plant for Darjeeling municipality in Bengaluru, Kirloskar Pumps, Thermax Boilers
1897 and Shivansamudram in Karnataka 1902, in Pune, TVS Sundaram in Coimbatore, L&T in
the Indian power sector leap frogged to become Mumbai and a host of other medium and small
the major prime mover of India’s growth and scale manufacturing industries, India has come a
development during the last 100 years. From long way to become one of the major manufacturer
around 1362 MW installed capacity in 1947, of Machine Tools, Power Plant Equipments,
India today is a power surplus country with a total Automobiles, component and accessories.
installed capacity of 3,56100 MW. It
comprises of 56.1% from coal based
power plants, 12.7% Large Hydro,
1.3% Small Hydro, 10.1% Wind
Energy and 8.2% Solar while 7%
contributed by Natural Gas and 0.2%
from Diesel. It is, further, augmented
by captive power of 54997MW as
on March 2018 as per CEA Report
2018[4] .
Mechanical Engineering can
legitimately take credit for world
class engineering design and
manufacturing of power turbines,
condensers, boilers, power plant
equipments and accessories
including solar panel manufacturing
and wind turbines in India in public
and private sectors and also for its
in house capacity to efficiently run
and maintain power generation and
distribution system throughout the
country. Fig 2. Mechanical Engineering charting the future

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Mechanical Engineering for Industry 4.0: is Mechanical Engineering that is facilitating a

quantum jump to higher levels of opportunities
Mechanical Engineering, being the backbone
to address the noble objectives of Zero Defect
of modern scientific technology driven growth
Engineering, Net Zero Waste Manufacturing and
and development of an agro-industrial society
at the same time making mankind capable of
since the time immemorial, has always remained
achieving the millennium goods of sustainability,
on the forefront of engineering and technology
green manufacturing, combating climate change
revolution ever since the advent of wheel and
and energy security on the strength of green
wings of fire (Combustion based drivers of
energy technologies on the strength of Industry
industrial revolution) and has come a long way
4.0.
to propel the accelerated growth and development
of innovation driven new industry revolution Mechanical Engineering of tomorrow that shall
code named as Industry 4.0. In order to prepare drive the Industry 4.0 of today, Industry 5.0 of
mechanical engineers of tomorrow for Industry tomorrow and eventually Industry 10.0 in not so
4.0, we need to focus on interdisciplinary aspects a distant future. Now that the power of innovation
of engineering and develop capabilities of and global connect of talent pool has led us to
working with interdepartmental focus of minor new horizons of new and smart materials, bio-
and major projects and take on board a strong degradable plastics and polymers, bio-inspired
interdisciplinary component in the design of manufacturing beyond 3D printing and additive
curriculum of mechanical engineering. manufacturing, the future developments of
mechanical engineering science and technology
Here, in the Industry 4.0 environment the
shall enable us to embark upon molecular
automated systems, connected and networked
manufacturing of tomorrow, thus in turn giving
with global systems of IoT based new and
us an enormous leverage for innovating designs
immerging technologies are bringing about waves
by minimizing both the waste as well as the
of unprecedented development, giving an upsurge
energy consumption and maximising quality,
to human ingenuity and creativity, but, at the same
productivity and sustainability in manufacturing.
time causing un-imagined disruption. But then it

Source : Next Generation Industry 4.0 CII Roland Berger, 2014

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It would then give us an opportunity to witness, engineering education and research should now
at the end of life cycle of design of products, onwards lean heavily on the interdisciplinary
their disintegration back to the basic molecules of character of mechanical engineering and should
materials that were assembled through molecular necessarily assimilate, as far as possible,
manufacturing in the form of intelligent designs, major scientific advancements, in a seamless
fine-tuned to perform as engineered products and environment of integration of science and
devices. In such an industrial era of Industry 10.0, engineering, so that the scientific discoveries are
molecular manufacturing shall enable us to assure translated into new and innovated products and
disintegration of molecules of carbon to carbon, systems, creating new markets and solving the
hydrogen to hydrogen, sulphur to sulphur etc pressing problems of the society here at home as
leaving no waste what so ever [5]. around the globe.
Likewise, the new energy systems shall thrive on The AIMA-KPMG Industry 4.0 report 2018[6]
the ever expanding deployment of the renewables emphasises that “Given the strong role of
like solar and solar wind hybrid in a big way. But advanced technology in Industry 4.0, there is also
the real challenge to us, the mechanical engineers a need to demystify the core skill requirements of
of the new age, would be to design solar cells Industry 4.0 through education and enablement.
of 98 percent efficiency, as against 18 percent of Best practices from nations that have succeeded
today. The challenge shall also be to design wind with Industry 4.0, such as Germany, show that
turbines that shall run on low wind speeds, as low the government has a strong role to play here too
as 0.1 meter per second! by mandating relevant curriculum in educational
institutes as well as in the vocational training
Here a word of caution, that mechanical
infrastructure. Partnering with
the industry, the government
can use its vast research
infrastructure to encourage
innovation and learning around
Industry 4.0”. It is my considered
view that the institutions of
higher learning in engineering
and technology should take
the challenge of Industry 4.0
curriculum head on and in
partnership with industry deliver
the skilled manpower to propel
India’s accelerated march on the
pathways of Industry 4.0 and
beyond. This would necessitate
new structures for curriculum
design and delivery systems that
focus on autonomous learning in
groups thorough project based
learning and learning by doing
beyond the class rooms and

Source: AIMA- KPMG

Industry 4.0 Report, 2018

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routine laboratories. An integral environment of institution of IIT Delhi that began with the shifting
education, research and innovation backed by of Chemical Technology and Textile Engineering
strong synergistic partnership with the industry from DCE in 1961, School of Planning and
and corporates shall make this happen. Architecture, SPA by shifting the Department
of Architecture and Planning from DCE. The
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Department of Commerce was abolished from
EDUCATION IN INDIA DCE and the Faculty of Management Studies, the
Formal engineering education in India made famous FMS of Delhi University was established
its beginning in the School of Surveying at in 1954 by its first Dean Prof A Dasgupta who was
Saharanpur and Guindy in 1749 . The Saharanpur a professor of commerce at the erstwhile DCE.
School of Surveying later became Thomson The Kashmere Gate Campus also played host to
College of Civil Engineering in 1847 at Roorkee, St Stephen College and Hindu College of Delhi
that became University of Roorkee in 1947 and University in their formative years and gave rise
IIT Roorkee in 2001. This was followed by the to DIT (1983) which later became NSIT (1997)
establishment of College of Engineering at after shifting to its new campus at Dwarka in
Pune in 1854 and Bengal Engineering College Delhi. The Kashmere Gate campus of DCE also
at Shibpur in West Bengal in 1856, and College became the host institution for the rise of GGSIP
of Engineering Guindy in 1858. HBTI at Kanpur University, Delhi in 1997 and also to IGIT(now
was later established for mechanical and chemical IGDTU Delhi) in 1998.
science and technology in 1921, Indian School Needless to say, India had a glorious past in science
of Mines for mechanical and metallurgy in and technology education that marked its epoch
1926. The famous Punjab Engineering College making discoveries of numerals, decimal system
began as Mogalpura College of Engineering at of counting, geometrical analysis, development
Lahore in 1921 and was later named as Maclagan of intricate forms and designs of crafts and
Engineering College in 1924 and was shifted sculpture, architecture and town planning,
to Chandigarh as Punjab Engineering College magnificent designs of jewellery, purified metals
in 1947. The Delhi College of Engineering was and alloys, knowledge of herbal medicines,
established by the British Government as Delhi ayurveda, fundamental nodes of classical music,
Polytechnic as a model institution providing composition of rhythms and ragas, scintillating
engineering and technology education in a wide vibrations of membranes of tabla, dancing air
variety of disciplines such as Civil, Mechanical, columns of flute and the melodies of strings
Electrical, Chemical Engineering, Textile of sitar and veena. We also find in the ancient
Technology as also education in commerce, Fine scriptures of India, glimpses of engineering and
Art ad Sculpture, Architecture and Planning and technology excellence in respect of minerals and
Pharmacy under one roof. Further, BMS College metallurgy, foundries, shipbuilding, aeroplanes
of Engineering was the first private engineering (Vimanas), miracles of biological sciences,
college in India that was established in 1946 structural biology, reprogramming of genes, stem
by the famous philanthropist Sri Bhusanayana cell based tailor made human beings, medical
Mukundadas Sreenivasaias. Further, to provide science and surgery, sophisticated guided missiles
a major fillip to telecommunication sector and chemical warfare.
Government Engineering College at Jabalpur
was established in 1947 soon after India’s Mind to mind communication by which the Vedic
independence. DCE became Delhi College sage Viswamitra transferred the secret codes of
of Engineering in 1963, and on achieving lethal weapons and Brahmaastras to Lord Rama,
high academic and research excellence was like blue tooth transfer today, during the Ramayana
transformed in July 2009 as Delhi Technological times some 5000 BC by asking Lord Rama to be
University. In fact, DCE played a role of a mother seated some 18 inch away in front of him and

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the invisible laser powered “Sudarshanchakra” National Institute of 0 13 17 31

of Lord Krishna during the Mahabharata war, Technology, NITs (RECs)
around 3100 BC are the glimpses of the advanced National Institute 0 4 4 04
science and technology capabilities of Indian of Technical
people in ancient India. 100 sons of Dhratrastra, Teacher’s
the Kauravas produced from the stem cells from Training and
the umbilical cord of the fallen foetus of Gandhari Research,
by the Vedic sage Vyasa and the tailor made 5 NITTRs
sons of Kunti, namely, the Pandavas during the
State Technological 0 1 6 20
Mahabharata times are the finest examples of
Universities
advanced Biotechnology and Stem Cell research
Colleges of 50 337 776 3500+
in ancient India. Surely, such levels of science and
Engineering and
technology are still a fiction and incomprehensible Technology
to modern sciences. However, it gives us reason to
believe that the science and technology education The Rise of the IITs
in the Gurukuls of ancient India was of much The establishment of the IITs starting from IIT
higher levels than what it is at present. No wonder Kharagpur in 1951 and subsequent rise of IIT
that India, the Bharat of ancient times sustained Bombay in 1958, IIT Madras in 1959, IIT Kanpur
such an impressive science and technology in 1959 and IIT Delhi in 1961 marked a major
advancements alongside with a perfect blend of milestone in India’s higher technical education
education with human values. system. Soon after independence, the first Prime
India, at the time of its independence, had 36 Minister of India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru laid
engineering colleges with an annual intake of a solid foundation for science and technology
around 2500 students. Today we have over 3500 development in India by establishing a chain
colleges of engineering, 23 IITs, 31 NITs, 23 IIITs, of research laboratories under CSIR (originally
03 SPAs and 20 State Technological Universities. established in 1942), BARC (1954) , ISRO
Much of this growth has happened in the post (1969), DRDO(1958).
globalised and liberalised Indian economy era The mantra that built the strength of the IITs
that began in 1991, see Table- 1. was international collaboration right from their
Table 1: Impressive growth of Higher Technical formative years and initial genes of faculty and
Education in India research ecosystem from the advanced countries of
Type of Institution 1950 1990 2000 2018 the world. Here again, the founding fathers of the
Indian Institutes of 0 5 7 23 IITs were quiet clear in their minds that autonomy
Technology, IITs holds the key for nurturing excellence and as such
Indian Institute 0 0 2 23 enshrined abundance of autonomy to the IITs
of Information through an Act of Parliament. Further, each of the
Technology, IIITs five IITs were established in collaboration with a
Indian Institute of 0 4 6 20 major advanced country of the world. For instance,
Management, IIMs IIT Kanpur was established in direct cooperation
Indian Institute of 0 0 0 07 and collaboration with USA, IIT Bombay with
Science Education USSR, IIT Madras with Germany and IIT Delhi
and Research, with United Kingdom. The idea was to transplant
IISERs the best practices and education system of the
School of Planning 0 1 1 03 advanced world in the IITs and allow them to
and Architecture, flourish as “minarets of excellence” and achieve
SPAs global eminence on a fast track. This brought

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India both global recognition and created IITs as a strong industry-academia interface in the
the role models for cultivation of academic and conceptual framework and functioning of the
research excellence for other engineering colleges RECs. The RECs were to promote strong industry
and institutions in the country. It is a matter of academia partnership for the growth of industry
great satisfaction that the IITs, while flying the ready technical man power and technology
flag of mother India at high esteem globally, have development for the industries in the region. I
contributed significantly to the growth of research recall witnessing this partnership at REC, Bhopal
and development as well as faculty competence (MACT, Bhopal in the early sixties) that fostered
for college of engineering and technological industry relevance by promoting sandwich
universities in India. UG and PG programs in partnership with HEL
(now BHEL), Bhopal. This created a culture of
We should therefore celebrate the success of
manpower development and R&D in the RECs of
the IITs in India and allow them to flourish as
direct value for Indian Industries. This ‘advantage
“Islands of Excellence” of science and technology
India’, however, could not be sustained for long
education and research by protecting their
as both the public sector undertakings as well
autonomy and supporting their unending quest
as the RECs were under tremendous pressure
for excellence. Now that the Government has
for financing their educational activities and
acknowledged the value and worth of the IITs in
programs. For instance, the 50% funding of the
cultivating excellence and has expanded IITs to
RECs was to come from the State Government
23, that include IIT Roorkee in 2001, IITs at Ropar
while the remaining 50% was contributed by the
in Haryana, IIT Bhuvaneswar, IIT Gandhinagar,
Central Government. But the successive State
IIT Hyderabad, IIT Jodhpur, IIT Patna in 2008,
Governments, after the 70’s became lukewarm
IIT Indore and IIT Mandi in 2009, IIT BHU in
in their responsibilities to fund the growth of
2012, IIT Palakkad and IIT Tirupati in 2015,
the RECs. It is a matter of great satisfaction that
IIT Dhanbad, IIT Bhilai, IIT Goa, IIT Jammu
the situation has been well salvaged in 2002
and IIT Dharwad in 2016. Such an impressive
by elevating RECs as National Institutes of
growth of IITs clearly exhibits a sustained focus
Technology (NITs) and including them in the list
of Government of India on quality and excellence
of institutions of national importance.
of engineering and technology education and
research. Now that we have such a strong cadre The 30 NITs and 23 IITs together hold a great
of IITs and NITs, it would be absolutely essential promise for the rise of academic and research
that each of the new IITs focuses on national excellence in engineering and technology
relevance and global excellence, achievable on education in India. A word of caution, however,
a fast track through networking with the existing that abundance of autonomy and academic
IITs and international collaboration with selected freedom coupled with accountability holds the
top ranked universities of the world. The focus promise for the growth of excellence and the rise
of the IITs should be on education, research of the institutions to global eminence. Any erosion
and entrepreneurship as a tripod of new age of autonomy of the IITs and NITs shall spell
technical education, synergy between science and disaster to their march on pathways of excellence
engineering its hallmark and society and industry and society and industry relevance.
integration its strategy for nation’s development.
Like the IITs and NITs, a few other premier
Like the IITs, the establishment of regional institutions which include BITS Pilani, Delhi
engineering colleges, RECs in the early 60’s College of Engineering which is now Delhi
was yet another path breaking development in Technological University, Jadavpur University,
the technical education in India. Here again, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology,
an experiment was performed to foster high (now Thapar University), Anna University (Main
employability and industry relevance by creating Campus), Amity University, SRM University,

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SASTRA University, VIT University, Sharda EVOLUTION OF STATE

University, ITM University (now NorthCap TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITIES
University), NIIT University and lately Shiv Nadar
University have emerged as major hubs for word Learning from the experience that engineering
class education, research and innovations. The and technology education requires a focused
rapid rise of global eminence of these institutions attention and a caring environment such as that
and universities owes to their visionary leadership provided to the IITs, NITs and also to Jadavpur
and for the passion with which the education University in the Government sector and BITs
and research quality is being nurtured in these Pilani and Thaper Institute of Technology,
universities. Patiala in the self-financed sector, the State
Technological Universities were established to
It calls for celebration that India, today, stands
as a global giant in globally competitive science, provide a leadership role to foster quality and
engineering and technology human capital talent excellence in colleges of engineering in the state
pool. Its graduates are heading the world’s top that have grown to a good number by the mid
MNCs that include, CEO of Microsoft Satya 1990s, more so under the self-financed system.
Nadella, CEO Google Sundar Pichai, Rajat Gupta, To meet this objective, JNTU was established at
Former Senior partner emeritus of McKinsey, Hyderabad under the Andhra Pradesh State Act
CEO Adobe Shantanu Narayen, CEO Master of Legislature in 1972, Maharashtra Technical
Card Ajay Bagga, CEO Pepsi Indira Nooyi, CEO University at Lonare in 1989, PTU in Punjab in
Soft Bank Nikesh Arora, CEO Reckitt Benckiser 1997,Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Rakesh Kapoor, CEO of Nokia Rajeev Suri and VTU in Belgaum, Karnataka in 1998 and
CEO of Cisco Systems Padmasree Warrior just Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, RGTU
to name a few. The impressive list also includes at Bhopal, MP in 1998 of which I had the
top educators of the world such as President of privilege of being the founder Vice Chancellor
Carnegie Mellon University Dr Subra Suresh, in 1999.Thereafter UPTU, now Dr APJ Abdul
President of University of Texas, University at Kalam Technical University and other State
Arlington, Dr Vistab Kharbhari, President of
Technological universities followed suit.
University of Houston, Dr Renu Khator, President
of University of Buffalo Dr Satish K. Tripathi, The mandate for the state technological
Chancellor of University of California, San universities was to provide a focused attention
Diego, Dr Padeep Khosla, President of Lawrence to the growth of quality education and research
Technological University, Dr Virender K Moudgil, in the entire state and to provide a leadership
President of University of Massachusetts, Dr role to revitalize technical education for high
Kumble Subbaswamy, Dean of Harvard Business employability and industry and society relevance.
School, Dr Nitin Nohria and Dean of Samule The State Technological Universities started
Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management well and succeeded in implementing curriculum
at Cornell University Dr Soumitra Dutta among innovation, examination reforms and providing a
others. The impressive rise of Indian science focused attention to building systems for quality
and engineering graduates to global eminence
education. However, the rapid rise of the number
has brought high honours for Mother India and
of colleges of engineering and technology in
at the same time has put a great responsibility
each state made these technological universities
on the shoulders of the heads of today’s Indian
universities and institutions to focus on the world too big to manage their affairs. Some of the
quality of education and research. We need to Technological universities like Anna University
shoulder this responsibility with an unconditional currently have 13 constituent and 435 affiliated
commitment to quality, relevance and excellence colleges of engineering, JNTU which has now
to build India of our dream [7]. bifurcated into four campuses has 612 colleges

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affiliated to it in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana industrial manpower as also to create a new cadre
while the UPTU has 663 and VTU 201 affiliated of professionally trained manpower in new and
colleges just to highlight the problem of size. rapidly emerging convergence technologies.
The sheer numbers of affiliated colleges and their THE RISE OF SELF FINANCED
enormous intake along with mushrooming of UNIVERSITIES
private colleges of engineering in every nook and
The self financed sector in technical education
corner of India became a major handicap to foster
in India made its impression beginning with the
quality and excellence in these technological
establishment of the Tata Institute in 1909, which
universities. None the less, the reforms of
later became the glorious Indian Institute of
curriculum and examination and uniformity of
Science, IISc, which has emerged as India’s top
admission criteria continue to sustain the relevance
ranked university rising to global eminence for
of state technological universities. National
its scientific research and global employability,
Knowledge Commission in its report to the nation
figuring among the top at number 1 in NIRF
2006 has categorically pointed out that the large Ranking 2018. Likewise the establishment of
affiliating university system that is unique to India Birla Institute of Technology, BIT at Ranchi in
is largely responsible for the erosion of quality 1955, Thapar Institute of Technology in 1956,
of education in India. The draft NEP-2019 has now Thapar University at Patiala in Punjab, and
also come out with the proposal of winding up BITS Pilani in 1964 and also marked the rise of
of affiliating system of large universities. Yet, we self-financed corporate supported universities
need a robust regulatory system that shall ensure in the 1950’s and 60’s. The rapid rise of the self
growth with quality and relevance. financed institutions from early 1990’s onwards,
At a time when mind boggling advances are some of them later becoming deemed to be
taking place in the field of science and technology universities or private universities, has become
and that the power of innovation is causing a major advent for fostering technical education
enormous pressures for the development of in India which made the private sector count for
new and innovative products and services on a around 90% of the national technical education
regular basis, we need a focused attention to our talent pool. Much of the rapid expansion has
engineering and technology education and make happened in the post liberalized economy era
our universities as the hubs of knowledge creation to meet the growing demand for manpower for
and technology incubation to remain in the Indian Industries and MNCs for local as well as
forefront of engineering education in the world. outsourced and offshore jobs. In fact, the urge
Further, the future of jobs arising out of the advent for higher technical education in India became
of Industry 4.0 is creating a compelling vision for synonymous to assuring economic security to
innovating new ways of imparting engineering Indian households all across the country.
and technology education where convergence It is a matter of great satisfaction that some of
of technologies and interdisciplinary learning the universities in the self-financed sector have
environment, promoting side by side learning emerged as major hubs of educational quality
by doing and project based learning and creative and cutting edge research. These include Amity
design are to be promoted to create the work force University, SRM University, BITS Pilani, Sharda
akin to Industry 4.0 of today and Industry 5.0 of University, Sastra University, VIT University,
tomorrow. Amrita University and lately Ashoka University
and Shiv Nadar University and a few others which
Professional Institutions like IE(I) have a great
have made India proud.
opportunity to create an important space for
them for mounting short term programmes for The success of Amity Education Group in
training and retraining the present and future rising to immense global eminence owes to the

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visionary leadership of its Founder President Dr. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Ashok K Chauhan for whom building world class Development (OECD) report 2015 [9] further
institutions is both a passion and a commitment. reveals that the expansion of higher education in
In a short span of just over 2 decades, Amity rapidly-developing G20 nations has reduced the
University has emerged as the largest education share of tertiary graduates from Europe, Japan
group that has 8 Amity Universities in India and the United States in the global talent pool.
(at Noida, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Gwalior, Mumbai, If current trends continue, China and India will
Kolkata, Raipur, Ranchi and AUUP Campus account for 40% of all young people with a tertiary
at Lucknow), in addition, Amity has 11 global education in G20 and OECD countries by the
campuses in US, UK, China, Singapore, Mauritius year 2020, while the United States and European
and Dubai that now include the world class Union countries will account for just over 25%.
and most magnificent Amity University Dubai. It is expected that by 2020, India shall overtake
With over 700 patents filed, 250+ programmes USA and shall account for 12% of the share of
in its 150+ institutions enrolling around 125000 graduates globally while China shall account for
students with a focused attention to quality 29%. This demographic advantage with India is an
education, cutting edge research and innovations, important indicator of the immense possibilities
the Amity University has emerged as India’s top that lie ahead to make university education a valid
ranked Private University, ranked among the top means of national economic transformation. But
universities in Asia by QS. The mantra of success it needs a sustained focus on the quality of its
at Amity is growth with quality and excellence university education and research.
in an environment of education with values.
While India scores high in number of engineering
Academic innovation, industry integration and
graduates produced by its institutions and
global connect being the education philosophy,
technological universities, it fares badly on
no wonder that Amity rose to astounding success
Human Capital Index. The World Economic
both in terms of numbers and quality and is poised
Forum Report 2017 rated India at 103 out of 130
to be one of the largest and the best education
countries for its Human Capital [8]. Countries like
group of the world.
Norway, Finland, Switzerland, US and Denmark
THE GLOBAL SCENARIO FOR occupy the top five slots in the Human Capital
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Index. Naturally, India has a lot to achieve in the
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH human development sector, and much of this shall
come from Science and Engineering streams. It is
Going by the number of engineering graduates important to realize that Human Capital is rated
per annum, India and China would occupy the not just on gross enrolment ratio, where India has
highest top two positions. In India currently improved, but on quality of education, educational
around 3.5 million candidates take admission attainment, quality of skills, employment and
every year in engineering degree program of economic participation and vulnerability for
which around 1.5 million graduated in 2018 as exploitative employment.
per the data available on AICTE website. This
number, however, is almost 3 times higher than In India, today we are at the crossroads as far
the top ranked countries, Russian Federation as our higher technical education is concerned.
and almost 6 times bigger than that of USA. The On one hand, we find that today’s knowledge
World Economic Forum Report 2015 on Human intensive industrial development is driven by
Capital Index however has not included India and mind boggling advances on the scientific fronts
China as reliable data was not available to them and rapidly happening technology innovations, on
on engineering graduates [8]. Table 2 gives the the other hand, we are hard pressed for achieving
top 10 countries with most graduates as per the high employability of our graduates and global
WEF Human Capital Index Report 2015. eminence of our institutions and universities.

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Table 2: Top 10 Countries with the most graduates in Engineering, Manufacturing and
Construction

“We need engineering and technology education says “Engineering’s past history for
professionals for whom engineering is a passion invention of both products and processes has
and not just a profession for livelihood. It is served this country well for over two hundred
this attribute in the engineering professionals years but the recent confluence of events is
which we need more today than ever before as suggesting that the engineering profession can,
the rapid pace of innovations in engineering and and should, do more. Hallmarks of these changes
technology have become the drivers of growth will hopefully be not only increased invention
and development of the global economy. We but also the implementation of that invention, or
need engineering education that shall create the innovation.
vital layers of engineering excellence through
Successful innovation requires leadership, and,
its sustained focus on advanced level R&D and
in perhaps a biased view, that leadership should
innovations that, in turn, shall create the much
come from engineers who have the technical
needed advantage technology that results in
insight and ethical courage to solve the grand
development of new and innovative technologies,
challenges facing this planet for the benefit of
newer systems of product design, miniaturization
all her inhabitants. We can no longer leave our
and energy efficiency, zero waste manufacturing
fate entirely in the hands of those that are often
and delight in use of engineering products and
non-technically educated. Engineers must take
services. What more, we need to achieve all this
leadership roles, not only on technical projects,
within the democratic framework of our republic
but in society as well. Engineers must lead
where education has been identified as a major
within their communities, local, state, and federal
empowerment for equity and for assuring high
governments if the engineering profession is
quality of life” [10].
to lead towards a sustainable world. Human
The American Society of Engineering Education, population has reached the point where there may
ASEE 2030 vision draft paper (2011- 2804) on be no second chances, now is the time for action.
creating the future of mechanical engineering Now is the time for engineering leadership, our

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country needs it and our planet needs it. This This has created a highly conducive environment
vision of ASEE for leadership for engineering for the growth of Post Graduation and Research
fraternity is relevant for all nations of the world. in our country. Coupled with this are the major
government initiatives such as establishment
The ASEE vision document further emphasizes
of National Innovation Council, National Skill
that “in addition to technical skills, our future
Development Mission, National Knowledge
engineers need to be given communication
Network and the government missions for new
and people skills, business sense, a global
India like Make in India, Digital India, Startup and
perspective and an unparalleled understanding of
stand up India, All these are the signs of India’s
our environment, to foster both compassion and
commitment to revitalize its S&T education
passion for our planet”[11].
and research system. If we are able to meet the
INDIA DID WELL IN STRATEGIC demand for high quality science and engineering
SECTORS graduates having a knack for research then it
should not be impossible for India to emerge as
Despite all the constraints and limitations,
one of the strongest superpowers in Science and
during the last 70 years of our independence, we
Technology. Now that the government of India has
have made great advances in engineering and
set the target of accelerating the economic growth
technology capabilities. We have succeeded in
from 2.97 trillion economy in 2019 to $ 5 trillion
spreading our wings of knowledge and created
economy by 2024 and 10 trillion by 2035, the
the power of science and might of engineering
engineering and technology education and R&D
in our country on the strength of our science and
sector has to play a leadership role in enabling
technology professionals and with our sustained
such an impressive transformation that apart from
focus on self-reliance in major strategic sectors
economic prosperity supports accelerated growth
such as Defence, Atomic Energy, Aero-Space,
of employment opportunities.
Agriculture Science and Engineering and also in
Information and Communication Technologies. CONCLUDING REMARKS
This has made India one of the strongest
Mechanical Engineering has played an important
economies of the world and created prosperity for
role in the advancement of human society from
millions through the growth of new employment
high temperature steam engines and steam
opportunities in the core as well as the service
turbines, ultra high temperature plasma welding
sector. Our manpower capabilities in science
to ultra low temperature cryogenics and cryogenic
and technology sectors and our higher end skills
engines powering modern day space vehicles and
of design and innovations have also attracted
has come a long way from being a mega and
a large number of leading multi-nationals to
macro engineering creating large size structures
set up their R&D and Design Centres in India.
and forms to micro machines and mechanism
These include John F. Welch Technology Centre
and now moving into the realm of nano-scale
(JFWTC) of GE, Intel India Systems Research
devices and systems that are driving the info-
Centre, Imaging and Printing Group R&D Hub
nano-bio revolution. Further, because of its
of Hewlett Packard, Microsoft Research India at
direct interface with material science, mechanical
Bangalore, Google’s R&D Centre at Bangalore
engineering often exert a powerful influence on
and Samsung’s Research and Design Centre at
the development of new and smart materials,
Noida just to name a few. India has thus emerged
which in turn become a catalyst of change in the
as the most attractive destination for advanced
design and manufacturing processes.
research and innovations in engineering and
technology. All this has resulted into creation of Production Engineering and Manufacturing
new jobs for those with higher qualifications and Technology, that are integral to Mechanical
with research capabilities. Engineering, have also come a long way from their

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early days of noisy, smoke emitting and polluted 4. CEA Report 2018 http://cea.nic.in/reports/annual/
industrial environment to most modern, clean and annualreports/annual_report-2018.pdf
integrated manufacturing, equipped with global 5. Mechanical Engineering in Knowledge age
factory networking capabilities and are driven by (Editors-Prof PB Sharma et.al), “14th ISME
online Quality Assurance and Production Control International Conference 12-14 December 2005.
Systems such as being witnessed in modern fabs
where wafers for micro chips are manufactured. 6. AIMA- KPMG Industry 4.0 Report, 2018

It may be concluded that Mechanical Engineering 7. Celebrating Success of India’s Engineering

has been and shall remain, ever so relevant and Education- The Road Ahead by Prof PB Sharma,
at the core of engineering activity at all time to Presidential Address at North Zone Vice
come and shall continue impact the advancement Chancellor’s Meet, at Amity University Noida,
December 22-23, 2016
of human society to its destined glory.
8. WEF Human Capital Index Report 2015
REFERENCES
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Railways 9. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) report 2015
2. India brand equity foundation Report 2019 https://
www.ibef.org/download/automobiles-jan-2019. 10. Dr. SP Luthra Memorial lecture by Prof PB Sharma
pdf IE(I) Delhi State Centre, 2018
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_and_steel_ 11. ASEES report 2017s
industry_in_India

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Materials Science and Engineering:

100 years of Development Retrospect

Dr N R Bandyopadhyay
Professor & Head, School of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
(formerly Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur), Howrah
 [email protected]

The field of materials is immense and diverse. extravagance in the use of materials. We use
Historically, it began with the emergence of more materials than ever before, and we use them
man himself, and materials gave name to the up faster. Indeed, it has been postulated that,
ages of civilization. Today, the field logically assuming current trends in world production and
encompasses the lonely prospector and the population growth, the materials requirements
advanced instrumented search for oil; it spreads for the next decade and a half could equal all
from the furious flame of the oxygen steel making the materials used throughout history up to
furnace to the quiet cold electrode position of date. This expanding use of materials is itself
copper; from the massive rolling mill producing revolutionary, and hence forms an integral part
steel rails to the craftsman hammering out a of the “materials revolution” of our times.
chalice or a piece of jewellery; from the smallest
The transitions from, say, stone to bronze and
chip of an electronic device to the largest building
from bronze to iron were revolutionary in impact,
made by man; from the common paper-bag to the
but they were relatively slow in terms of the time
titanium shell of a space ship; from the clearest
scale. The changes in materials innovation and
glass to carbon black; from liquid mercury to
application within the last half century occur in
the hardest diamond; from superconductors to
a time span which is revolutionary rather than
insulators; from the room-temperature casting
evolutionary.
plastics to infusible refractories (except they can
be melted today); from milady’s stocking to the The materials revolution of our times is
militants bomb; from the sweating blacksmith to qualitative as well as quantitative. It breeds the
the cloistered contemplating scholar who once attitude of purposeful creativity rather than
worried about the nature of matter and now tries modification of natural materials, and also a
to calculate the difference between materials. new approach—an innovative organization of
science and technology. The combination of these
Materials by themselves do nothing; yet without
elements which constitutes Materials Science
materials man can do nothing. Nature itself is a
and Engineering (MSE) is characterized by a
self-ordered structure which developed through
new language of science and engineering, by
time by the utilization of the same properties of
new tools for research, by a new approach to the
atomic hierarchy that man presides over in his
structure and properties of materials of all kinds,
simple constructions. One of the hallmarks of
by a new interdependence of scientific research
modern industrialized society is our increasing

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and technical development, and by a new coupling in employment, trade patterns, location of
of scientific endeavour with societal needs. manufacturing activities and global division of
As a field, MSE is young. There is still no labour. Moreover, new materials development is
professional organization embodying all of its an essential part of attempts to resolve the pressing
aspects, and there is even some disagreement environmental problems in mining, metallurgy
as to what constitutes the field. One of the and global eco-system.
elements which is newest about it is the notion Materials scientists and engineers are now able to
of purposive creation. However, MSE is intervene at the electronic, atomic and molecular
responsive as well as creative. Not only does it structure of matter, in order to both synthesize
create new materials, sometimes before their and process new materials. These breakthroughs
possible uses are recognized, but it responds to in materials science and engineering are having
new and different needs of our sophisticated two consequences. Firstly, the new insight has
and complex industrial society. In a sense, permeated traditional and conventional materials
MSE is today’s alchemy. Almost magically, it leading to marked improvement in processing
transmutes base materials, not into gold–although technologies. Secondly, the transformation
it can produce gold-looking substances–but into underway has spawned proliferating clusters of
substances which are of greater use and benefit high performance, knowledge based new and
to mankind than this precious metal. MSE is advanced materials, high temperature super
directed toward the solution of problems of a conducting materials, advanced composite,
scientific and technological nature bearing on engineering polymers etc.
the creation and development of materials for
Technical change across all high technology
specific uses; this means that it couples scientific
research with engineering applications of the end- fields today critically depends on advances in
product: one must speak of materials science and materials. For example, existing materials cannot
engineering as an “it” rather than “them.” Not meet the stringent technology requirements of
only is MSE postulated on the linkage of science the next generation electronic devices, which
and technology, it draws together different necessitate even more highly advanced materials
fields within science and engineering. From synthesis and processing technologies and the
technology, MSE brings metallurgists, ceramists, critical understanding of Physical Metallurgy
electrical engineers, chemical engineers; from and Quantum Mechanics. Thus the mastery and
science it embraces physicists, inorganic control of advanced materials technologies will
chemists, organic chemists, crystallographers, dominate in several high technology field and
and various specialists within those major fields. major segments of manufacturing into the next
In its development, MSE not only involved century. This view is best understood in Japan, at
cooperation among different branches of science both Government and senior management level.
and engineering, but also collaboration among Advanced material programme has been in place
different kinds of organizations. Industrial since the early eighties in Japan. In USA, several
corporations, governmental agencies, and experts have identified advanced materials as
universities have worked together to shape the most important issue facing the economy in the
outlines and operations of this new “field”. 1990s.

We are currently at the early but secure and India is in the process of devising long run
irreversible stages of a remarkable and far reaching material strategies. Over the last 30 years, even
materials revolution. The materials sector has in our country, many firm in traditional industries
emerged as a science based knowledge intensive such as steel, petrochemicals, glass, ceramics,
high technology area with serious repercussion electronic material have been reducing their
for technical change, competitiveness, growth dependence on commodity material production

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while moving towards knowledge intensive compatible. The high specific strength materials
higher value added specialties and diversifying will fall under this category. The materials
into new and advanced materials. of interest may be ultra high strength steels
The future of Materials Science and Engineering (250Mpa) having very high toughness. Steels
is to consider “affordable complexity.” A materials superior to managing variety is in the offing, for
scientist/engineer has to be a designer who can being used in aerospace for the supersonic speed
take diverse materials and diverse properties and of carriers. The other variety of interest is the high
bring those together into a single functional piece, strength low alloy steel where the conservation of
as well as be able to work on a hierarchy of lengths natural resources is the philosophy underlying he
and scales, be interdisciplinary so that they can development. Only micro level alloying is meant
integrate all the factors and scales together and to be responsible for giving high strength and
understand what is going on in the entire system high toughness at sub ambient temperatures. So
in order to properly design materials. The next the 21st century will witness ultra high strength
phase of materials science & engineering will steels with high ductility at room temperature and
require the proper integration of all classes of at sub ambient temperatures—a combination of
materials together in order to achieve the desired mutually opposing material properties.
properties. There are examples of energy-efficient new
DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIALS: materials that are developed or being studied by
21ST CENTURY APPROACHES the materials scientists and engineers. Gas-Filled
Panels (GFP), use thin polymer films and low-
The development of materials for the coming conductivity gas to create a device with amazing
century has to follow from a clear vision/
thermal insulation properties. GFPs are basically
composite functionality, i.e. the combination of
airtight plastic bags that can take on a variety
service performance, processing advantage and
of shapes and sizes. Inside the outer barrier is a
ecological sustainability should be the prime
cellular structure called baffle. They are filled with
considerations. Service requirement specificity
gases like argon, krypton gas and xenon. Energy
is one of the key factors playing an important
use of domestic refrigerator/freezers is directly
role in materials activity and therefore we take
influenced by the overall thermal performance
a stock of such developing materials. In the high
temperature application area, intermetallics are of the cabinet and doors. An advanced thermal
considered as immensely important. Intermetallics insulation technology can improve the efficiency
like Ni3Al, Fe3Al, Al3Ti and many others are of of appliances such as refrigerators.
great interest for 21st century. The different atom Insulation materials are vital in buildings
species occupy different designated lattice sites designed for low energy use and good thermal
and have strong bonds to make them very strong comfort. Increasing the thermal resistance of the
intrinsically. Interesting to note, is that Ni3Al, insulation is an useful strategy to lower heating
a major constituent of nickel based super alloy, costs when thermal loads are subjugated by the
exhibits an anomalous sharp rise in strength with building envelope. Thermal insulation will be
increase in temperature. But the room temperature increasingly important in the future development
brittleness of these intermetallic renders them of cars because major improvements in gas
unsuitable, till date, for structural application. mileage can be achieved by downsizing the
It is the order of the day to talk about functionally heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning tools.
graded material, i.e. the specific material for Waste reduction and higher thermal performance
just meeting the specific needs, without having compared to close-cell foam is possible using
any over design whatsoever in anywhere, yet Gas-Filled Panels. The panels feature low mass
processing and product character being eco- and low volume.

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Another important newly developed material is solid oxidizers for boost and upper stages, and
Aerogels. Aerogel is a lightweight, advanced monopropellants for upper stages and satellite
material that consists of more than 96 percent air. propulsion.
The remaining four percent is a matrix of silica, a
Smart materials have properties that can be
principal raw material for glass. This material is
radically changed. A range of smart materials
one of the lightest weight solids ever developed.
already exists, and is being researched expansively.
Possible uses of Aerogels include environmentally
These are piezoelectric materials, magneto-
friendly energy-efficient applications, recyclable
rheostatic materials, electro-rheostatic materials
alternatives for polyurethane foam in freezers,
and shape memory alloys. Some everyday items
refrigerators and refrigerated vehicles, alternative
are already including smart materials and the
insulators in appliances such as water heaters
number of applications is growing steadily. Each
and ovens, aerospace industry applications,
type of smart material has a special property, which
optoelectronic applications, magnetic composites
can be extensively altered. The property that can
that may be useful for paramagnetic cooling at
be changed control the types of applications of the
ambient temperatures.
smart material.
Another field of materials research having
The super conductors with (high TC) is the other
tremendous importance is improvement of solar
important material, the people of 21st century
cell. Now the effort is to develop materials such
are supposed to produce and use. Not only the
that a single system of alloys incorporating indium,
chemistry is very important for them equally
gallium, and nitrogen can convert virtually the
important will be the means of manufacturing
full spectrum of sunlight-from the near infrared
to the far ultraviolet-to electrical current. If solar the same. Concurrent with this, one is now
cells can be made with this alloy, they promise expected to know the characteristics of ultra pure
to be rugged, relatively inexpensive-and the most materials – a concept ignored till recent times.
efficient ever created. Thermodynamically, contaminated solids are
energetically more stable and hence one has not
Development of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) known about the characteristics of absolutely
promises to generate electricity as cheaply as the pure materials and the effect of addition of other
most efficient gas turbine. This innovation, which pure elements of known amount on to its’ final
paves the way for pollution-free power generators properties. Conceptually it is very important for
that serve neighborhoods and industrial sites, lies electronic materials. However, the task is uphill,
in replacing ceramic electrodes with stainless- needing one to go against the known rule of
steel-supported electrodes that are stronger, easier thermodynamics. Will this need base approach
to manufacture, and, most importantly, cheaper. give birth to a new law of thermodynamics? But
This latter advantage marks a turning point in the the target is very clear for 21st century -its a purity
push to develop commercially viable fuel cells. of nine to eleven nines (99.9999999) compatible
In the field of space research the focus is to make to the need for super performance of electrical
the space vehicle lighter. One of the ways to make and electronics devices proposed to meet the
space vehicles lighter, safer, more reliable and challenges of rapidity of 21st century. The
better performing is to design advanced chemical development of ultra strong permanent magnet is
propellants for use across the entire range of equally needed in the 21st century will witness the
propulsion requirements. These new chemical usage of Fel6N2 magnetic materials along with
species have significantly higher performance iron-rare earth metal-nitrogen [Fe-REM-N] type
limits than conventional or near-term advanced strong permanent magnet. The element nitrogen,
propellants. Some candidate propellants include known hitherto harmful to magnetic materials, is
liquid hydrocarbons for heavy-lift booster rockets, now so important for them acting as an interstitial
cryogenic propellants for upper stages, liquid and element.

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Many of the fantastic materials revealing their lies in the traces of pencil” and one of the unique
potentials for 21st century are oxides. A very creation of this century in in this direction is
charming observation is that, to go against Graphene, the unexpected science in 2D sheets
the nature of metals and alloys by isolation of of carbon, a zero band gap semiconductor. It
components of oxides is a temporary event as is an isolated single layer of carbon hexagons
the products are brought back to what nature consisting of sp2 hybridized C-C bonding with
are, i.e. oxides, through the process of corrosion π-electron clouds. From the engineering point
-a fantastic thing! Let us further note that the of view, thin flakes consisting of few layers of
oxides are emerging as potential super materials carbon atoms, including mono-layer graphene,
in many areas. The study of oxide as a bulk and can be very important because of their interesting
specifically as a surface material lags behind structural and physical characteristics and also
the needs identified in them. The main reasons promising potential applications in technological
are the less understanding in the complex fields.
crystallography in them and the difficulty in the
IN LIEU OF CONCLUSION
available experimental techniques. Nevertheless,
to exploit the potential of oxides as advanced Many of the wonders of ancient world including
materials, happens to be a sever challenge of that of iron Pillar at Delhi, have been the
the 21st century, since the oxides are quite near monuments of the desire of human being to posit
to what our earth is born with and enables, one themselves and to illustrate their intellectual
to maximize eco-compatibility by ensuring the evolution in terms of structures they were capable
equilibrium state of this planet. The construction of constructing. Here-in comes the very pertinent
of 21st century is framed in balancing social, question of how the history will judge us! What
economic and ecological needs. Reminded by are those emblematic we leave behind as the
Paul Kennedy through his book ‘Preparing for 21st landmark of our intellectual progress - are these
Century that the greatest test for human society as the floods and draughts, the hazardous wastes or
it is to confront 21st century is how to use power any such by products of advanced technology?
of technology to meet the challenges thrown by In this respect, the materials science and technology
power of population, one is enticed to believe that can influence a lot by way of being re-described
unless the concept of power of balance is resorted as a powerful tool to secure a balance between
to the appropriate weighing of today’s demands the present and future, between consumption and
against tomorrow’s needs in the perspective of conservation. It is the challenge to this generation
meaningful environmental protection, with some to create a new relationship between human kind
fairness and equity among the rich and poorer and its materials, linking the brilliance of nature
members of the global community, the world and life with its wisdom and technology so that
is going to be damaged; so much so that all the the creative powers of man are continued to be
efforts to construct a new century will turn futile. nurtured in a meaningful way during 21st century
There are “Plenty of science and its application too.

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Growth and Contribution of Mining

Engineering in India since 1920

Mr R K Sachdev
President, Coal Preparation Society of India (CPSI)
 [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Mining engineering per se is the science and art of extraction and processing of essential natural
minerals from the earth, involving the practice, the theory, the science, the technology, and application
of digging, excavating, extracting and processing minerals from naturally occurring deposits and
adding value thereto.
After agriculture, mining is a major economic activity in India. Mining industry is key-stone of the
manufacturing and infrastructure sectors of the economy as it provides basic raw materials for most
industries, including agriculture, electricity, iron & steel, cement, railways, ports, aviation, electronics,
petroleum and natural gas, space, construction and infrastructure, etc.
In this paper an attempt has been made to capture the contribution of mining engineering through the
development and growth of mining industry in India.
Keywords: Engineering; Mining; Minerals; Development and growth; Economy; GDP

INTRODUCTION Rigveda He is considered to be the architect,

divine engineer of universe from before the
The term engineering is derived from the Latin
advent of time. Vishwakarma Puja is celebrated
ingenium, meaning “cleverness” and ingeniare,
on 17th September every year in India and Nepal.
meaning “to contrive, devise”. Engineering
(Source: Vishwakarman Wikipedia)
has existed since ancient times, when humans
devised tools like the wedge, lever, wheel and Therefore, Engineering denotes ‘creation’. In
pulley. The term engineering is derived from the other words, engineering is the use of scientific
word engineer and it is reported to have been in approach and practice of designing and building
common use since 1390. machines, structures, and other things, including
bridges, roads, vehicles, and buildings. There are
According to Hindu scriptures Vishvakarman
many disciplines of engineering depending upon
(Sanskrit: , Viśvakarmān; lit. “all
the activity the engineer is required to perform
creating”) is the Personification of ultimate reality
and extent of mathematical and applied science
and deity of the creative power. According to the
applications.

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Mining Engineering is the science and art of Ranging from making complex parts of airplanes
extraction and processing of essential natural to manufacturing paints, minerals find a variety of
minerals from the earth. The discipline involves uses in different industries. The road we drive on or
the practice, the theory, the science, the technology, the building we live in, are all made with different
and application of digging, excavating, extracting minerals or their by-products. Because of such
and processing minerals from naturally occurring extensive reach of minerals in our daily lives, its
deposits and adding value thereto. proper development and production has become
essential. Mineral Industry needs highly trained
After agriculture, mining is a major economic engineers, scientists and associated disciplines
activity in India. Mining industry is key-stone of for extracting these minerals from earth without
the manufacturing and infrastructure sectors of causing any harm to the environment.
the economy as it provides basic raw materials for
most industries, including agriculture, electricity, Mining industry is unique. It consumes finished
iron & steel, cement, railways, ports, aviation, goods ranging from manual labour, electricity,
electronics, petroleum and natural gas, space water, equipment, tools & tackles, safety gear,
and construction and infrastructure, etc. One sophisticated surveying and exploration devices,
can’t think of an item, good or service of our fuel oils and lubricants, computers, IT support
day to day life that doesn’t depend on mining and many other services but its own final product
industry. A classic example can be quoted from is a Raw Material that is used in manufacturing
SAIL’s advertisement ‘There’s a little bit of of all these tools, gadget, equipment and other
finished goods and materials. Another unique
SAIL in everybody’s life’. This is just a symbolic
character of mining is that it is location specific.
connotation of importance of depicting society’s
It has to be carried out where the mineral deposit
heavy dependence on iron & steel in our day to
occurs. This, at times, results in conflict with
day life.
local environmental settings, human habitats etc,
Chanakya an ancient Indian teacher, philosopher, and involving regulatory intervention and leads to
economist, jurist and royal advisor who delay in implementation of mining projects.
authored the ancient Indian political treatise, the
ROLE OF MINING ENGINEERS
Arthashastra, (between the 2nd century BCE
and the 3rd century CE) – a classical economics Mining Engineers are involved, in conceptual
theory and practice is quoted to have said: ‘Mines planning, designing, project planning etc, till
are the source of wealth: from wealth comes the completion of a detailed project report (DPR).
power of the State’. The field work, which includes deep underground
excavations as well as surface working in quarries
Mining is considered as one of the important and strip mines also, has to be undertaken by a
component of the economy of a developed as Mining Engineer with a fully equipped and duly
well as of a developing country. It adds to the certified support team of various other disciplines
national income of a country and at the same time depending upon the type, size and complexity of
results in employment generation on one hand mining operations. Apart from that, also plans and
and on the other hand it entails depletion, over coordinates the operations of mining staff in order
utilization and exploitation of non-renewable to ensure safety and efficiency.
resources. Mining Industry is witnessing growing
Some of the important roles of Mining Engineers
importance of recycling and reclamation. Mining
are listed hereunder:
Engineering involves using the latest extraction
technology that allows treatment of secondary v Mining Engineers use technology and propose
sources like industrial & domestic waste, waste mineral extraction without causing any harm
from previously mined deposits, contaminated to the surroundings where the extraction
land, etc. activity takes place.

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v They carry out investigations of mineral Mine Manager’s Certificate obtained after passing
deposits and undertake evaluations in a qualifying exam conducted by the Directorate
collaboration with geologists, earth scientists General of Mine Safety (DGMS) – an independent
and economists in order to conduct mining of mine safety regulatory body under the Ministry of
mineral deposits. Labour & Employment, Government of India is
required to be appointed as a ‘Mine Manager’.
v They work towards increasing the productivity
with technological intervention and maintain Besides technical knowledge on mining
the technology used in different aspects operations, key skills required for a good and
of mining like mineral discovery, mineral successful mining engineer inter alia include
determination, surface mining, blasting, etc. – confidence, knack for problem solving,
organisation and efficiency, team working and
v They integrate the knowledge of geology,
interpersonal relations and last but not the least,
engineering, rock mechanics, economics,
will to take up challenges and handle with calm
surveying and suggest new designs for
critical situations arising at the time of mine
mining.
accidents.
v Mining Engineers prepare plans for mines,
Under safety rules and regulations of any country,
tunnels and shafts for underground operations.
mining engineers are required to ensure that
Using computer-aided design packages, they
underground resources such as minerals, metals,
design plans for haulage roads for open-cut
oil and gas are extracted safely and efficiently
operations as well.
with due care and attention to conservation of the
v They prepare the layout of mine development natural resource. This requires rather stringent
along with the procedure by which minerals supervision, control and coordination among
are to be mined. various disciplines working in a mine under
Mining engineers with the help and assistance from the overall statutory responsibility of a Mining
other disciplines like geologists and surveyors, Engineer who is designated as a ‘Mine Manager’.
assess the feasibility, safety and productivity of Mining engineering by itself can’t make much
mine locations and plan, manage and optimise the contribution. It highly dependent on other
extraction of surface and underground deposits. disciplines, namely:
Professional Qualifications - a Statutory v Geologists, Geophysics & Earth Sciences and
Requirement Surveying.
Different countries have different requirements v Civil and Structural Engineering.
for entry into the mining profession so it is
v Mechanical Engineering.
important to research the requirements and gain a
qualification that will be accepted in the industry v Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
at large. v Chemical Engineering.
In India there was a time when a simple v Metallurgical Engineering.
professional Mine Manager’s Certificate acquired
after basic graduation (even 12th pass) coupled v Software and IT Engineering.
with rigorous training of a prescribed minimum v Sales and Marketing.
period, could make a person employable in Indian
coal as well as metalliferous mines. However, v HR specialisation.
with increase in complexity of mining and It may be worthwhile quoting here that apart
mineral industry a degree in Mining (or an allied from many other economic fields; Mining
discipline) backed by professional training and Engineering had some contribution to make

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in unique area of Chandrayan 2 Mission by VISION: NATIONAL MINERAL

supplying Special Explosive manufactured POLICY 2019
for space programs under the guidance of an
India’s National Mineral Policy’s vision statement:
alumnus of Indian School of Mines, now IIT
(ISM) Dhanbad. ‘Minerals are a valuable natural resource being
the vital raw material for the core sectors of the
MINERAL POTENTIAL OF INDIA economy. Exploration, extraction and management
India produces as many as 95 minerals which of minerals have to be guided by national goals
include 4 fuels, 3 atomic, 10 metallic and 23 non and perspectives, to be integrated into the overall
metallic minerals and 55 non-metallic minerals strategy of the country’s economic development.
that inter alia include building and allied materials. Endeavour shall be to promote domestic industry,
The multiplier effect of minerals after processing reduce import dependency, and feed into Make in
and conversions is significant, estimated to be 15 India initiative’.
to 20. NMP 2019 enjoins critical aspects of mining
Out of India’s total land area of 3.2875 million sector economy in tune with overall country’s
sq. km, more than 17% (about 0.571 million Sq economy, which inter alia include:
km) has been established as Obvious Geological • Regulation of Minerals.
Potential (OGP) area by the Geological Survey of
India. • Role of state in mineral development
• Prospecting and exploration
However, despite our country being so rich
of its mineral wealth, its performance both on • Data base of mineral resources and tenements
production as well as export front is impacted • Mining and mineral development
negatively by regulatory, administrative,
procedural challenges. Low investments in • General Strategy
exploration, lack of infrastructure, forestry and • Conservation and Mineral Development
environmental restrictions further added to the
• Scientific Methods of Mining
problems for the sector.
• Mining Machinery and Mineral Beneficiation
Just for the purpose of comparison, contribution
Equipment
to India’s GDP (2017-18) as compared to other
mineral rich nations is shown below; • Human Resource Development
v South Africa – 7.50% • Infrastructure Development
v Australia - 6.99% • Financial Support for Mining
v Brazil - 2.00% • Small Deposits
v India - 1.53% • Beach Sand Minerals
While India’s GDP has increased from 5.00% • Protection of Environment
in 2012-13 to 7% in 2017-18, contribution of • Sustainable Development in Mining Sector
mining sector declined from 1.93% in 2102-13 to
1.53% in 2017-18. This declining trend is quite • Welfare of Project Affected Persons and tribal
communities.
disturbing.
• Safety of mines and mine-workers
This looks evident that this downward trend has
prompted the government to bring out National • Mine closures etc.
Mineral Policy (NMP) 2019. • Foreign trade and foreign investment

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• Fiscal aspects and services leading to the overall growth in

country’s economy.
• Research and development
Therefore, one can safely say that Mining
• Development of Automated Equipment
Industry is the mother of all other industries
• Deep Sea Mining and economic activities. For example: with an
• Production of Materials of High Purity average production of about 24 million vehicles
annually, India’s automotive sector is one of the
The success of the National Mineral Policy largest in the world and it plays significant role
will be critical in propelling India on to a in providing attractive business opportunities for
loftier development trajectory. Successful steel, zinc, copper, aluminum producers, plastics,
implementation of this policy shall be ensured rubber and other industries that provide inputs for
by achieving a national consensus among various automobile sector. The construction sector, this is
key stakeholders and their commitments to fulfill the second largest contributor to India’s economy
its underlying principles and objectives. (Source: and accounts for the second-highest inflow of FDI
https://www.mines.gov.in) after services. These examples are just a ‘peep’
The development in the mining industry is directly into the multiple opportunities for growth created
triggered by sustained growth in the downstream by country’s mining sector.
sectors like – large, medium and small industries; The Gross Value Added (GVA) to the economy in
automobile; energy; railways; ports; housing and FY 2018-19, as shown by Ministry of Statistics &
allied infrastructure etc. This in-turn leads to Programme Implementation is reproduced in the
demand of electricity, oil & gas and other goods following table:

Sector GVA in 2018-19 (Rupees in crore)

Constant prices share (%) Current prices share (%)
Agriculture Sector 1,842,873 14.39 % 2,692,433 15.87 %
Industry Sector 4,029,782 31.46 % 5,042,587 29.73 %
Mining & quarrying 385,135 3.01 % 457,301 2.70 %
Manufacturing 2,346,216 18.32 % 2,853,986 16.83 %
Electricity, gas, water supply & other 287,109 2.24 % 452,683 2.67 %
utility services
Construction 1,011,322 7.90 % 1,278,617 7.54 %
Services Sector 6,936,122 54.15 % 9,226,346 54.40 %
GVA at basic prices 12,808,778 100.00 % 16,961,365 100.00 %

MINING TRIGGERS PROSPERITY v Clean energy.

Mining is a nucleus that triggers all round v Smart cities.
prosperity in the economy of a nation: v Socio economic development.
v Energy, coal, oil and natural gas. v Employment.
v Infrastructure. v Government revenue.
v Trade and business. Investors and developers are the drivers of
v Manufacturing. economy in mining and mineral industry.
v Health care.

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CONTRIBUTION TO ECONOMY- A o In 2018-19, India’s steel production was

HISTORICAL PROFILE: 106.55 million tonnes. It was second highest
after China and ahead of Japan – 104.30 MT
Contribution of mining and minerals sector to
and the US – 86.18 MT. National Steel Policy
India’s economy is both, direct and indirect.
2017 aims at reaching 300 MT by 2030.
While the objective of this paper was to capture
data from 1920 onwards, but older data are just Cement: John Smeaton, who is also known as
not available. ‘father of civil engineering’ had started the use of
‘hydraulic lime’ which further led to discovery of
The history of civilization is in many ways linked cement. In 1924, India’s cement production was
to the story of the use of metals in antiquity. Metals 2,67,000 tons.
were extracted and utilized in the past in stages
progressing usually from the use of native metal, o It picked up fast and with installed capacity
to those metals which could be smelted easily of 550 MTPy and production of 316 MT, now
from ores, to those which were more difficult to India is the second largest producer of cement
smelt. in the world.
Foremost among the other historical texts is De Other industries: Ship building and automobile
Re Metallica in Latin by Georgius Agricola (1556 industries were next to grow fast.
CE). His woodcuts bring home the then extant India’s manufacturing status: Country wise Index
mining and metallurgical processes alive in a vivid of Manufacturing Production (Year 1938) of some
fashion from Latin into English by 31st President of the leading nations is given below:
of the United States (1929-33), Herbert Clark
l South Africa - 1,067.3
Hoover, brought these into public light. Hoover
(a mining engineer) and his wife Cyril Stanley did l USSR - 857.3
an enormous service to highlight medieval mining l Finland - 300.1
and metallurgical processes.
l India - 239.7
Reference: Minerals and Metals Heritage of India
Sharada Srinivasan and Srinivasa Ranganathan l New Zealand - 227.4
Heritage Studies Programme, School of l Denmark - 202.1
Humanities National Institute of Advanced l Australia - 192.3
Studies, Bangalore, India [email protected];
[email protected] l World Average - 182.7
Some limited information available from various l Norway - 169.2
published sources and websites have been l Canada - 161.8
captured hereinafter:
l USA - 143.0
Coal: production in 1920 was 1.83 million tons;
l UK - 117.6
at the time of India’s independence it was around
31 million tons. Nearly the same as China’s coal l France - 114.6
production. l Switzerland - 82.4
o Today it is more than 700 million tonnes per l Spain - 58.0
annum. It will exceed billion tonnes mark in
next 5 years. (Industrialisation and Foreign Trade, USA, 1945,
Table III, League of Nations.)
Steel: production in 1920 was 1,70,000 tons; in
(Source: Big Industry Before Independence:
1925-26 – 47,000 tons; in 1930-31 – 6,25,000
1860-1950 Anupriya Singhal & Aoneha Tagore,
tons and in 1946-47 – 1,029,000 tons.
published by Centre for Civil Society)

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The figures in above table are quite startling. many European countries and also ahead of USA.
These show that even in 1938, India was ahead of China was nowhere in reckoning.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_India

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Recent years’ data:

Mineral Sector Share in GDP
(Source: Table – P 3, Mining Matters for India (Federation of Indian Mineral Industries)
INR (Cr)

Note: 1. Coal and Lignite, Due to the unavailability In view of India is huge mineral wealth, if
of ex-mine price of coal / lignite in 2017-18, supported by government’s proactive, progress
figures have been updated for the previous year and growth centric policies, the mining sector can
(2016-17); really trigger a major fillip for Indian economy
and help in country’s attaining the dream of a Five
Note: 2. Figures in brackets are % share of GDP.
Trillion Dollar economy by 2025.
Source: Ministry of Mines Annual Reports (2016-
The mining sector in India employs a smaller
17) and (2017-18) for value of minerals (ex mine
percentage of the population, just about 0.3 per
prices, including taxes (considered as GDP of
cent. While in South Africa it is 3.8 per cent, 1.4
minerals). India’s GDP figures taken from CSO
per cent in Chile and 0.7 per cent in China.
data.
According to data available in public domain, in
According to Vedanta Group – a leader among
2012, India’s mining sector accounted for about
private mining companies- ‘The mining sector
3 million direct jobs and additional 8 million
aspires to contribute 7-8 per cent to India’s GDP
indirectly. The mining sector constituted 3.4 per
and if this happens, India would realise a GDP of
cent of India’s GDP in 1992-93, which declined
9 per cent in the coming years. This is expected
to three per cent in 1999-2000 and further to 2.3
to create at least 25 million jobs, directly and
per cent in 2009-10. It further declined to 1.53%
indirectly’
in 2017-18.
Over the last 10 years, the contribution of mining
Every one per cent increase in the growth rate of
sector to GDP has been stagnant to nearly 1.2 per
mining sector results in 1.2-1.4 per cent increment
cent, which is highly alarming. India’s mining
in the growth rate of industrial production and
sector grew at a CAGR of 7.3 per cent in the last
correspondingly increase of 0.3 per cent in the
decade compared to 22 per cent in China in the
growth rate of India’s GDP. (Source ET: Vedanta
same period.
Group HZL, CEO Sunil Duggal).

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India’s endowment of mineral resources: • There is a trend of rapid urbanisation with 100
Barring known hydrocarbon resources, India Smart Cities planned by 2020
is endowed with nature’s bounty of all other • About 80 to 100 metric tons of cement per
minerals. Table below shows India’s position in annum is expected to be added over the next
the world. five years [4].
Coal Second • Economic growth and modernisation driving
Chromites Third the energy demand, particularly coal: Energy
Barytes Second demand over the next 25 years is estimated to
Talc/Steatite/Pyrophllite Second grow at 4% per annum [5].
Coal and Lignite Third Quite clearly, the demand side potential is all set to
Bauxite Sixth grow. India is still at an early stage on the mineral
Iron Ore Fifth consumption curve which implies that as the GDP
of the country increases, its mineral consumption
Steel (crude/liquid) Fourth
would grow at a rapid pace in line with the growth
Zinc Seventh witnessed in other emerging markets like China
Copper (refined) Tenth and Brazil.
Mica (crude) Sixteenth
Mining practices require skilled and reliable
Manganese ore Seventh manpower. To address this challenge, the
Aluminium Eighth government has set up a Skill Council for Mining
Crude Petroleum Twenty-fifth Sector to train 450,000 people in the mining
Lead (refined) Fifteenth sector to help them with employment in the next
Zinc (slab) Third ten years [6].
Updated as per Ministry of Mines Annual Report With the Government’s consistent efforts in the
of 2014-15 (except coal). promotion and development of the sector as well
as the untapped potential the industry offers, the
A closer look at the infrastructure build-out in the
mining sector is poised to make significant strides
country reveals multiple opportunities for growth
in the mining sector: and reach its pinnacle in the years to come.

• Higher public spending on infrastructure and Challenges faced by Mining Industry:

transportation, particularly on rail, roads, and It is commonly known fact that environmental
ports is a government priority protectionism quite is dominant issue of our
• Spending on railways is expected to double to time. Despite the fact that the government
over USD 15 billion a year[1]. as well the mine developers do make sincere
efforts to minimise the adverse impact of mine
• City metro systems are being built across
on local environment including taking care of
India, with over 10 projects underway or
rehabilitation of affected people, flora and fauna,
planned
water resources etc, yet there are challenges that
• India is set to double its port capacity over the have to be addressed. Mining, in this context,
next decade, with as many as six new mega is being often considered one of the worst
ports planned [2]. polluter and responsible for poor or inadequate
• Highway construction in 2016-17 was 22 km environmental management. This also poses a
per day and is targeted to reach 40 km a day in big challenge to sustainable energy future of the
2017-18 [3]. country.

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The mining industry is always first to bear the Emerging Economies: the Future Growth
brunt of the global recession. Engine
However, higher economic growth, good quality Emerging markets have played a significant role in
resources and growing domestic demand have the global mining and metals sector, particularly
induced the shifting of mining activity to emerging since the last decade. Emerging countries have
economies. This paper provides an insight into stepped in to incrementally meet the growing
India’s mining industry and how our professionals global demand for minerals and in the process
can address a wide spectrum of issues, such as: gained increasing market share in global minerals
trade.
• Strategy
1. Exploration trends: Emerging economies’
• Regulatory and tax policy share of exploration expenditure has increased
• Risk management from around 40% at the beginning of the
decade to around 60% in recent years.
• Mergers and acquisitions
2. Major mining markets:
• Process improvement
l In 2012, Latin America was the most
• Human capital popular global exploration spending
• Financial modelling destination, accounting for a 25% share,
mostly targeted toward gold exploration.
• Capital mobilisation
l Africa’s share of global exploration
• Environmental restoration spending rose to 17%, making it the
• Societal disturbance and rehabilitation second-most preferred destination for
exploration in 2012.
• Sustainable development
l Among other emerging market
Global Mining Overview economies, China and Russia, along
The rapid pace of growth that the mining industry with Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Finland and
had been enjoying for over a decade was arrested Turkey, accounted for the fourth-largest
budget share.
in 2008–09, with the advent of global recession.
World economic growth decelerated quickly, 3. M&A trends: Emerging markets have
adversely affecting both developed and emerging accounted for a significant portion of inbound
economies. M&A deals in mining and metals targeting
assets in emerging economies rising during
Some of the significant factors governing the 2007–2012.
global mining industry during this period include:
4. Significant mineral reserves: Emerging
• Volatile and uncertain scenario economies hold almost all of the minerals
• Financial institutions and markets losing reserves of platinum group metals (PGMs)
credibility (98%) and tin (95%).

• Diminishing confidence of counterparties Why the shift of mining activity to emerging

economies?
• Effective stagnation of the interbank market
Various factors have contributed to the growth of
• Heavy economic slowdown the mining sector in emerging markets, such as:
• Cost inflation • Commodity demand and price boom
• Capital raising and investments. • Liberalization of mineral policies

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• Technological advancement disposal of mine waste, washery rejects as well as

effluents.
• Mining reforms
As a new era of mining professionals enter
• Increased privatization.
the industry, the expectations and motivations
Mining in India of workers are changing. Heidi Vella (An
India currently produces around 89 minerals under experienced energy and technology writer and
different groups, with fuel minerals, metallic a contributor to several consumer and specialist
minerals, non-metallic minerals, atomic minerals magazines, including E&T Magazine and Global
and minor minerals. The country has immense Data.) finds out what a revealing new survey by
potential for mining resources and reserves and Mining People International (MPI) has to say on
the matter.
is currently among the top 10 global producers of
many minerals. Having recovered from the commodities crash,
which saw thousands of industry-wide job losses,
Future of the Mining Industry in India
the mining sector is back to recruiting again.
• Despite the slowdown, India is still the This time however it is facing increasingly stiff
second-fastest growing economy, after China competition from other industrial sectors, so to
• Demand for minerals, as well as for mining win over new workers mining firms must know
services, is robust in the country what motivates them and what turns them off.

• Mining in India is becoming more structured, A recent poll of 800 respondents conducted in
and companies have started outsourcing part January 2019 by Mining People International
(MPI), an Australia-based recruitment agency,
of the project to mining service companies
asked what workers really want.
• Contract mining could prove to be a solution
l Work-life balance is still a high priority.
to the on-going current coal deficit in country
Asked what takes priority when searching
• As the industry focuses on adapting for a mining job, most survey respondents
international levels of technology, there (39.8%) ranked work-life balance the highest
exists untapped potential in the Indian mining
l Opportunity for career development (37%)
equipment sector.
was another stand-out priority in the MPI
India’s Mining Industry should be survey, ranking just below work-life balance.
Encouraged, not Damaged! This year it rose slightly from previous
surveys, with 37.80% listing it as a priority in
The Statutory Laws in Mining have undergone a
2018 and 28.64% in 2016.
sea change from 2017 and in order to understand
the impact of these changes in ‘safety management This indicates that mining companies need to
system’, it was felt necessary to organize workshop offer clear career progression opportunities if they
for Frontline Managers who are responsible for are to successfully compete for graduates against
overseeing the Safety & Production in Mines. other sectors.
For India, our goal must now be to focus on a clean New workers coming into the industry with
coal energy chain. This can only be achieved if tertiary qualifications during this positive phase
we make sincere efforts to improve the quality of in the commodity cycle are likely to be offered
domestic coal by washing and thereby improve considerable career opportunities, says Heather.
its heat value, combustion performance and “There will be more people needed due to higher
reduced emissions. Such efforts must start at the demand but fewer graduates available; therefore,
production point i.e. mine end. At the same time there could be terrific opportunities for non-
we need to focus on environmentally compatible tertiary qualified people to partly fill those gaps,

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as well as the potential for employees to up-skill, other hand it entails depletion, over utilization and
and develop careers in roles that don’t yet exist in exploitation of non-renewable resources.
the industry,” he says.
Laws relating to Mining in India:
Kent agrees. to it and can be quoted as “There are
Mining is not a new phenomenon; neither is the
great opportunities – the mining industry’s revival
need for law regulating mining. There has been
has created numerous jobs around the country”.
laws guiding and regulating mining activities since
Salary as a priority when looking for a mining job 19th century. The first proposal for regulation
ranked third in the MPI survey, gaining 19.72% of mining in India came in 1890, which was
of votes. This indicates a significant improvement introduced by Lord Cross, who at that time was
from 2016 when it received 24.12%. the Secretary of State of India, later in 1894 for
This is consistent with the fact that the mining the first time Inspector of Mines was appointed
industry has used some of its new-found for the purpose of management and supervision.
profitability to raise salaries after a period of In the year 1901, first Mine Act enacted in India
stagnation, says Heather, especially as high-rates which was only applicable to the mines situated
are generally expected from mining job seekers. in British India, which was accompanied with
“I think money is still a key motivator for younger establishment of “Bureau of Mines Inspection” in
workers or those people who are still trying to get Kolkata. Since then Mine Act has been re-enacted
themselves set up in life,” he says. in 1923, 1928 and 1935.
However, although salaries have improved they In the year 1952, Mine Act was made applicable
are not expected to return to the heights seen throughout India. Since then the Mine Act has
during the mining boom, says Kent. been guiding and regulating the mining activity
“This is because the types of roles available in India, through the act is open to necessary
are quite different in the production growth amendment and it has been amended from time
phase from those experienced during the mass to time. It has also been witnessed that every state
construction phase and miners are monitoring is guided by different state mining laws, as every
productivity much more closely this time around, state differs from one another.
so instead employees are pushing for additional Along with Mines Act, 1952 there are many other
benefits,” he says. acts which regulates and provides a framework
Kent adds “However, complicating this is that to mining, which includes “Mines and Minerals
mining companies are still competing for top (Development and Regulations) Act, 1975”,
talent and are experiencing skill shortages, “Auction by Competitive Bidding of Coal Mines
particularly in remote areas, which has further put Rules, 2012”, etc.
an added emphasis on other staff engagement and Mining Education in India
retention strategies.”
The need of having a world standard mining
This might explain why last year, in a similar institute in India was felt as early as 1900. The
albeit smaller MPI survey, 78.45% of respondents, Indian National Congress at its XVII Session of
when asked ‘do you feel you are being paid what December 1901 passed a resolution stating that:
you are worth?’ said no. that a Government College of Mining Engineering
‘Mining is considered as one of the important be established in some suitable place in India
component of the economy of a developed as well on the models of the Royal School of Mines in
as of a developing country, it adds to the national England.
income of a country at the same time results in The McPherson Committee formed by
employment generation on one hand and on the Government of British India, recommended the

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establishment of an institution for imparting vii. VNIT, Nagpur.

education in the fields of mining and geology, viii. NIT Raipur.
whose report was submitted in 1920.
ix. Government Engineering College, Keonjhar,
Indian School of Mines was established at Orissa.
Dhanbad, a centre of coal mining activity. This
was set up by British Indian Government on the There are many more.
lines of the Royal School of Mines - London, and Two major engineering entrance examinations
was formally inaugurated on 9 December 1926 by are used for admission to engineering institutes
Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India. It started across India, Indian Institute of Technology Joint
as an institution to impart mining education, and Entrance Examination (IIT-JEE) and All India
today, it has grown into a technical institution Engineering Entrance Examination (AIEEE).
with various academic departments. In 2010, a proposal for a common engineering
Now rechristened as IIT (ISM) admits its entrance examination was made by the Ministry of
undergraduate students through Joint Entrance Human Resource Development. The proposal has
Examination (Advanced), previously IIT-JEE. gone through several names and formats, and was
expected to enter use in 2014. Yet, the common
Just prior to establishment of Indian School entrance exam for all engineering courses in India
of Mines in 1906, Mining Engineering as a has not become effective, even for academic year
discipline was first started in India in this college 2017-18.
to meet the requirements of statutory provision
in Indian mines. After independence, Dr. B. C. CONCLUDING NOTE
Roy, the then Chief Minister of West Bengal, Engineering as a discipline has always been a
revamped the department to satisfy the demand dominating and all prevailing discipline that
for mining professionals, and the Department of has commanded respect in human society,
Mining & Geology was reborn in 1956. On 12 irrespective of the hierarchy that exists, right from
February 1920 the name was changed to Bengal a humble helper to a mechanic or an electrician
Engineering College, Shibpur. The word Shibpur to the highest position in vertical or horizontal
was deleted on 24th March 1921 and it became line of management are equally important when
Bengal Engineering College. it comes to their job. In countries like Russia,
Now a day, Mining Engineering discipline has China, Poland, Germany government ministries
been incorporated by many institutions and of power, mines; steel, urban development /
universities in their portfolio. But students highways etc are headed by politicians who
preference, if at all, they want to pursue Mining are qualified engineers or professionals as the
Engineering as profession, prefer the following ministers and secretaries.
few: Mining engineering though does not enjoy a very
i. Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad. Now called high in the ranking of preferred disciplines among
students, but its importance has not diminished
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad.
because the minerals are the key to the economic
ii. IIT Kharagpur. growth of any country. With scientific advances
iii. IIT, BHU, Varanasi. in manufacturing, digitalization and spread
of latest versions of information technology,
iv. MBM College Jodhpur. the requirement of special materials have
v. Osmania University, Hyderabad. tremendously increased. A typical example is
‘Lithium’ which is used to manufacture Lithium-
vi. NITK, Karnataka
ion batteries for portable electronic devices,

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electric tools and more, but today they’re best 2 http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.

known for being an energy source for electric aspx?relid=159037
vehicles. 3 http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/
With the multidisciplinary approach becoming economy/infrastructure/roads-ministry-
common in every sphere of life, all engineering targets-laying- over-40- km-of- roads-every-
disciplines are required to work in tandem not only day-in- 2016-17/articleshow/51907323.cms
among themselves, they must also team up with 4 http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/
other disciplines like economics, administration india/seizing- indias-capital- goods-
etc. opportunity
REFERENCES 5 https://www.worldcoal.org/
1 http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/ what%E2%80%99s-driving-
india/seizing- indias-capital- goods- india%E2%80%99s-coal- demand-growth
opportunity 6 http://skillcms.in/vision/

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Development in the field of Production

Engineering: 1920 and Beyond

Prof (Dr) Deb Kumar Tripathy

Chairman, Production Engineering Division Board,
The Institution of Engineers (India)
 [email protected]

INDUSTRIAL SCENARIO IN PRE- the liquidation in India’s sterling debt, decisively

INDEPENDENCE PERIOD ended this phase of British domination over India.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, INDUSTRY AND SERVICES IN
private sector units were of a laissez-faire variety GROWTH AND STRUCTURAL
i.e., the private sector was completely free of CHANGE IN INDIA SINCE
state interference. Private enterprises were units INDEPENDENCE
owned and managed by individual proprietors
and partnerships. Even in India, private business Ever since the Industrial Revolution in the 18th
houses, in spite of many obstructions placed by century, the manufacturing activity has been
the British government, flourished and managed considered to be the main engine of economic
to earn huge profits. This was also the era when growth. In the development theory the structural
government investment in industry was zero. At changes were associated with shift of resources
the beginning of the First World War, Europeans, from primary sector to the manufacturing
managing agency houses, enjoyed unchallenged sector. However, in the recent years, the role of
supremacy in the private corporate sector of the manufacturing sector has been questioned.
Indian economy. On the other hand, role and importance of
By the end of Second World War this supremacy the service sector is recognized, particularly
had been broken and Indian entrepreneurs, trade, transport and financial services that have
advancing by rapid strides in the inter-war period, contributed to industrialization. Lastly, the recent
were now in a position to take over the business experiences of India and some of the developing
of the departing British. countries raises the question of whether services
have become key sector in economic growth in
At the end of the British rule, India had a larger the 21st century.
industrial sector, with a stronger element of
indigenous enterprise, than most under developed The mid-60s and mid-70s witnessed stagnation in
countries in the world. The First World War industrial growth, particularly the manufacturing
ushered in a new phase of British imperialism sector. There has been significant slow-down
in India, a phase which was fundamentally in the growth of heavy industries and slow and
different from the pre war period in the method indifferent growth in other industries too. The
of appropriation of India’s commodity surplus by main factors responsible for this industrial
Britain. The Second World War, by bringing about stagnation include:

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1) Slow growth of agricultural incomes and their enabled her to continue to act as the lender of
impact on constraining demand for industrial last resort for the international gold standard.
goods; The strength of international demand for Indian
agricultural produce also facilitated remittances
2) The slow-down in public investment after
by the Government of India, which had to spend
mid-60s with its impact on infrastructural
about 40% of central revenue in London each
investment;
year on military and other establishment costs and
3) Poor management of infrastructural sectors, debt servicing. Council Bills were sold through
leading to severe infrastructural constraints; a group of London-based exchange banks for
and sterling, redeemable in rupees in India to finance
4) Industrial framework, including both domestic purchases of Indian exports.
industrial policies and trade policies and MANUFACTURING POLICY AND
their effect in creating a high cost industrial MAJOR REFORMS DURING EARLY
structure in the economy. EIGHTIES
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries The key features of reforms in the 1980s include:
India took on the role of a typical ‘colonial’
economy in the international system, exchanging • Import liberalization, particularly of capital
exports of agricultural raw materials for imports goods and intermediate inputs through the
of manufactures and a limited amount of capital expansion of the range and number of goods
investment from overseas. At the beginning on the open general licensing list and through
of the twentieth century, India’s exports were a reduction canalization;
concentrated mainly on primary produce sold • The extension of export incentives through
to the industrial countries of the West, such as the tax system and liberal access to credit and
raw cotton and jute, tea, hides & skins, food foreign exchange;
grains and oilseeds: imports were dominated by
manufactures from Britain, especially of cotton • The significant relaxation of industrial
cloth, which made up 60% of British exports to licensing requirements through direct
India in the 1860s and remained very substantial ‘delicensing’ of some industries and through
down to 1913. India was also an important ‘broad banding’ which permitted firms in
market for British machinery, especially railway some industries to switch production between
equipment, and for exports of metals. similar product lines;

The markets for Indian exports were more diverse, • Decontrol of administered prices of key
with Britain receiving no more than 30% of the intermediate inputs.
total by 1900. In that year about 20% of Indian Further, the reforms during nineties were
exports still went eastwards to China, Penang and considered as “pro-market” in orientation. It
Singapore, and to the Gulfs, and another 25% included:
went to the major industrialized economies of
1) The abolition of industrial licensing and
Continental Europe and North America.
limiting the scope of public sector monopolies
The divergent geographical spread of imports to a small number of industries;
and exports meant that India played an important
2) The liberalization of inward foreign direct and
role in the multilateral pattern of settlements that
portfolio investment;
helped to provide stability in the international
economy by the end of the nineteenth century. 3) Sweeping trade liberalization including
Britain’s export surplus with India partly balanced the elimination of import licensing and the
her import deficit with Continental Europe, and progressive dismantling of non-tariff barriers;

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4) Major financial sector liberalization, best practices will continue to benefit the sector in
including the removal of capital controls on the medium-term through their influence on both
capital issues, free entry for domestic and the top line and the bottom line.
foreign private banks and the opening up of
WAY FORWARD
the insurance sector; and
The manufacturing industry in India has
5) Liberalization of investment and
experienced different development levels after
trade in important services, such as
some time and guarantees to be one of the most
telecommunications.
elevated developing segments in the coming years.
PROSPECTS AND CONSTRAINTS IN Sustained by freely streaming foreign investments
INDIAN MANUFACTURING and quick development in consumption, the Make
in India story has endured worldwide headwinds
There are several factors for stable share of
like ascent in oil costs, geopolitical distinction,
manufacturing in GDP and employment, out of
changes in interior strategies, and authoritative
which four factors appears critical, namely
challenges. The manufacturing strategies that will
l High resource intensity of manufacturing move the country forward are as follows:
l Higher compliance burden under the Green Manufacturing
regulations
Embracing green manufacturing practices are
l Difficulties in land acquisition for setting up much more than compliance. It is a way of life
industries; and in the manufacturing sector, which also brings
l Dysfunctional exist policy framework that about lasting benefits in terms of sustainability,
take considerable time in reallocation of profitability, and effectiveness in the businesses.
resources locked up in sick and non-viable Necessitating the right seriousness, open
units. mindedness and leadership focus, green
manufacturing drives are among the top priorities
India ranks second in the world as per the among manufacturers worldwide, as every team
2010 Global Manufacturing Competitiveness works to consume less and produce more. Such
Index (GMCI), prepared by the US Council on persistent focus has yielded positive results for
Competitiveness and Deloitte. The index factors many global manufacturers, including financial
include market dynamics as well as policy issues benefits.
influencing the sector. India is ahead of major
developed and emerging economies like the US, Digital Manufacturing
South Korea, Brazil and Japan. Looking ahead, As India turns out to be progressively associated,
India’s competitiveness will increase further with digitalization – utilizing digital technologies to
its index score set to improve to 9.01 (out of 10) change business activities – is a key differentiator
and is well set to be the next country is set to that will empower organizations to stay focused.
maintain its global rank over the same period of Digitalization guarantees lower costs, enhanced
time. production quality, adaptability and proficiency,
Quality standards in Indian manufacturing have shorter reaction time to client demands and market
improved significantly and the sector is now well requests, and furthermore new and innovative
known globally for its high quality. Over the last business openings.
decade, Indian manufacturers extensively adopted The digital enterprise is now a reality, and
the Total Quality Management (TQM) approach. organizations are seeking after its advantages and
As a result, the sector now enjoys cost advantage openings through digital transformation, which
in the range of 15-20 per cent compared to the requires the consistent combination of enormous
beginning of the decade. Ongoing and the latest information along the value chain. Activities like

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Industry 4.0 and the Internet of Things (IoT) Development. New Delhi. A Study Prepared as a
are being driven by billions of smart gadgets Part of a Research Programme STRUCTURAL
producing monstrous volumes of information. CHANGES, INDUSTRY AND EMPLOYMENT
Transforming this information into esteem is a IN THE INDIAN ECONOMY. Macro-economic
Implications of Emerging Pattern. Sponsored
basic achievement factor. Siemens is tending to
by Indian Council of Social Science Research
these difficulties crosswise over business verticals (ICSSR) New Delhi. 2010
with digitalization.
3. Indian Manufacturing: Overview and Prospects.
REFERENCES Indian Brand Equity Foundation.(IBEF)
1. Big Industry Before Independence: 1860-1950 4. INDIA Structural Changes in the Manufacturing
Anupriya Singhal & Aoneha Tagore.State Market Sector and Growth Prospect. T P Bhat. Institute
& Economy. Centre for Civil Society. 2002 for Studies in Industrial Development New Delhi
2. Growth and Structural Changes in Output in Working Paper 173. 2014
India since Independence: A Study Report. Surajit 5. India in the World Economy, 1750-20101 B.R.
Mazumdar. Institute for Studies in Industrial (Tom) Tomlinson, SOAS, University of London.

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Growth and Contribution of Textile

Engineering in India since 1920

Mr Arunava Kundu
Chairman
Textile Engineering Division Board
The Institution of Engineers (India)
 [email protected]

The Textile Industry occupies a place of unique delicate Indian textiles along with silk, spices and
importance in the economy of any country by virtue precious stones were used. In post-independence,
of its significant share in the industrial production, the Government has recognized the cotton textile
large level of workforce and substantial surplus industry with great national importance.
export of cloths. India is one of the world’s largest Historically, the cotton spinning and weaving
democracies with a population of more than 1 industry originating in India migrated to other
billion over a vast land. In this wide area, the parts of the world. The mills founded on the
demand of textile products has been drastically Bow Reach Estate near Calcutta around 1817.
enhanced for the last few decades. Though the Further, the mill in Bombay region, which
textile industry in India has a complex and varied was the cotton-manufacturing Centre of India
structure, but at the same time, India’s textiles established in 1851, called as Bombay Spinning
sector is the oldest industry in Indian economy for and Weaving Company, was quite successful.
the last several centuries. Even today, the textile In fact, the industries were localised in Mumbai
sector is one of the largest contributors to India’s and Ahmedabad regions. Other important centers
exports. Normally, the textile industry maintains of this industry were Sholapur, Kanpur, Nagpur,
two major segments, namely, the unorganised Calcutta, Indore, Coimbatore and Madurai. The
sector, which consists of handloom, handicrafts history of textile industry depicted that in 1920,
& sericulture through traditional tools & methods total number of mills in the country was 253 with
and other one is organised sector consisting of 1.18 lakhs looms installation, whereas in 1947
spinning, apparel & garments segments that apply total mills were 370 with 2.02 lakhs of looms.
modern machinery & techniques. The overall growth in pre-independence is given
in Fig.1.
The Indian history was rewritten when a
discovery was made on the Indus Valley, which According to Industrial Policy Resolution of
was popularly known as Mohenjo-Daro. In those 1948, India entered into a mixed economy with
days, varieties of dresses were used especially, basic industries in the public sector. During the
the fashionable costumes like, Kurta-Salwar, pre-independence, per capita availability of cotton
Cholis, Gowns and many other related dresses. cloth and man-made fabrics of consumption were
The organized Indian textile industry was set up quite balanced such a manner that length of man-
in the year 1817. During pre-independence, the made fabrics has been drastically improved.

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Fig.1: Growth of textile industry

EVOLUTION OF THE INDIAN with the headquarters situated at Navi Mumbai,

TEXTILE SECTOR maintains around 350 cotton procurement centres
in all major cotton growing states. To supplement
The growth of textile industries can be easily
the efforts of State Agricultural Departments
understood through the schematic as shown in
and other schemes, CCI continues with few of
Fig. 2.
its developmental activities as under Integrated
With the huge growth of textile industry over the Cotton Cultivation and Technology Mission on
decades, some of the textile organizations have Cotton. Technology Mission on Cotton comprises
been set up by Government based on market of four Mini Missions, namely,
demand. Out of this, the Cotton Corporation of
• Mini-Mission I (Research): Indian Council
India Ltd. (CCI) was established in Mumbai.
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) as the nodal
It basically serves in realizing reasonably fair
agency
price of farmers’ produce by operating various
Centers on All-India basis. The basic role and • Mini-Mission II (Transfer of Technology):
function of Cotton Corporation is to enlarge the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation
variety of cotton in changing scenario. Now, as the nodal agency
the major role of the CCI is to undertake price • Mini-Mission III (Development of Market
support operations, whenever the market prices Infrastructure): Ministry of Textiles through
of kapas fall below the minimum support prices CCI
(MSP) announced by Govt. of India, without
any quantitative limit. Besides MSP operations, • Mini-Mission IV (Modernization /
to fulfill the raw material requirement of the Upgradation): Ministry of Textiles through
domestic textile industry particularly for lean CCI.
season, CCI undertakes commercial purchase Post-independence, the Jute Corporation of India
operations. CCI was established in the year 1970 Ltd. (JCI) was set up in 1971 as an official agency
under the administrative control of Ministry by Government of India. The aim of JCI was to
of Textiles, Government of India as a Public provide the minimum support price to the jute
Sector Undertaking with a view to safeguard the cultivators and work as a guiding force in the raw
economic interest of farmers in all the cotton jute sector. The jute growing states in India i.e.
growing regions and to ensure the smooth supply West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura,
of good quality cotton to the textile industry Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh have been taken into
in India. CCI through its PAN India presence consideration under JCI.

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Fig.2: Evolution of textile industry in India

Fig.3: Segments in textile and apparel sector

For the growth of textile industry, the National natural fibre with an objective to maintain the
Textile Corporation Limited (NTC) was set up sustainable development.
under the Ministry of Textiles 1968 for managing
Apart from conventional textile, Handloom
the affairs of sick textile sectors. Beside closing
sectors have also been developed to maintain
some of the sick textile mills, NTC also set up
the Indian economy. Normally, handlooms are
Composite Textile Greenfield Units in western
fundamentally different from power looms.
and northern parts of India.
Motion of the handloom is operated by skillful
To continue the growth, National Jute human hands without using any source of
Manufactures Corporation Limited (NJMCL) was energy like, electricity, water, air or sun to drive
formed through various jute mills situated in the the motion of the loom. Over the few decades,
state of West Bengal and Katihar in Bihar under the growth in handloom sector has drastically
the administrative control of Ministry of Textiles. improved especially in primitive looms, pit
Due to financial losses, the implementation of looms, throw-shuttle pit looms, fly-shuttle pit
revival scheme was supported by the Government looms, frame looms, semi-automatic looms.
through several operations and finally re-opened Currently, handloom sectors maintain its quality of
the Kinnison and Khardah mills in 2011. The traditional products like, Sarees, Salwarkameez,
vision of NJMCL was for weaving a greener Kurtas, Sherwani, Shawls etc. as well as some
planet with jute, the eco-friendly, biodegradable contemporary products like, Western Women’s

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Dresses, Scarves & Stoles, Towels, Drapes &

Curtains etc.

Fig.6: Indian handloom sector

Fig.4: Indian heritage textile sector
The revolution took place in western part of
India especially in the state of Gujarat. For
that, Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research
Association was set up (ATIRA) during
independence time. It was recognized by Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
under the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Government of India and inaugurated by the then
Prime Minister of India Hon’ble Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru in the year 1954.

Fig.7: Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research

Association

Therefore, the textile industry is one of the

Fig.5: The working structure of National Jute largest industries in India in terms of providing
Manufactures Corporation Limited employment opportunities.

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The Architects - Engineers Conundrum

A P Mull, FIE, Chartered Engineer

Past President, Consulting Engineers Association of India
Former CEO & MD, Tata Consulting Engineers Limited
 [email protected]

The whirlwind of the Architects – Engineers From the above it can be seen that
Conundrum is thriving the decades, fuelled by the
• the word ‘engineer’ predates the word
erroneous notion of exclusivity over a perceived
‘architect’ and also encompasses the word
domain of work repertoire by a group of persons.
‘architect’.
To understand the issues related to these, it is
• the word ‘engineer’ was originally associated
necessary to look at the etymology of these
with ‘military engineering’.
two words. As per the ‘Online Etymology
Dictionary’[1], the origins of the words are: • It was only when the word was used to refer to
public works, which were non-military works,
• architect (n.)
that the term ‘civil engineer’ was introduced.
1550s, from Middle French architecte, from Latin
Later on, the terminology for other disciplines of
architectus, from Greek arkhitekton “master
engineering emerged to differentiate them from
builder, director of works,” from arkhi- “chief”
‘Civil Engineering’ when knowledge relating to
(see archon) + tekton “builder, carpenter”
the other disciplines grew.
(see texture). An Old English word for it was
heahcræftiga “high-crafter.” This discussion is limited to buildings since the
COA and some other ‘architects’ contend that
• engineer (n.)
only they can enjoy the priviledge of planning and
mid-14c., enginour, “constructor of military designing buildings.
engines,” from Old French engigneor “engineer,
The practice and profession of planning,
architect, maker of war-engines; schemer”
designing, supervising and certifying the stability
(12c.), from Late Latin ingeniare (see engine);
of buildings over the years has been done by
general sense of “inventor, designer” is recorded
both ‘civil engineers’ as well as ‘architects’ (upto
from early 15c.; civil sense, in reference to
certain limits). However, with the emergence
public works, is recorded from c.1600 but not
of larger and taller buildings which necessitate
the common meaning of the word until 19c
complex planning, analysis, design, construction/
(hence lingering distinction as civil engineer).
erection procedures and their supervision, and
Meaning “locomotive driver” is first attested
later on maintenance, etc. it was realised and thus
1832, American English. A “maker of engines” in
mandated that only qualified engineers of the
ancient Greece was a mekhanopoios.
requisite discipline should carry out the same.

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The questions that arise are: 10. Can the ‘architect’ be deemed to be capable
of planning and designing, specifying,
1. Can a certain group of persons claim to be the
supervising and certifying buildings,
sole “doers or providers” for a certain class of
especially tall buildings, where wind and
works when the same can also be performed
seismic forces play a dominant part?
by others?
2. Can it be completely ignored that the 11. Can the ‘architect’ be deemed to be capable
purported class of works were and are also of planning and designing, specifying,
being performed by others? supervising and certifying the claddings,
fenestrations, doors, lifts, systems for HVAC,
3. Can it be disputed that the Architects Act, plumbing, electrical, fire suppression,
1972 seeks to protect only the title and style communication, security, safety, building
“architect” and not the practice of profession management, etc. so that they perform as
of architecture or providing architectural intended?
services which other qualified persons are
also free for practicing and providing? 12. Can it be overlooked that the future of the
professions of both architects and engineers
4. Can it be disputed that the Architects Act, 1972 in a complex world is becoming multi-
was passed after the Joint Select Committee disciplinary and overlapping?
debated and realized the implications of the
provisions in the Bill and modified them to be Looking at the above rationally, the answer would
merely confined to protecting only the use of in all cases be in the negative.
title and style of the word ‘architect’ and to
The Joint Select Committee and the Members
put a framework only for registration under
of the Parliament debated the difficult task of
the Act for the title and style “architect”?
reconciling the profession of engineering and
5. Can such an attitude as being adopted by architecture. In one of the Parliamentary debates,
architects not be deemed to be restrictive the then Chairman of the Joint Select Committee,
trade practice and does it not seek to canvass Mr. M. H. Samuel informed the House that the
a monopoly of sorts? original Bill had a definition of an ‘architect’
which they realized impinged upon the function
6. Can one section of the service providers
of an engineer. As a result after some debate, the
involved in planning, designing, supervising
Committee came to a conclusion that it was better
and constructing a building be allowed to
not to define an ‘architect’ generally but merely
claim monopoly of the works?
confined the provisions to an ‘architect’ registered
7. Can such narrow minded behaviour and under the Act. All this was over half a century ago
monopolistic attitudes as being adopted by and even today the situation is not much different.
architects be consistent with the evolution of
society? With buildings for each type of function, be
it residential, commercial, hotels, hospitals,
8. Can such conduct and arrogance as being institutional, educational, et al becoming a
adopted by architects be deemed to align with specialized service the need is to have persons
the fundamental notion of a good society? who have the capability and the capacity to
9. Above all, can such a position be deemed to be take up the project – end to end and deliver
fulfilling the dire need for integrated planning, them fit for the intended purpose and duration.
designing, supervising and construction of a Therefore, to adopt non-inclusive approaches is
building? counterproductive to growth.

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The National Building Code of India 2016[2] 3) Structural engineer;

issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards has been
4) Geotechnical engineer;
adopted as an integral and mandatory requirement
for construction activity by many municipal 5) Electrical engineer;
corporations in India. NBC recognizes the fact
that team work and requisite qualification and 6) Plumbing engineer;
competence are essential for professionals like 7) Fire protection engineer;
architects, engineers, structural engineers, geo-
technical engineers, supervisors, town planners, 8) Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
land architect, urban designer, engineers for engineer;
utility services, etc. The relevant extracts are
9) Lift, escalator and moving walk specialist;
given below.
10) Acoustics specialist;
PART 0 INTEGRATED APPROACH
—PREREQUISITE FOR APPLYING 11) Information/communication technology
PROVISIONS OF THE CODE engineer;
4 TEAM APPROACH 12) Health, safety and environment specialist;
4.1 A land development/building project and the 13) Environment/sustainability specialist;
built facility during its service life comprises the
following major stages: 14) Town planner;
15) Urban designer;
a) Location/siting,
16) Landscape architect;
b) Conceptualization and planning,
17) Security system specialist;
c) Designing and detailing,
18) Interior designer;
d) Construction/execution,
19) Quantity surveyor;
e) Operation and maintenance, and
20) Project/construction manager;
f) Decommissioning and deconstruction.
21) Accessibility and universal design specialist;
Each stage necessarily requires professionals of
many disciplines who should work together as 22) Asset/facility manager; and
a well coordinated team to achieve the desired
23) Other subject specialist(s).
product delivery with quality and safety and other
objectives, in an effective manner. It is important that leaders and members of
design team, project management/construction
Appropriate multi-disciplinary teams (see 4.1.1 to
management team, and operation and maintenance
4.1.3) need to be constituted to successfully meet
team, depending on the size and complexity of the
the requirements of different stages. Each team
project, are carefully selected considering their
may comprise need based professionals out of the
qualification, experience and expertise in these
following depending upon the nature, magnitude
fields.
and complexity of the project:
Having outlined the team, the code goes on to
1) Architect;
specify the qualifications and competence of the
2) Civil engineer; professionals.

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PART 2 ADMINISTRATION connected with building permit except engineering

services of high rise/special buildings given in
ANNEX A 12.2.5.1.
[Foreword and Clauses 2.17, 6.5, 6.6, 9.1.3,
b) Issuing certificate of supervision and completion
12.2.5.1, 12.2.8, 12.2.9, 12.3 and 12.9]
of all buildings pertaining to architectural aspects.
GUIDE FOR THE QUALIFICATIONS c) Preparation of subdivision/layout plans and
AND COMPETENCE OF related information connected with development
PROFESSIONALS permit of area up to 1 hectare for metro-cities, and
A-1 Essential Requirements 2 hectare for other places.

Every building/development work for which d) Issuing certificate of supervision for

permission is sought under the Code shall be development of land of area up to 1 hectare for
planned, designed and supervised by registered metro-cities, and 2 hectare for other places.
professionals. The registered professionals, for A-2.2 Engineer
carrying out the various activities, shall be: (a)
Architect, (b) Engineer, (c)Structural engineer, The minimum qualifications for an engineer shall
(d) Geotechnical engineer, (e)Supervisor, (f) be graduate in civil engineering/architectural
Town planner, (g) Landscape architect, (h) engineering of recognized Indian or foreign
Urban designer, and (j) Utility service engineer. university, or the Corporate Member of Civil
Requirements of registration for various Engineering Division/ Architectural Engineering
professionals by the Authority or by the body Division of The Institution of Engineers (India) or
governing such profession and constituted under the Member of the statutory body governing such
a statute, as applicable to practice within the local profession, as and when established.
body’s jurisdiction, are given in A-2.1 to A-2.8. A-2.2.1 Competence
The competence of such registered personnel
The registered engineer shall be competent
to carry out various activities is also indicated
to carryout the work related to the building/
in A-2.1.1 to A-2.8.1. The qualification and
development permit as given below:
competence of the engineers for utility services
and of builder/constructor shall be as prescribed a) Preparation of all plans and information
in A-2.9 and A-2.10, respectively. connected with building permit.
A-2 REQUIREMENTS FOR b) Structural details and calculations of buildings
REGISTRATION AND COMPETENCE including subsurface investigation on plot
OF PROFESSIONALS up to 500 m2 and up to 5 storeys or 16 m in
height.
A-2.1 Architect
c) Issuing certificate of supervision and
The minimum qualifications for an architect completion for all buildings.
shall be the qualifications as provided for in the
Architects Act, 1972 for registration with the d) Preparation of subdivision/layout plans
Council of Architecture. and related information connected with
development permit of area up to 1 hectare for
A-2.1.1 Competence metro-cities, and 2 hectare for other places.
The registered architect shall be competent e) Preparation of all service plans and related
to carryout the work related to the building/ information connected with development
development permit as given below: permit.
a) Preparation of all plans and information f) Issuing certificate of supervision for

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Annual Technical Volume

development of land for all area. functions and provide services that are extremely
crucial for the safety, stability and robustness of
A-2.3 Structural Engineer
the structure. The structural engineer is the KING
The minimum qualifications for a structural POST for the project albeit in conjunction with
engineer shall be graduate in civil engineering the geotechnical engineer who have to take care
of recognized Indian or foreign university, or of the foundation part of the building. It is the
Corporate Member of Civil Engineering Division structural engineer on whom the onus of stability,
of The Institution of Engineers (India), and safety, security and robustness of building’s
with minimum 3 years experience in structural structure rests for the design life of the structure,
engineering practice with designing and field albeit with proper maintenance and repairs.
work.
The role of engineers of other disciplines –
NOTE — The 3 years experience shall be relaxed electrical, mechanical, plumbing, instrumentation
to 2 years in the case of post graduate degree & control, environment, et al are also becoming
of recognized Indian or foreign university in challenging with more and more automation
the branch of structural engineering. In case of and Artificial Intelligence entering the arena.
doctorate in structural engineering, the experience The inputs of all must be integrated to make a
required would be one year. composite whole facility that would meet the
A-2.3.1 Competence purpose intended for during its entire design
life. That’s the unenviable job of the Project
The registered structural engineer shall be Coordinator/ Project Manager.
competent to prepare the structural design,
calculations and details for all buildings and carry Engineers are thus the sine qua non of all
out supervision. building projects.

A-2.3.1.1 In case of buildings having special The Engineering profession is not yet covered
structural features, as decided by the Authority, by any legislation unlike many other professions
which are within the horizontal areas and vertical in the country, although the engineering
limits specified in A-2.2.1(b) and A-2.5.1(a) shall professionals form the largest numbers. Projects
be designed only by structural engineers. which are vital for the country need professional
engineers from them to fructify and become a
The rationale behind NBC’s stipulation is that reality. Thereafter, the professional engineers
Architects are basically to plan the area or space are also necessary to operate and maintain them
to meet the functional requirements and suggest for the benefit of the society at large. With the
the aesthetical aspects as per the budget. For scale and complexities of projects growing and
low rise buildings where special requirements smart amenities and facilities being the order of
of seismic, wind, etc. may not be necessary, an the day, professionals from multiple disciplines
‘architect’ could design the building’s structure are indisputably necessary for any work that is
also. However, when it comes to high rises and undertaken.
skyscrapers the structural analysis algorithms are
highly complex and the design considerations are REFERENCES
involved are sophisticated which an ‘architect’ 1. Online Etymology Dictionary
is not qualified to carry out. Infact the structural
2. National Building Code of India 2016
engineer has to innovate at every step and perform

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An Exhilarating Journey through India’s Fight

against Disasters during the Last Century

Mr R K Bhandari
Distinguished Visiting Professor, IIT Roorkee
Member, National Advisory Committee, National Disaster Management Authority
Chairman, Indian National Academy of Engineering Forum on Disaster Mitigation
 [email protected]

PRELUDE The most earthquake prone areas in India belong

to the Himalayan belt in the northern region from
A century ago, India was a treasure house of
Kashmir to Assam. In the east, the earthquake
natural hazards but the disasters were only
prone areas are Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram
occasional visitors to teach lessons in the Science
and the Kutch region in the west. The peninsular
of hazards and the Art of living in harmony with
shield of India was, for many decades, considered
Nature. Today, India is a home of multiple hazards,
more or less non-seismic, but the devastating
often striking, singly or collectively,as ferocious
earthquake of Latur exploded that myth. Seismic
invaders on a devastating spree, provoked by the
activity is also anticipated along Narmada, Son
fragile ecosystems, mindless urbanization and our
and Godavari rivers and sometimes over the
lackadaisical approach to disaster preparedness,
Eastern and the Western Ghats. Various faults
prevention and mitigation. Centuries of experience
and lineaments that are known to be active and
in disaster management is no doubt our asset but
related with earthquake activity are the Central
so long as we keep ignoring lessons taught by
thrust and the Boundary fault along the Himalayas
disasters, ad nauseam,the culture of safety will
and Narmada-Son Lineament in the Peninsular
remain a chimerical dream.
India. Most of the Himalayan earthquakes tend to
DISASTERS-THE INDIAN SCENARIO be shallow earthquakes. Severe grounds shaking,
fault rupture, tsunamis, landslides, differential
India supports one-sixth of the world’s population
ground movements, liquefaction etc. thus
on just 2% of its landmass and large parts of this
frequent India causing staggering losses to human
landmass is vulnerable to disasters of one kind or
settlements, infrastructure and environment.
the other, especially because of the unprecedented
increase of population and urbanization. Of the numerous earthquakes, those of 12 June
1897 in Shillong, 4 April 1905 in Kangra, 15
A great chain of mountain systems stretching over
January 1934 in the Bihar-Nepal region and 15
a thousand miles across the north of the country,
August 1950 in Assam are classified as Great
separates India from the rest of the Asia. On the
earthquakes, being of magnitude 8 plus on the
southern side of the mountain chain, there lies
Richter scale. In the recent years, the Gujarat
wide plains showing up as rapidly eroding gardens
earthquake of 26 January 2001, the Kashmir
through which India’s great rivers flow. Then we
earthquake of 8 October 2005 and the Sikkim
have the peninsular India, the huge coastline and
earthquake of 25 April 2015 were particularly
the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean.

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severe. Earthquakes of Magnitude 6+ on the Machhilipatnam, Chennai, Karaikal, Mumbai

Richter scale have frequented India every 2 years. Goa, Cochin and Bhuj. Thanks to the national
initiatives that no cyclone can escape detection
Flood disasters are much feared events in India,
and it has now been possible to issue timely
the severity of which can be judged by the likes
warnings through cyclone warning centers located
of the Chennai floods of 2015 in the state of Tamil
at Kolkata, Bhubaneshwar, Visakhapatnam,
Nadu and the devastating floods of 2019 in the
Chennai, Mumbai and Ahmedabad. India’s track
state of Kerala. Of the total of India’s 62 major
record in cyclone forecasting is now world class.
rivers, eighteen are flood prone and drain an area
of 150 Mha. Floods are mainly due to mindless Landslides are among the major hydro-geological
land-encroachments, ill-planned urbanization, hazards that affect large parts of India, especially
extreme weather events and heavy rainfall in the Himalayas, the Northeastern hill ranges, the
association with tropical lows, depressions and Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats
cyclones. On an average 60% of the total damages and the Vindhyas, in that order. Although very
due to floods in a year are in the states of Assam, few scientifically rigorous studies on the Indian
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Crops in landslides have been published to date, it remains
the states of Assam, Bihar, and West Bengal cover an irrefutable fact that in the Himalayas one
about 40% of the total area affected. In terms of could find landslides of every name, fame and
the monetary value of crop loss, it is about 90% of description- big and small, long and short, deep
the total damage in these states. In Uttar Pradesh, and shallow, quick and creeping, ancient and new.
crop loss is about 55% of the total damages India’s northeastern region, the Darjeeling district
incurred. The maximum damage recorded due to of West Bengal, Sikkim, Tripura, Meghalaya,
floods in India was about Rs. 654 crores in 1980 Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh are all
but the losses have multiplied manifold in the landslides prone. In Uttarakhand too, landslide
recent times due to the increasing fury of floods. and flood disasters have repeatedly occurred, the
worst recent example is the Kedarnath tragedy of
India is cyclone prone too. It has a very long
16-17 June 2013.
coastal line of 5700 km which is made of 2700
km of east coast bordering the Bay of Bengal and The disasters due to tsunami were unknown to
3000 km of west coast bordering the Arabian Sea. the people of India until the Indian Ocean region
The entire coastal belt frequently suffers from was struck in December 2004. It was caused by an
damaging meteorological events such as tropical underwater earthquake of magnitude 9.3 off the
cyclones, storm surges, high winds, flooding west coast of northern Sumatra in Indonesia (3.30
and coastal erosion. The Bay of Bengal and the N; 96.10 (E). The strike time was UT 00:58:53 or
Arabian Sea together generate about 5-6 tropical 06:29 AM IST. So fierce was the tsunami event
cyclones annually, of which 2-3 could be quite that it unleashed the energy equivalent to 32,000
severe. The experience has shown over the period atomic bombs of the Hiroshima kind. Historically
of decades that nearly four times more cyclones speaking, more than 790 tsunamis had struck the
occur in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. Pacific Ocean since 1900 but during the same
In the north Indian Ocean, cyclone seasons are period, only 2 tsunamis had occurred in the Indian
May-June and mid-September to mid-December. Ocean which is why it went off our minds.
The months of May, June, October and November
The Indian Ocean tsunami invaded the shores of
are much feared for severe storms, heat waves and
the 13 countries, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka,
disasters due to lightning.
India, Thailand, Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar
The cyclones surveillance is by satellite INSAT and Malaysia and each one of them has its own set
and powerful cyclone detection RADARs are of stories to tell. In terms of the overall statistics-
installed at Kolkata, Paradeep, Vishkapatnam, 230,000 people were killed; over 17 lakh people

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were rendered homeless; 100,000 houses were about which, from time to time, we receive news
destroyed, with the total losses amounting to of a landslide, an earthquake, or a volcanic
whopping US $ 9.9 billion, according to one eruption. The gradual elevation of a mountain
estimate. range, the relentless erosion of surfaces, or the
India additionally faces disasters due to fire, widening gap between the shores of an ocean
road accidents, stampedes, lightning, heat and necessarily go unnoticed, simply because they
cold waves, famine, epidemics, terrorism and occur at a pace that only geological observation is
human violence. Threats of Chemical, Biological, capable of detecting. The formation of waterways
Radiological and Nuclear disasters are also as real requires tens and even hundreds of years,
and indeed worrisome. glaciation thousands, continental drift millions,
and the formation of the atmosphere, thousands
THE LONG AND THE SHORT OF of millions of years.”
THE CATASTROPHES SPANNING
The traditional knowledge, the distilled wisdom,
CENTURIES and the experience that have been passed on to
Many of the disasters, such as those, due to Geo- us from generation to generation are our assets.
hazards like earthquakes, landslides and tsunamis The disasters of the past several centuries, though
playout in various ways on a Geological time frozen in time and space, continue to remain
scale in the face of which a Century of timespan our guides. The prickly pain of disasters and the
is nothing. Marq de Villers, in Chapter2 of his inheritance of losses keep reminding us that, if
book, “In Dangerous World: Natural Disasters, we do not mend our ways, many of us will not
Manmade Catastrophes, and the Future of Human even find the objects of reverence and heritage we
Survival”, published by the Penguin Group, states ourselves had the honour to see in our childhood,
the following: in this very lifetime.
“Our vulnerability to calamity is affected by By better management of disasters, we may be
the different time scales on which we and the able to reduce the intensity of the pain in our
planet operate. Humankind’s entire existence has hearts but the things will never be the same again.
been a mere nothing in geological time - all the In her novel, Inheritance of Loss, Kiran Desai,
biographies of all Homo sapiens are crammed a noted Indian author, states that “The present
into only a few millisecond as the cosmos reckons changes the past, looking back you do not find
these things. If you look at it positively, the very what you have left behind”, and even if you act,
existence and survival of our species is actually “could fulfilment ever be felt as deeply as loss?
due to that great disparity, the gap between major Let us go through a few of the painful stories to
disasters and the minuscule human life span. So have a feel of pain the previous generations had
when calamity comes, it has tended to come as to go through.
a terrible surprise. So very long it has been since
There is a genuine realization that the problem of
the last such calamity that memories have faded,
natural disasters is grave because their frequency
perhaps altogether, perhaps transmuted into
has recorded more than a five-fold increase in the
legend.”
last two decades. The economic losses on account
On the other hand, speaking of the human scale, of them have shot up by over 3.5 times, and the
Volume 1 of the Encyclopaedia of the Biosphere rise in total insured losses is about six times. The
Ecosystem-Our Living Planet, states the year 1998 was regarded as the warmest year in
following: the 1200 years’ history. But perhaps the worst is
“On the human scale, we see the landscape and still to come. The temperatures of the oceans are
the geography of our planet as more or less rising. The typhoon breeding areas have increased
permanent. We consider rocks to be inert elements by over 16% during the last 20 years. If our

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business continues as usual, and the greenhouse they had to live on the skins of vegetables and
effect compounds, the global rise of temperature rotten fruits thrown into dust bins. They did not
may lead to alarming sea level changes and hesitate to eat dead mice, cats and dogs.”
consequent submergence of small island States.
In a memorandum to the then Chief Minister of
As the trends go, the tropical storms will probably
Bengal, Sir Jagdish Prasad, a former member of
extend toward Poles, more water vapour will
Viceroy’s Executive Council wrote the following:
mean heavier rainfall, more severe floods and
greater number of thunderstorms, and tornadoes. “A man died in front of collector’s office. When
The coastal regions will see far more storm surges, his body was being removed, a woman standing at
particularly in areas where the rise in sea level and some distance, asked these men to take away the
a higher frequency of storms coincide. And there dead child in her arms.”
could also be frequent and serious droughts, if the According to Sudhir Ghosh, a member of the
frequency of El Niños were to increase. Finding Friends Ambulance Unit, “There was not a single
timely solutions to all these problems constitute day when I did not encounter dead bodies on the
the greatest challenge for us all. road while going to work. It was a common thing
A GLIMPSE OF SOME HISTORIC to find dogs and vultures fighting over these dead
HEART-RENDING DISASTERS IN bodies.”
INDIA In his book The Conquest of Famine, W.R.
Aykroyd, a member of the National Inquiry
Bengal Famine of 1943-one of the Worst
Commission for Famine, appointed by the
Human Tragedy in Colonial India
Government of India in July 1944, records the
Bengal famine of 1943 affected 20 million people following [1] :
of which more than 1 million died and thousands
“In August, I was traveling by train from Madras
committed suicide. The streets of Calcutta and
to Calcutta…It was customary for the Madras-
rural Bengal were virtually littered with those
Calcutta mail to pick up dining car at Kharagpur
devastated and dead.
Junction, some 30 miles outside Calcutta, to
The story which began with food scarcity in slow provide first and second class passengers with
motion climaxed when the Bengal typhoon of 16 breakfast. I stepped out cheerfully down from
October 1942 struck, not only killing more than my compartment enroute for a hearty meal. The
40 000 people but also robbing Bengal of its whole platform was thronged with emaciated and
fertile soil cover and the cattle population. Source ragged people, of all ages and sexes, many half
of rice supply from Burma to Bengal also dried dead, hoping to board a train for Calcutta. What
up with the occupation of Burma by the Japanese, I remember is a loud, bleating; wailing noise
besides increasing the demand due to the added which the starving crowd made, a combination of
refugee population. What is more, export of rice begging and misery…. I could not eat breakfast in
by the British government from Bengal to Iran the dining car and went back to my compartment.”
and Ceylon (Srilanka) continued even when the
The following incidence quoted from Paul
supplies from Odisha and Bihar dwindled out.
Jayaker’s biography of Indira Gandhi is revealing
Greedy traders exploited the situation making
of callous attitude of the then government and the
matters worse.
famine coordinators:
Tarak Chandra Das, a writer of the time wrote the
“The administrations callousness was nowhere
following (Reference: World Famous Disasters):
more than the following entry in the C & M
“These people were somehow keeping themselves Gazetteer, a government newspaper: Death by
alive in rural Bengal subsisting on roots, leaves starvation appears on none of the legislative lists
and barks of trees. When they arrived in Calcutta, attached to the Government of India Act and is

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therefore the concern neither of the Centre nor of nature on 16 October last. One would have thought
the State. this natural catastrophe, which had caused such
enormous destruction of life and property, would
Indira was anxious to become involved in
also serve to wash away all the bitterness and
the famine relief work and wrote to Swami
the sore from the minds of the officials and local
Abhayananda of the Ramakrishna Mission asking
public alike and bind them together in a noble
if she could come to Calcutta. The Swami told her
determination to alleviate human suffering. The
that what he needed was money, food and clothes,
callousness that I witnessed on part of some of the
not more workers.”
officials from the highest to the lowest in the face
Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, in his book the of this terrible blow was something unparalleled
Discovery of India called Famines as “India’s in the annals of civilized administration. We
Sickness.” In his words: have been taught to hate Nazi horrors. But the
“It was the biggest and the most devastating horrors of oppression under British rule that
famine in India during the past 170 years of British Bengal and India witnessed during the last five
domination, comparable to those famines which months compare very favorably with the reports
occurred from 1766 to 1770 in Bengal and Bihar that British propagandists circulate about Axis
as an early result of the establishment of British tortures in lands under their occupation.”
rule. Epidemics followed, especially cholera “ ……. My first charge about Midnapore is
and malaria, and spread to other provinces and the criminal and deliberate delay in publishing
even today they are taking their toll of scores of the news of the havoc caused on the 16th
thousands of lives. Millions have died of famine October. The Defence of India Rules have
and disease and yet the spectre hovers over India been misapplied in many directions but a more
and claims its victims.” disgraceful application of these rules has not
The Cyclone of 16 October 1943-an Example taken place anywhere in India. The happy family
of Heartless Mismanagement of civil servants suppressed the news for nearly a
fortnight. Even appeals for help were not allowed
A glaring example of the mismanagement of a to see the light of the day. The explanation that was
cyclone disaster in the pre-Independence India given was utterly devoid of justification. The fact
is provided by Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee who remains that most valuable time was thus lost and
gave the following statement before the Bengal people suffered and died for want of coordinated
Legislative Assembly on 12 February, 1943 [2]. and organized relief…………Could heartlessness
“Shooting of innocent people, looting and go any further?........The charges I have brought
destruction of property, instigating one forward are of severe character and I have done
community against the other, attacks on women, so with full sense of responsibility”.
these are amongst the charges that reached us The Great Earthquakes of Shillong and
from various independent sources, many of whom Kangra
lent no support whatsoever to any subversive
movement. Detailed information was handed The present generation may not even realise that it
over to us, including lists of houses that were is not only India but the whole world has learned
raided and burnt by or under the direction of the from the Great Indian Earthquakes. Their stories
police and the military. I handed over one such are fascinating. Let us for example, recall the
long list to some of the highest officials in the Great Shillong (Assam) Earthquake of 12 June
Home Department on the very day of the fateful 1897. Two years later, Oldham [3] wrote:
cyclone of 16 October and urged them to see that “On the 12th June 1897 my wife and I were sitting
the barbarous acts complained of came to a stop on the verandah of the Chatgari rest house waiting
immediately. Then came the terrible blow from for a slight shower of rain to stop. At 5-13 P.M,

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we were suddenly startled by a very vivid flash “In point of distress, nothing perhaps has
of lightning followed by a tremendous crack of surpassed the Bihar calamity in India within
thunder. At the same time the bungalow began living Memory” The earthquake shock was so
to tremble slightly. This I at first put down to severe that the seismological stations world over
the thunder, but as the trembling motion began recorded its signatures. According to the Memoirs
to increase I cried out that it was an earthquake. of Geological Survey of India “the earthquake bell
The motion began getting more and more violent, at the West Bromwich Observatory in England
and as the timbers all began to crack and the stopped and none of the seismographs in Calcutta,
verandah flow to split under our feet. I hurried Agra and Dehradun were able to make a complete
my wife outside into the rain, which was coming record of the earth waves.”
down in torrents. It was as much as I could do The shock lasted for as many as 5 minutes. The
to hold my wife up. We then saw the earth all following observation made by the eyewitness H
round heaving in a most frightful manner. The C Gordon [4] added to our stock of knowledge
earth resembled waves coming from opposite gained during the 1897 Shillong earthquake:
directions and meeting in a great heap and then
“As the rocking ceased……. water spouts,
falling back; each time the waves seemed to fall
hundreds of them throwing up water and sand,
back the ground opened slightly, and each time
were to be observed on the whole face of the
they met, water and sand were thrown up to a
craters, some of the spouts were quite 5 feet high.
height of about 18 inches or so. This shock lasted
In a few minutes-as far as the eyes could see- it
for about three minutes I should think. There was
was vast expanse of sand and water, water and
no rumble with it. The shock was strong enough sand. The road spouted water, and wide openings
to knock over a couple of elephants I had in camp were to be seen across it ahead of me, then under
with me. My horse too in the stable was knocked me, and my car sank, while the water and the sand
off his legs and my dogs could not stand up in the bubbled and spat, and sucked, till my axles were
verandah of the bungalow…” covered. “Abandon ship” was quickly obeyed, and
Spectacular liquefaction failure during 1964 my man and I stepped into knee deep hot water
Niigata earthquake, and 1964 Great Alaska and sand and made for shore. It was a surprisingly
earthquake had triggered worldwide research cold afternoon and to step into such temperature
on liquefaction. We ourselves had observed was surprising”.
liquefaction much earlier in India during the Assam The Great Kangra earthquake of 4 April 1905,
Earthquakes (1897,1954 and 1971), the Bihar- which struck the state of Himachal Pradesh of
Nepal Earthquakes of Jan.1934 and Aug.1988, India lasted for about 2 minutes. It killed as many
and more recently during the Bhuj-Earthquake of as 19,727 people. The accompanying landslides,
26th Jan.2001. The Bhuj earthquake was recorded rockfalls and avalanches played havoc especially
at the various seismic stations the world over and in the mountainous regions of Kangra and
its effect was felt as far as Pakistan, Nepal, China Dharamshala, killing people, destroying roads,
and other neighbouring countries. There were a blocking drainage and forming instant lakes. This
number of buildings which sank into the ground earthquake was felt for a distance of over 300 km
because of the spontaneous liquefaction. from Kangra to east of Dehradun.
Despite the first hand experiences, our professional According to C. S. Middlemiss “Such is the scene
practices did not improve much for many years. now presented at Kangra, but one’s imagination
Between the Shillong earthquake of 1897 and the cannot picture the horrors of the actual calamity
Gujarat earthquake of 2001, came the Great Bihar on the morning of the earthquake. There was no
Nepal earthquake of 15 January 1934. To quote one left alive who could direct operations for
Mahatma Gandhi: rescuing the people buried in the ruins. All the

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subordinate officials were killed and the people village high ground. The wave hit me and I was
fled panic-stricken fearing that worst terrors thrown southwards. I could not see anything
would envelope them” further about tsunami as I ran towards village as
soon as I managed to stand. At that time, the water
The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December
was at my chest level, that is about 1.2m.”
2004
The deadly Snow Avalanche and the first
The deadly tsunami of December 2004 will
Indian woman Everester
remain engraved in the minds of thousands of
survivors and millions of the kith and kin of The story of a deadly snow avalanche of May 1984
those who perished in as many as 13 countries is the story of Bachendri Pal [5], the first Indian
including India. A great undersea earthquake of woman Everester. Her team had commenced
magnitude 9 struck the highly seismic Indonesian ascent on Mount Everest, and on the 16th of May
Archipelago with epicentre at Lat 3.4 N and Lon which happened to be a Buddha Purnima day that
95.7 E off the coast of Sumatra. The time it struck a deadly snow avalanche at the Lhotse glacier
was 06:18:53 hrs IST. The formidable tsunami devastated her camp. Almost half of the members
wave it triggered, reached Port Blair at 07:25 hrs of the expedition got injured and had to abandon
and the Indian Coast line at 08:29 hrs (IST). This their climb. She was however destined to conquer
is what a fisherman by the name Thambi Rajan Everest and swiftly converted the disaster in to an
located at Arukattuthurai north of Vedaranyam opportunity. In her book, My Journey to the Top,
had to say as the eye-witness: she wrote: “My heart stood still. It dawned on me
that success was within reach. And at 1.07pm on
“I was carried away about 500m landward from
the 23 May 1984, I stood on the top of Everest,
where I was sitting on the beach and repairing
and I was the first Indian women to have done
the fishing net. I heard some murmuring sound
so.”
before arrival of the tsunami, but did not pay
much attention even though I had not heard She described her encounter with an avalanche in
similar sound earlier. I thought the sound will go the following words:
away. The arrival of tsunami on the shoreline was
“I was at 24000 feet and this happened at around
sudden and it looked like a muddy sea water wall.
10 pm or midnight, when I was sound asleep. I was
While I was carried away by the tsunami, the net
hit at the back of my head by something very hard,
I was repairing got wrapped around my neck and
and simultaneously, I heard a very loud explosion.
the net intermittently got stuck in the trees as the
I thought it might be a burst oxygen cylinder we
water receded.”
had kept outside our tent, but suddenly I felt that
Another eye-witness fisherman Govindaswamy I’m crushed under a very heavy load, so then I
of the Serudhar Village south of Velankanni creek realized it’s a very big avalanche, and I was really
(pp18) who had gone through the hell of tsunami waiting for the death. I didn’t even realize that
said the following: one more person was sharing my tent. I was just
thinking of death… I’m going to die; I’m going to
“I was sitting on the beach about 50m away from
die. So overcoming that life and death situation,
the shoreline. Tsunami arrived at this beach around
and that person who was sharing my tent, he came
09:15 hrs. I estimate this time based on the fact
out, and he luckily got a Swiss knife in his pocket,
that the first tsunami arrived a little after the time
so he had to tear that open, the tent. And first he
of 09:00 hrs when people normally assemble here
came out and he dug me out, he removed the ice
for buying fish. Tsunami sounded like an airplane
melts on the top of my body and that time the
or a helicopter prior to its arrival. I noticed it as a
outside people, everybody was crying and all of
frightening huge wave of blackish muddy water
them were very panicked. Some had some broken
about a kilometer away from the shore. On seeing
ribs, leg fracture, head injury; some people were
that huge wave, I got afraid and ran towards the

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vomiting their blood, coming out, very painful roads, rectifying black spots, improving design
scene. So we spent that night there, then we and maintenance standards and emergency
informed our leader and he sent a rescue team. response.
The next day, early morning at 05:00, that rescue
A number of highly innovative road safety
team reached our camp, and then we carried that
technologies are about to inundate our markets
injured person down to 22000 feet. Then our
and it is therefore important that we put systems
leader here had an interview with everybody: So
in place to evaluate these before their adoption
what you want to do? All the members, some of
and integrate these ideas in our own Make India
them were injured, but some were in a state of
and Digital India programmes. A few notable
shock and they decided to go back and then he
examples of such technologies are Intelligent
asked me, so I said “Since I have overcome this,
Transport Systems (ITS), Intelligent Speed
I am alive, now after this life and death situation,
I must try once again. And that decision was the Adoption (ISA), Road-side Collision Avoidance,
turning point of my success story”. Night Vision Cameras for Prevention of Accidents
and Driver fatigue detection and warning. It
Road Accidents and Safety will soon be possible to introduce black-box
Every hour nearly five dozen accidents take place devices for cars equipped with video-recording
on the Indian roads killing 17 people which would and GPS to display and store digital images of
mean nearly 400 lives lost every day and 1.3 lakhs the developing scenarios in front of vehicles.
annually. Another startling revelation is that for Car insurance companies should then be able
every two people killed one was found to be in to modulate insurance premiums accordingly.
his or her prime of youth in the age group 15-34 National Disaster Management Act of 2005 came
years. According to the report “Road Accidents as a watershed moment in the history of disaster
in India 2015” almost 5 lakh accidents occurred management in India. It seems appropriate
in India in 2014 killing 1,46,000 people and therefore to consider how we have progressed
injuring three times as many [6]. At a time when from the Pre-National Disaster Management Act
India is poised for the rapid expansion of its road era to the present times [7].
network and highest motorization growth rate in PRE-NATIONAL DISASTER
the world, concerns about road safety will have to MANAGEMENT ACT ERA
be frontally addressed. Reportedly Mumbai had
the highest number of road accidents (23,468) Constitution of Famine Commission in 1883:
while Delhi had the highest number of deaths In the days before the enactment of the National
(1622) due to road accidents. Disaster Management Act, the focus of Disaster
The causes of accidents such as reckless and Management in India was primarily on famines
drunken driving, jumping of red light and flouting [8] due to the periods of food scarcity. Famines
of traffic rules, crossing of speed barriers and affected about 50 million people annually. India’s
shortfall of driving skills have emerged as matters about 68% of the total agriculture land lies in arid,
of grave concern calling for urgent attention. semi-arid and sub-humid parts. The return period
of droughts of severe most intensity is once every
As a signatory to the Brasilia Declaration, India
32 years and almost every third year is a drought
stands committed to reduce road fatalities to half
year. This is also one of the reasons for suicide by
by 2020, which is just three years away. India
should do everything within its means to prevent farmers.
avoidable deaths on roads by overcoming the During the British time, a Scarcity Relief Division
above concerns and by taking other essential steps in the then Agriculture ministry in 1878, addressed
such as generating public awareness, tightening the disasters due to famine. Eventually, in 1883, a
techno-legal regime, improving the quality of Famine Commission was constituted, and it was

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then that the first famine code was promulgated The Union Cabinet constituted Cabinet
by the Government [9]. Committees for efficient management of post
disaster relief and in the absence of such a
Hanumanth Rao Committee (1984)
committee, the Cabinet Secretary was empowered
Addressed ways and means of improving the to play the role.
operational efficiency and decision making by
National Crisis Management Committee
local authorities through efficient management
of information. It became a distinct possibility It functioned under the Chairmanship of the
with the entry of GIS and computers at the district Cabinet Secretary. The other members of this
level during late 1980’s. committee included the Secretary to the Prime
Minister, Secretaries of Ministry of Home Affairs,
Disaster Management and the Calamity Relief
Defence Research and Analysis Wing, Ministry
Fund
of Agriculture, Director Intelligence Bureau and
The subject of disaster management did not an officer of Cabinet Secretariat.
find mention in any of the three lists in the 7th
Recently, on the 1 May 2019, it met under the
schedule of the Indian Constitution. The practice
Chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary to take
was to provide financial assistance to the state
stock of the preparatory arrangements in the wake
governments for meeting expenditure on six
of cyclonic storm Fani.
identified natural calamities for calamity relief.
Every state had a calamity relief fund in to which Crisis Management Group
the annual assistance was credited and funds
Chaired by Central Relief Commissioner,
utilized as per the guidelines issued by Union
the Group comprised senior officers from the
Finance Ministry.
various ministries of the government. CMG
The Institutional Mechanism for Disaster annually reviewed the Contingency Plans of the
Management Central Ministries and Departments. It met twice
annually. The Disaster Management apparatus at
The approach to disaster management remained
the State and District level have been discussed
fragmented and posed coordination problems as
comprehensively by Sharma (1995) [10].
the controls for management of a particular type of
disaster rested with the different ministries of the High Powered Committee on Disaster
Government of India. For instance, the Ministry Management
of Agriculture was designated as the Ministry
The Government of India setup a High Powered
for Management of Natural Hazards. Ministry of
Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management in
Home Affairs looked after Civil Strife; Ministry
August 1999 under the Chairmanship of Shri
of Environment and Forests was designated to
J.C. Pant, formerly a Secretary in the Ministry of
serve as a nodal ministry for Chemical Disasters
Agriculture. In April 2000, its scope was enlarged
and Ministries of Railways and Civil Aviation
to cover man-made disasters, including chemical,
were designated as nodal agencies for Railway
industrial and nuclear disasters.
and Air Accidents respectively.
The HPC in its October 2001 report submitted
In the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
to the Government of India suggested that “a
relief operations for all natural disasters were
separate ministry of disaster management may
coordinated by a Relief Commissioner. Central
be created in a phased manner with appropriate
Water Commission and the India Meteorological
instrumentalities. HPC further recommended
Department were responsible for forecasts and
constitution of a Cabinet Committee on
alerts of the anticipated natural calamities. It was
Disaster Management; an all-party National
the responsibility of the Agriculture Secretary to
Council on disaster management, assisted by a
keep the Cabinet and the Prime Minister informed.

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Working Group. A National Institute of Disaster Veerappa Moily Committee 2005

Management and a National Centre for Calamity The Government of India constituted the second
Management were also recommended to assist in Administrative Reforms Committee on August
the operationalization of the plans and procedures 31, 2005 under the Chairmanship of Mr Veerappa
of the higher level bodies”. Cabinet Committee Moily to revamp the public administration
was envisioned to effectively manage cataclysmic system. Although the scope of the terms of
events in the hour of a national crisis. reference of ARC was large, it did include crisis
The HPC underscored the critical importance management. The National Institute of Disaster
of local bodies in Disaster Management. The Management was asked to carry out a study about
Disaster Management Chain was extended to various aspects of natural and man made disasters
Panchayats to ensure the involvement of local with particular reference to identification of areas
governments. It also reviewed the 73rd & 74th prone to crisis, prevention and preparedness
constitutional amendment Acts of 1992 &1993 measures, early warning systems, mitigation
which had required all states to either promulgate measures, emergency response systems and relief
and rehabilitation measures,
new Acts or amend old ones by April 1994. The
73rd amendment covered land improvement, POST-NATIONAL DISASTER
land reforms, soil conservation, rural housing, MANAGEMENT ACT ERA
rural electrification, education, public distribution National Disaster Management Act 2005
system and maintenance of community assets.
Recognition of the need for women and members The Government of India constituted a committee
of the scheduled cast to contribute to governance on 11 January 2005 to draft the Disaster
was one of the most significant moves. Management Bill. It took just three months to
draft the Bill which was introduced in the Rajya
The 12th Schedule of the 74th constitutional Sabha on the 11 May 2005. It was then referred to
amendment act of India defined as many as a Parliamentary Standing Committee. The report
18 new tasks in the functional domain of local of the Parliament Committee was submitted to the
urban bodies including urban planning, town Government of India on 25 August 2005. Finally,
planning, regulations of land use and construction Rajya Sabha passed the Bill with amendments
of buildings, planning for economic and social on 28 November 2005 and Lok Sabha did so
development, public health, sanitation, fire on the 12/13 December 2005. The Bill was
services, slum improvement and upgradation etc. promulgated as National Disaster Management
It, inter alia, directed every state to constitute Act after the President of India signed the Bill on
two committees, namely the District Planning the 23 December 2005.About the same time, the
Committee and a Metropolitan Committee. National Disaster Response force was constituted
on 29 November 2005.
The High Powered Committee published the First
National Disaster Response Plan in September National Disaster Management Act of 2005
2001.Ministry of Agriculture, Department of brings about a paradigm shift in India’s approach
Agriculture of the Government of India and to disaster management. The centre of gravity
Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of stands shifted to preparedness, prevention and
Administration, Mussoorie, jointly published a planning simultaneously as the national disaster
Source Book on District Disaster Management, response is improved. The new Act provides the
the first edition of which appeared in August following: [11]
2000. This was followed with the Publication • There shall be a National Disaster Management
of Incident Command System by Lal Bahadur Authority of which the Prime Minister of
Shastri National Academy of Administration, the India will be the Chairperson, helped by a
first edition of which appeared in 2005. Vice Chairperson

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• There shall be created State Disaster Plan and (3) National Capacity Building Plan.
Management Authorities, expected to be Accordingly, three sub committees were
chaired by the Chief Minister of the State. constituted under the Chairmanship of Secretary
• There shall be created District Disaster (Border Management) in the Ministry of Home
Management Authorities co-chaired by Affairs.
District Collector and President of the elected The National Disaster Management Plan was
body of the district. finally released by the Prime Minister of India in
• There shall be an institution to study and do June 2016. The Plan was reviewed by the National
research in science and develop technologies Disaster Management Authority on 12th and 13th
to manage the disasters. April 2017 at Vigyan Bhawan in New Delhi as
a pre-event to the National Platform on Disaster
• There shall be disaster management funds Risk Reduction (NPDRR). National Institute
available to the Union, State and District of Disaster Management (NIDM) organized a
authorities to meet the immediate needs of National level training workshop on Review and
providing rescue and relief to the victims of updation of the Disaster Management Plan of the
Disasters. Central Ministries during the period 17-19 July
Tenth Five Year Plan and Disaster 2017.
Management As was the practice in the pre-NDM Act era, the
The importance of reducing vulnerabilities and current NDM Plan has also designated Water
risks was emphasized for the first time in the Resources Ministry to be the nodal agency for
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) of the Planning Floods; Ministry of Urban Development to be the
Commission. The Government also set up an nodal agency for urban floods; Ministry of Earth
Expert Group to identify measures required to Sciences to be the nodal agency for Earthquakes;
reduce the existing risks and take measures Ministry of Mines to be the nodal agency for
required to avoid creating new risks. Landslides and Ministry of Defence to be the
National Policy on Disaster Management of nodal agency for Avalanches. At a time when
2009 inter agency coordination is the biggest challenge
and multi-hazard mitigation is the highest need,
Government of India framed a National Policy coordination between multiple nodal agencies
on Disaster Management which was approved on will continue to remain a big challenge. The
22 October 2009. The Policy envisions a safe and coordination apparatus should be such that it
disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, frontally addresses disasters in a multi-hazard
pro-active, multi-disaster oriented and technology context and breed accountability. Besides above,
driven strategy through a culture of prevention, the NDMP draws an illusory neat-line between
mitigation, preparedness and response. The Natural and Human-induced disasters, which is
policy covers institutional, legal and financial far from the ground reality.
arrangements. It focuses on the areas of felt needs
and the institutional mechanism through which Publications issued by NDMA includes
such action can be channelized. Guidelines on Management of Earthquakes
(April 2007) ; Chemical Disasters (April 2007) ;
National Disaster Management Plan of 2016
Preparation of State Disaster Management Plans
Ministry of Home Affairs, in its publication (July 2007); Medical Preparedness and Mass
dated 2011, reported creation of an institutional Causality Management (October 2007) Floods
mechanism for drafting of the National Plan for (January 2008);Cyclones (April 2008); Biological
Disaster Management in three parts, namely, Disasters (July 2008); National Policy on Disaster
National Response Plan (2) National Mitigation Management (2009); Management of Nuclear

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and Radiological Emergencies(February 2009); Six years later, in September 2014, when the state
Management of Landslides and Snow Avalanches of Jammu and Kashmir faced devastating floods
(June 2009); Management of Terrorism ( June in its urban areas, NDRF handled the situation
2009); Psycho-Social Support and Health Services with remarkable proficiency. It was not easy to
(December 2009); Probabilistic Seismic Hazard deal with submerged houses, damaged bridges
Map of India (March 2011); School Safety Policy and roads and lakhs of flood-drowned people
(February 2016); Heritage Sites and Precincts( awaiting rescue in a situation when power and
September 2017); Boat Safety ( September 2017) communication systems were inoperative. Despite
NDMA also addressed the issue of Pandemic the handicap, NDRF could rescue more than 50
Preparedness Beyond Health by organising a 000 people, besides distributing 80 tons of relief
Workshop on the theme during 21-22 April 2008 material. Nearly two dozen NDRF teams worked
in New Delhi.NDMA also released its first issue relentlessly deploying as many as 150 inflatable
of the News Letter Samvad in September 2015. rubberized boats.
National Advisory Committee to the National Rescue of people buried under the piles of debris
Disaster Management Authority due to factors such as collapse of buildings and
Government of India constituted a National landslides has always been a big challenge. It was
Advisory Committee (NAC) to the National NDRF which saved 20 lives during a difficult
Disaster Management Authority on 14th June rescue operation when, in the year 2010, a six
2007. The 2nd Advisory Committee was storied building had collapsed at Bellary in the
constituted on 18 November 2016. Its first state of Karnataka. As many as 29 dead bodies
meeting was held on 6 January 2017 and the were recovered. The operation lasted for about
second meeting on 29 September 2017. The one week. Two years later, in April 2012, it saved
third Advisory Committee meeting held on 29th 12 lives by rescuing the victims trapped under
September 2018 was devoted to exclusively to piles of debris due to the collapse of a multi-
discussion on Disaster Mitigation Fund and the storied building in Jalandhar district of the State
XV Finance Commission. of Punjab.
National Disaster Response Force NDRF got India laurels from abroad as well, when
the 46 NDRF personnel joined the rescue teams in
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Japan, hit by a triple disaster during March-April
was constituted in 2006 as per the provisions
of the National Disaster Management Act of 26 2011. It played the role of a great savior during
December 2005.It started functioning with 8 the Nepal earthquake of 25 April 2015.As the first
battalions initially deployed on routine law and team on the ground, it saved 11 lives of the total
order duties. It has now distinguished itself as a figure of 16.
12 battalions strong dedicated force (three each It is heartening to note that NDRF is equipped
from the BSF and CRPF and two each from CISF, to deal with CBRN (Chemical, Biological,
ITBP and SSB) for disaster response related Radiological and Nuclear disasters).
duties. Since 14 February 2008, it is served by
1149 personnel under the command of Director National Disaster Mitigation Fund
General, NDRF. The National Disaster Management Act 2005, in its
NDRF can be justly proud of its track record. It’s Section 47, provided for constitution of a Disaster
first challenge came with the Kosi flood disaster Mitigation Fund. Its provision stipulated that,
of 2008 and the outcome clearly speaks for its “The Central Government may, by notification
notable performance then. Well over 100,000 in the Official Gazette, constitute a Fund to
people were rescued on a war footing by airlifting be called the NDMF for projects exclusively
of 780 trained personnel and 153 high speed boats. for the purpose of mitigation and there shall be

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credited there to such amount which the Central National Conference on Tsunami Risk
Government may, after due appropriation made Management 2007
by Parliament by law in this behalf.” It was also
The Conference was organised by NDMA on 18
stated that NDMF shall be applied by the National
May 2007 inviting experts from leading academic,
Disaster Management Authority.
scientific and technical institutions with an
Since the promulgation of the DMA, FC-XIII objective to discuss critical gaps in management
had also suggested that the best way to allocate of tsunami, share insights and experiences
these resources would be to base it upon hazard, and constitute a core Group on Tsunami Risk
vulnerability and risk assessment of the states. Management for drawing up the Guidelines. To
Subsequently, the FC-XIV reiterated that “Union finalise the Guidelines drafted by the Core Group,
Government expedite the development and a National Workshop was organized by NDMA
scientific validation of the Hazard, Vulnerability on 29 November 2007.
Risk Profiles of the States.
Disaster Risk Reduction Programme (2009-
The Supreme Court of India too, on 11th May 2012)
2016, asked the Central Government to create a
Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of
Disaster Mitigation Fund as per the provisions of
India published a book to detail out the outcome
DMA 2005.Again on 16 May 2017 at the second
of the DRR Programme carried out jointly
meeting of NPDRR, DMF was discussed.
with UNDP. It reflected on strengthening of
In a written reply to a question in Rajya Sabha, The institutional mechanisms, response capacities
Minister of State for Home Affairs stated that [1] and financial arrangements to give a fillip to the
the provisions of DMA have been implemented national disaster management agenda.
partially. While the NDRF and SDRF have come
The Union Home Minister in his message, stated
to replace NCCF and CRF at the national and
that the challenge was to “strive towards higher
state levels, DMF has not been setup. FC-XV will
again consider DMF and its recommendations levels of understanding, preparedness, mitigation
will cover five fiscal years from 1 April 2020 to efforts and response mechanisms.” He further
31 March 2025. added that, “This in turn needs to be backed
by better coordination among different Central
Disaster Management and the Armed ministries, State governments, Panchayat Raj
Forces-A National Effort (September 11, 2002) Institutions, Academic institutions, the Corporate
The event was organized jointly by the Engineer- sector, Civil societies and the Citizens at large.”
in-Chief, Army HQ and The Institution of Special DRR Focus in the Twelfth Five Year
Engineers(I) Delhi Centre and inaugurated by Plan
the Union Defence Minister of the Government
of India. The delegates from the Armed Forces, A Working Group was setup in the Planning
the Navy, the Air Force and Para Military forces Commission in the Twelfth Five Year Plan
participated in the event spread over four sessions. (2012-2017) to mainstream efforts of DRR with
development Planning. Inter alia, it paid attention
India Disaster Management Conference to Integrating Climate Change and DRR.
The first India Disaster Management Conference INAE Forum on Disaster Mitigation
was organized by the Home Ministry of the
Government of India in November 2006 in which The Governing Council of the Indian National
the author delivered a keynote address on the Academy of Engineering established a Forum on
topic: The Indian Landslide Scenario, Strategic Disaster Mitigation on 26 July 2013. The Forum
Issues and Action Points. The Second Conference comprising eminent engineers with the author as
was held during 4-6 November 2009. its Chairman, have delivered recommendations on

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Landslide disaster mitigation through two national Mainstreaming DRR in Development-from Risk
level round table meetings held in May and to Resilience. The meeting was inaugurated by
November 2015. It also delivered Guidelines on the then Prime Minister of India. It had 2 plenaries
Flood disaster mitigation. A pace-setting example and 6 thematic sessions, and 4 pre events.
in scientific documentation of the Malpa landslide Responses from State and Central ministries
disasters of 1998 and 2017 was published in the on implementation of recommendations were
form of a Monograph which was released at the solicited.
INAE Annual Convention at Hyderabad in 2017. The second meeting of NPDRR was held in
Formation Day Meetings of the NDMA New Delhi during 15-16 May 2017 on the theme
of DRR for sustainable development-making
The NDMA hosts annual Formation Day meetings
India resilient by 2030. It was organized by the
with special themes for deliberations with multiple Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of
stake holders. The 11th Formation Day was held India. The plenary session of the Platform focused
on 28 September 2015 with focus on Cyclones on National Perspectives and Government of
and National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project India’s initiatives on DRR. Minister of State in
and on Earthquake, Flood sand Landslide Risk the Ministry of Home Affairs launched NPDRR
Mitigation. The 12th Formation Day was held on website.
28 September 2016.The 13th Formation Day, held
on 28 September 2017, was devoted exclusively A Pre-NPDRR workshop on Risk and Resource
to National School Safety. The 14th Foundation Mapping-Role of GIS and Databases was
Day was held on 28 September 2018 on the theme organised by NIDM jointly with Central
of Early Warning for Disasters. Statistics Office, National Informatics Centre
and Jawaharlal Nehru University on 11 May
The Birth of the National Platform for 2017. A Report of the Home Ministry on Disaster
Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR) Management in India was released in 2011 merely
NPDRR was constituted by the Government of states the provisions of the Act.
India as a multi-stakeholder National Platform DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA-
for Disaster Risk Reduction vide Government THE INTERNATIONAL CONNECTION
of India letter No 47-31/2012-DM-III dated 26
February 2013 and 5th April 2013. India and the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction
It is Chaired by the Home Minister and Minister
of State in charge in the Ministry of Home Affairs United Nations General Assembly proclaimed
serve as the Vice Chairman. The other members 1990’s as the International Decade of Disaster
of the NPDRR are 15 Cabinet Ministers, Vice Reduction(IDNDR) by UN Resolution 44/236 of
Chairman of Niti Aayog, Minister of each 1989. It turned out to be a catalyst for change. The
State Government/UT dealing with disaster prime goal of the IDNDR was to improve national
management, representative of Local Self- capacities in order to mitigate the effects of natural
Governments and Parliament (4 members from disasters. It called upon the national governments
Lok Sabha and two members from Rajya Sabha). to formulate national disaster mitigation
Ex-Officio members, Heads of the Institutions programmes, as well as economic, land use and
of national importance, persons representing insurance policies for disaster prevention, and,
industry, media representatives, civil society particularly in developing countries, to integrate
them fully into their national development
organizations and international representatives.
programmes. It is at this point of time the focus
The first meeting of the NPDRR was held during in India began to shift from the relief centric
13-14 May 2013 in New Delhi on the theme of approach to disaster preparedness, prevention

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and mitigation. A twelve-point Action Plan was Hyogo Frame work of Action (2005-2015) and
developed to achieve this by the special high level India
council of IDNDR. India was a signatory to the Hyogo Framework of
The UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 of Action and remained committed to achieving the
1991 marked a flash point on the journey from the three strategic goals set under it. It’s programmes
so called band aid approach to holistic approach were aligned to the notified five priority areas of
and international humanitarian assistance. action. The chief objective was to work towards
achieving sustainable reduction of disaster losses
During the currency of IDNDR, many disasters in lives and in social, economic and environmental
struck India. The Andhra Pradesh Cyclone of May assets of communities and countries.
1990 killed 817 people and damaged more than
14 thousand buildings. The yet another Cyclone The SAARC Platform
of October-November 1995 struck the Andhra The First SAARC Regional Conference on
coast killing 229 people and damaging nearly 1.4 Business Continuity Planning and Disaster Risk
lakh houses. On 29th March 1999, an earthquake Reduction in Asia: Redefining Private Sector
of magnitude 6.8 hit the district of Chamoli in engagement for Risk Management and Response
the state of Uttarakhand. It killed 100 people and was held during December 15-16, 2014 at FICCI,
destroyed nearly 12000 houses New Delhi, India. The main objective of the
Conference was to make industry globally safe by
Of the many activities carried out during the
changing business attitude and behaviour towards
IDNDR, the year 1993 was particularly significant
mainstreaming disaster Risk Reduction, Business
because the Scientific and Technical Committee
Continuity Planning and Community Resilience
of the decade held its fourth session in the month in their future planning and strategies. Ministers
of February and approved the Guidelines for the of the concerned Ministries and business
World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, delegates from SAARC countries were among the
scheduled for May 23-27 in Yokohama, Japan. participants.
Asian Regional Forum A SAARC Disaster Management Centre was
The ASEAN Regional Forum, with a membership founded on 10 October 2006 as an Inter-
of 25 countries, was established in 1994. India Governmental Organization of Afghanistan,
joined its membership in 1996. It brought together Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Foreign Ministers of member countries to discuss Pakistan and SriLanka. It has the mandate to serve
matters of shared concern. the people of South Asia in the area of safety
against natural and man made disasters. Ever
World Congress on Sustainable Development since its inception, SDMC has been involved in
(January 20-23, 2000) formulation of policy guidelines and frameworks
The event took place at the Science City for SAARC members on DRR Schemes of interest
Calcutta. An over-view of Natural and Man made to the region. It has a total of 11 Regional Centres
disasters was presented by the author projecting located in different countries.
horrendous consequences of disasters which A number of very useful publications of SAARC
were classified into (a)high probability, high risk Disaster Management Centre, New Delhi include:
events (b)high probability more frequent but less SAARC Road maps on Risk Management in
catastrophic events and (c) low probability high South Asia published in August 2011; Regional
risk events. The congress came up wth actionable Study on the Causes and Consequences of Natural
recommendations, highlighting the role of Disasters and the Protection and Preservation of
Government in disaster prevention and mitigation. Environment, published in 1992; and Landslide

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Risk Management in South Asia published in Round Table on Innovation in Technologies for
May 2010. Disaster Rescue Efforts amongst ASEM countries
was held during December 4-5, 2014, followed by
NAM –VITU Round Table Meeting on
a Round Table meeting of 24x7 PoCs of East Asia
Lessons from Natural Disasters-Policy Issues
Summit member countries.
and Strategies (January 8-12, 2007)
Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk
Delegates from 13 Non-Aligned Member
Reduction 2007 &2016
Countries and India met at the VIT University,
Vellore in the State of Tamil Nadu which climaxed The second Asia Ministerial Conference
in the release of Vellore Resolution 2007. (AMCDRR) was hosted by India during 7-8
November 2007 in New Delhi. Its theme was
NIDM- ICIMOS Conference on Impact of
Development without Disasters. China had hosted
Climate Change on Cultural Heritage (May
the first AMCDRR in September 2005.
22, 2007)
The 2016 Asian Ministerial Conference on
National Workshops on Probabilistic Safety
Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) was jointly
Hazard Analysis and National Workshop on
organised by UNISDR Asian Science, Technology
Seismic microzonation were organized by NDMA
and Academia Advisory Group (ASTAAG) and
on July 2 and July 16, 2008, respectively.
the Government of India during 2-5 November
EAS-India Workshop (November 8-9, 2012) 2016 in New Delhi with focus on priorities of the
The EAS-India Workshop was aimed at building Sendai Declaration (2015-2030).
regional framework for Earthquake Risk The objective of the Conference was to deliberate
Management. As a follow-up, the Government of on the urgent need for a stronger science-policy
India established EAS-ERR Centre in February interface in DRR and recommend key actions
2013 at the National Institute of Disaster for Scientific and Academic Organizations and
Management, New Delhi. governments to close the science policy gap and
Asia-Europe Meeting (November 11-12, 2013) promote use of science in evidence based policy
making.
ASEM Partners at its 11th Foreign Ministers
Meeting held in New Delhi during 11-12 The event was inaugurated Prime Minister of
November 2013 called for Asia-Europe multi- India and was attended by 30 Ministers and 4,400
lateral cooperation to ensure substantial reduction representatives from 51 countries. Its expected
of losses of lives and assets. The main objectives, outcome was to arrive at a set of Recommended
were to (a) focus ASEM attention on how Actions that will be followed and implemented
innovation in technology can be utilized to save by the Asian science, technology and academia
lives and reduce response time by Governments community as well as the governments. It was
and how ASEM countries can contribute to emphasized that the new and emerging risks such
capacity building on both continents through as Climate Change, Extreme Weather events and
a sharing of systems of best practices and (b) Epidemics should be seen together with the risks
facilitate building partnerships amongst interested due to prevailing known hazards.
ASEM member countries and their Industry. The AMCDRR adopted the New Delhi Declaration;
event led to setting up of an East Asia Centre the Asia Regional Plan for the Implementation
for Natural Disaster Management and Relief in of the Sendai Framework, which includes policy
India, as a part of India’s Look East Policy. It guidance, milestones and a two-year action plan
was suggested that a meeting be convened of the to achieve the Sendai Framework’s seven targets.
Heads of National Disaster Management Agencies Ten Voluntary Stakeholder Action Statements
among ASEM Partners. were also issued

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While addressing the event, Prime Minister of India devoted the second National Platform on
India presented a 10-Point Agenda to achieve the DRR to address the National Perspectives on
goals of the Sendai Framework by 2030 : (1) All DRR: Sendai and Beyond.
development sectors must imbibe the principles
Multi-hazard Mitigation of Risks to Cultural
of Disaster Risk Management (2)Work towards
Heritage
Risk coverage for all (3)Encourage greater
participation and leadership of women in disaster An Indo-Italian Joint Workshop was held during
risk management (4)Invest in Risk management 4-5 December 2017 in New Delhi to discuss
mapping globally (5)Leverage technology potential joint initiatives in the area of multi-
to enhance the efficiency of Disaster Risk hazard risk reduction with focus on cultural
Management efforts (6) Develop a network of heritage. Eight areas of bilateral cooperation were
Universities to work on disaster related issues (7) identified after a day long deliberation.
Utilize the opportunities provided by social media Development Imperatives of Disasters
and mobile technologies (8)Build local Capacities
and Initiatives (9) Ensure the opportunity to learn India is on the fast track of development
from a disaster is not wasted and (10) Bring adding more and more roads, railways, ports,
about greater cohesion in International disaster power stations, bridges, dams, public housing,
response. hospitals, schools, water supply systems and tele-
communication networks to boost its economy.
Sendai Framework (2015-30) India has the twin responsibility of defending
The Sendai Framework to which India is a itself on its borders against neighbouring countries
signatory, stipulates seven goals; the first four and against natural disasters throughout its length
of them aim at substantial reduction of (1)global and breadth. According to media reports, India
mortality rate by 2030 (2) number of people has plans to build about 28000 km of road length
globally affected by 2030 (3) direct economic by 2030 at a cost of over Rs 500 billion along its
losses in terms of global GDP by 2030 (4) disaster borders with China and Pakistan; we cannot afford
damage to infrastructure and services by 2030; these to be blocked by landslides or destroyed by
and the remaining three aiming at substantial floods. The irony is that other natural disasters such
increase of (5) number of countries with DRR as floods and earthquakes in turn feed the fury of
strategy by 2020 (6) international cooperation landslides on our hill roads, hampering rescue and
for implementation of Framework by 2030 and relief operations, as recently experienced during
(7) availability of, and access to multi-hazard the Kashmir earthquake of 2005 and the Sikkim
warning systems and disaster risk assessment by earthquake of 18 September 2011.
2030. We built Leh-Manali Highway, which ranks
The Framework is a natural extension of the among the highest in the world, for development
numerous global initiatives aiming to achieve and defense needs, but not without taking away
substantial reduction of disaster risks and losses a part of safety back by creating the associated
in lives, livelihoods and health and in economic, landslide problems and threats. The Chenab
physical, social, cultural and environmental assets Bridge across deep Chenab, between Bakkal
of persons, businesses, communities and countries and Kauri in Jammu and Kashmir ranks among
over the next 15 years. Like Sendai Framework, the tallest rail bridges in the world, and would
the Johannesburg Plan had also underscored an enhance mobility within the state and across
integrated multi-hazard all-inclusive approach to [12], but only time will tell, whether the landslide
address vulnerability, risk assessment and disaster risk reduction measures are integrated with its
management including prevention, mitigation, construction efficiently.
preparedness, response and recovery for a safer There are numerous scary mountain roads like:
world in the 21st century. Kollmalai Ghat Road (46.7 km) on the eastern

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coast of Tamil Nadu with nearly 70 continuous “we cannot solve the problems we have created
hairpin bends; Keylong-Kishtwar road (233 km) with the same thinking that created them”. And,
in Himachal Pradesh and the road to ZoziLa in the according to John Maynard Keynes, “Difficulty
Western Himalayan mountain range. All these are lies not in the new ideas, but in escaping the old
highly prone to disasters. ones.
The future disaster scenarios could be even Richard Koch, in his book, The Star Principle,
more dreadful if the threats get compounded wrote, ‘For every 20 ideas you have, you can
due to climate change, extreme weather events confidently junk 19 of them, because they won’t
and concatenation of hazards. Take for example be ideas for a star venture. This saves an awful
the Kedarnath tragedy of 16-17 June 2013. lot of money, sweat, toil and tears.’ The story of
The State of Uttarakhand was hit by multiple disaster managers in India is not very different
hazards. Bursting of Glacial lake created floods. because they refuse to junk stale ideas which are
The floods provoked landslides. The landslides no match to the vexing problems they seek to
in turn blocked the rivers, the bursting of which solve. We need science, technology and innovation
triggered floods, damaging bridges, buildings to anticipate and prevent disasters before they
and roads. According to one estimate, the disaster occur, and aptly manage disasters, if unavoidable.
killed 4000 people; 3 million local populations The right road to disaster prevention is the one
and one hundred thousand floating populations on which violence against nature is prohibited,
were affected; 8000 km of roads were damaged; techno-legal regime is respected, urgent is not
200 bridges became inoperative; 30 hydro-power allowed to drive out the important, and problems
projects were harmed and 5000 hill villages and are nipped in the bud
30 urban clusters were in distress.
Codes of Practice for Disaster Resilience
Naturally India can no longer afford repeats of
One of the major concern in India is the hazards
such disasters. It is important that lessons are
due to collapse of buildings and Infrastructure
learned from disasters and the same lessons are
especially because of Geohazards. The current
ploughed back to spread the culture of safety.
engineering practice of Earthquake Resistant
The war against disasters is global but it has to design of buildings has steadily evolved over
be fought locally at all levels by the India’s 1.25 the period of decades. Such designs (1) prevent
billion people representing a mind boggling collapse of buildings even if the Probable
diversity of cultures and exposure to the time- Maximum (rare) Earthquake were to strike but
tested knowledge and traditional wisdom. They accept some non- structural damage (2) prevent
follow different beliefs, speak different languages, structural damage and contain or reduce non-
represent wide cultural and economic disparities, structural damage during a moderate earthquake
but all of them are equal before the law of the event, and (3) prevent non-structural damage
land and disasters alike. With the compounding during more frequent minor earthquake events.
threats due to Climate Change, the temperatures
Since the publication of the first seismic design
are rising, glaciers are receding, sea levels are
code IS 1893 of 1962, nearly half a dozen
threatening small island states, typhoon breeding
successive revisions have bolstered the confidence
areas are increasing, heat and cold waves will be
in design. The first revision was made in 1966;
more intense and droughts and floods will assume
the Second in 1970 after the Koyna earthquake
frightening proportion.
of 1967; the third revision in 1975 was driven by
We need a strong political will, innovation users’ feedback. The practice of using multiplying
in our ideas, a robust institutional network, factors in IS 1893: 1970 was transformed into a
multi-disciplinary expertise and teams, deep more rational use of seismic zone factors in IS
commitment to the job and accountability even 1893: 1975.Importance factors were introduced
for the things we do not do. According to Einstein, for the first time to recognize the hierarchy

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(degree) of importance for various structures. to the High Powered Committee on Disaster
This value addition influenced drafting of seismic Management constituted by the Government
codes in different countries of the world. The of India in the year 2000. The HPC not only
coefficient of flexibility with respect to period accepted it but projected Disaster free India as
of buildings (in the clauses for design of multi- the national vision, in its Report submitted to the
storeyed buildings) was presented in graphic form Government of India in October 2001. Closely
to enhance user-friendliness. A more rational on the heels of the meeting at HPC, the author
formula was used to combine modal shears. made Destination Disaster-free India as the
New clauses were introduced for determination topic of his 23rd Sir Rajendranath Mookerjee
of hydrodynamic pressures in elevated tanks. Memorial Lecture delivered at the 16th Indian
Clauses on concrete and masonry dams were Engineering Congress held at the Indian Institute
modified, taking into account their dynamic of Technology, Kharagpur during December 1-4,
behaviour during earthquakes. Simplified 2001.
formulae for design forces were introduced based The above effort was closely followed by the
on results of extensive studies carried out since author in his yet another key note address on
the second revision of the Standard. March of India towards freedom from disasters
The fourth revision of IS: 1893 came in 1984. This delivered at the meeting Chaired by the then Union
standard deals with earthquake resistant design of Defence Minister at a conference organized by the
structures and is applicable to buildings; elevated then Engineer-in-Chief, Army Headquarters, at
structures; bridges, concrete, masonry and earth the inaugural of a three-day meeting on “Disaster
dams; embankments and retaining walls. For Management and Armed Forces- a National
guidance on earthquake resistant construction of Effort”. The meeting was held in New Delhi on
buildings, reference may be made to IS: 4326- 9/11-2002.
1976. Further, provisions of this standard shall be The author was invited to speak on the subject
used along with IS: 4326-1976. For latest versions by many educational institutions. Recently on
on different aspects of the design, reference should 25 September 2018, he spoke on Destination:
be made to the latest revisions to the codes. Disaster-free India at the Ramjas College, Delhi.
The national call for zero tolerance to non- The vision captured the imagination of the then
compliance of the code has raised the hope for Vice Chancellor of Anna University, Professor
improved safety. It can therefore be concluded A. Kalanidhi, who invited the author to setup a
that Indian Seismic Design Codes do provide Centre of Disaster Mitigation and Management
adequate guidelines and criteria to achieve the at his university in early 2001, with Disaster-free
safety levels envisaged in the design philosophy India as the grand vision. Years later, in January
in the various seismic zones of the country. The 2006, the Chancellor of Vellore Institute of
main problem, however, lies in conscientious Technology(VIT), Vellore, Shri G. Vishawanathan
implementation of seismic codes, both for new invited the author to establish an advanced level
construction and strengthening of existing Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management
earthquake unsafe construction. in his university campus. The Centre at VITU was
BIS has come out with Codes that cover other inaugurated by the then India’s Home Minister in
types of disasters. the presence of General N. C. Vij, Vice-Chairman
of the National Disaster Management Authority,
The Vision of Disaster-Free India and Shri K. M. Singh, Member NDMA and many
The grand vision of Disaster-free India appeared other experts.
to the author as a bright beam of hope in the When the National Disaster Management Act
aftermath of the Odisha Super Cyclone of 1999. 2005 was promulgated and NDMA came into
It was shared in a formal presentation made being, it once again began to search for a Vision

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Statement. A fresh set of discussion led to the unmindful of environmental sensitivities, and
vision statement: “To build a safer and disaster long term national commitment of Integrating
resilient India by developing a holistic, pro-active, disaster risk reduction with development planning
multi-disaster and technology driven strategy for and sustainability.
disaster management through collective efforts of
We have definitely progressed in the name of
all Government Agencies and Non-Governmental
development but, in many cases, development
Organizations”.
projects themselves have proved disastrous. We
It is heartening to note that the homepage of the have gained a very long experience by on the
National Institute of Disaster Management opens job learning but our performance on disaster
with a photograph captioned Disaster-free India. prevention and mitigation front leaves much to be
India’s contributions have been internationally desired. Despite the fact that we carry the pain of
acknowledged. A few months ago, on 16 May our own inaction by mismanaging disasters, we
2019, at the sixth session of the Global Platform for retain a very short memory of the lessons taught
DRR held in Geneva, Dr P.K. Mishra, Additional by disasters.
Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister of India, The time has come when we should build on our
was awarded the coveted Sasakawa Award for strengths, reduce vulnerabilities and improve
Disaster Prevention 2019 for DRR.GPDRR is a capacities at all levels. India is one of the few
biennial multi-stakeholder forum established by countries which can boast of a state-of-the-art
UN General Assembly to review progress, share tsunami warning system. Australia, Colombia,
knowledge and discuss latest trends in DRR. The Indonesia, Italy and Japan are other countries. India
theme of 2019 event was “Building Inclusive is one of the member countries of the International
Resilient Societies”. More than two decades Charter on Space and major disasters for sharing
ago, in 1997, Late Professor A.S. Arya was the satellite data. Some of the other countries are
recipient of Sasakawa Award for his outstanding USA, UK, China, France, Germany, Brazil, Japan,
contributions for which he was also the recipient Canada and European Space Agency. India has a
of Disaster Mitigation Award given by NDMA in space based Global Observation System. China,
2006. France, Japan, Korea, USA and EU are the other
UN has also honoured Mr Kiren Rijiju, formerly, countries.
Minister of State for Home Affairs of the
India has a strong seismological network. It has
Government of India as DRR Champion for the
a proven capacity to integrate new ICT tools to
Asian Region.
connect agencies and organizations dealing with
Concluding Remarks Disaster Risk Reduction. Also, India has a huge
India is a vast country of the size of a subcontinent, network of mobile phones and is already tapping
and by the very nature of the multiple disaster the potential of telephone based technologies.
related challenges it faces, the road to disaster The thrust of our initiatives should be to reduce
management has always been under construction. vulnerabilities. Vulnerabilities could be physical,
It has long been realized that the road begins economic, social, ecological, organizational,
from the territory of strategic thinking, policy educational, attitudinal, motivational, cultural and
formulation and planning, but the results will political. Vulnerability of women, children, aged
begin to show up only the day its people come and the physically challenged deserves much
out of their respective comfort-zones, discard more focus than it has hitherto received.
the business as usual attitude and bridge the gaps
between their scientific and operating tempers. The Guiding Words of Wisdom
With the straight–jacket style of thinking, it is easy There was a wise old owl who lived in an oak; the
to get swayed by short term political priorities, more he saw the less he spoke; the less he spoke
market forces and the lure of low hanging fruits, the more he heard [13].

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We live in the land of disasters. We have seen 2. His complete statement appears in the book
them time and again and have spoken about “Leaves from a Diary” published by Oxford
them quite frequently. It is high time that like University Press, 1993, Appendix V, pp 213-225.
the wise old owl, we hear the voice of disasters 3. Oldham, R.D 1899, Memoirs of the Geological
more and more, feel the pain they have inflicted Survey of India, Vol, XXIX, page 26. (Source:
for centuries and act silently and let the results A.E. Shuttleworth (2001), Rumblings from the
speak for themselves! Listen we must to the voice past, EQ News, DST, Dec 2001).
of the last of the sparrow or sterling, struggling 4. Quoted from GSI Memoirs, volume 73, pp 34.
for freedom from disasters. And as Martin Luther
5. Source: Excerpt from an interview of Bachendri
King, Jr, has said,“Take the first step in faith. You
Pal, the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest
don’t have to see the whole staircase, just take the with Holly placed on the net by Adventure Divas,
first step.” India.
Swami Vivekanda once visited a great sage of our 6. According to the report compiled by the Transport
country, a very holy man and wrote: “We talked Research Wing, the total number of road accidents
about our revered book- the Vedas, of your Bible, increased by 2.5 per cent from 4,89,400 in 2014
of the Koran, and of the revered books in general. to 5,01,423 in 2015. The total number of persons
At the close of our talk, this great sage asked me killed in road accidents increased by 4.6 per cent
to go to the table and take-up the book; it was a from 1,39,671 in 2014 to 1,46,133 in 2015. Road
accident injuries have also increased by 1.4 per
book, which, among other things, contained a
cent from 4,93,474 in 2014 to 5,00,279 in 2015.
forecast of the rainfall during the year. The sage
The severity of road accidents, measured in terms
said, Read them. And I read out the quantity of of number of persons killed per 100 accidents has
rain that was to fall. He said, now take the book increased from 28.5 in 2014 to 29.1 in 2015.
and squeeze it. I did so and he said, why my boy,
7. Bhandari: NIDM Journal, First Issue.
not a drop of water comes out. Until the water
comes out, it is all book, book.” We too will be 8. The Bengal famine of 1943 was perhaps the worst
judged by the posterity not by the outputs and ever of this subcontinent in the last Century.
speeches we deliver but by the outcome! According to one report, nearly 3 million people
perished in one year.
The best way to wrap up is to quote Antoine de
9. Anil Sinha (2006) Disaster Management in
Saint Exupéry: “If you want to build a ship, don’t
India-towards enhanced crisis preparedness and
drum up men to collect wood and don’t assign quick response. National Institute of Disaster
them tasks and work, but rather teach them to Management. Ministry of Home Affairs.
long for the endless immensity of the sea.” And
10. V. K. Sharma (1995): Disaster Management
if we could live upto this wise counsel, India will
published by Indian Institute of Public
be disaster free!
Administration.
Acknowledgment 11. Reference: written version of the speech by Union
The paper is based on the manuscript of author’s Home Minister delivered at the inaugural of
book Destination Disaster free India currently Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management,
under the drafting stage. It also draws upon VIT, Vellore.
his published and unpublished papers, reports 12. The massive steel arch of the bridge is made of
and lectures delivered from time to time. Other special blast proof steel and concrete pillars are
references are cited in text itself. designed to take the shock of explosions in the
event of a terrorist attack, resist temperatures of
REFERENCE -20C and wind pressures of 200 kph.
1. Aykroyd, W.R. (1975): “The Conquest of Famine”, 13. An English language Nursery Rhyme.
E.P. Dutton, New York.

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Engineering Education in India:

Past, Present and Future

Mr Raghunath K Shevgaonkar
Vice Chancellor, Bennett University
Ex-Director, IIT Delhi, Ex-Vice Chancellor, University of Pune
 [email protected]

INTRODUCTION developing machines and products became a

job of technicians. In later years, explosion of
Engineering is a profoundly creative process of
designing things under constraints. The main engineering outgrew the natural science research.
objective of engineering is to design devices, Further, due to explosion of knowledge in every
components, and systems to improve the quality branch of engineering, engineering became
of human life. The scientific principles are to be more compartmentalized. Also, with the advent
used innovatively for the benefit of the mankind. of high speed computers, engineering became
The constraints under which an engineer has to more modelling and simulation than real hands-
work could be technical, economic, political, on. Technical institutions grew exponentially
social, ethical etc. Technology is the outcome of imparting mostly the theoretical knowledge.
engineering that creates business opportunities. HISTORY OF TECHNICAL
In ancient times, engineering primarily meant civil EDUCATION IN INDIA
and metallurgical engineering and that existed Formal technical education in India began mainly
even 3000 years back. The other disciplines at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras through military
evolved much later. However, before scientific and civil administration initiatives of British
revolution, engineering was mostly by trial and Government. The first survey school started at
error. In fact, the word ‘Engineer’ originates from
Madras in 1794, which later was converted into
‘Ingeniator’ which means a conceptualizer of
Guindy Engineering College in 1857. The first
ingenious devices. After 18th century, engineering
engineering college was established at Roorkee
adopted scientific approach to practical problems.
in 1847. Around the same time the modern
Calculus and Newton’s laws of motion built
universities were setup in India at Bombay,
the scientific basis for developing machines.
Engineer’s role changed from a practical Calcutta and Madras. Many institutions that are
artist to a scientific professional, and formal well known now like, Bengal Engineering College
technical training started at schools. The flow at Sirpur, Victorial Jubilee Technical Institute
of information through journals and conferences (VJTI) at Mumbai, Poona Civil Engineering
provided impetus to engineering growth and College at Pune etc., came into existence around
formal engineering schools were established 1860. By the end of the 19th century, there were
that taught engineering principles systematically. about four engineering degree colleges, twenty
During industrial revolution, the engineers’ role survey and technical institutes, and fifty industrial
changed to conceptualizer and designer, and schools.

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The first quarter of 19th century remained low (a) Intake capacity of engineering colleges
key from the view of point of technical education. and polytechnics be increased gradually to
Although no concrete progress took place in optimum size.
this period, a thinking got developed that helped (b) Engineering colleges and polytechnics should
in setting new technical institutions in coming be as close to industry as possible.
years. By the time India got independence, there
were about a dozen technical institutions like, (c) Increase in number of scholarship in
BHU (1916), HBTI, Kanpur (1920), Science engineering institutions.
& Technology College, Calcutta (1920), Bihar A landmark in the history of technical education
Engineering College, Patna (1924), ISM Dhanbad in India is the Kothari Commission. The
(1926), AMU, Aligarh (1935), UDCT, Mumbai Commission in 1964 strongly recommended
(1934), and some more. However, there was lack vocationalization and specialization of technical
of coordination and uniformity of standards at the education in polytechnics. A thrust on technical
national level. education was repeatedly put by many subsequent
committees.
In 1936, Central Advisory Board of Education
(CABE) was founded to advise on the entire Seventh plan period (1985-90) was the period
education system. In 1944, CABE prepared a when the expansion of technical education took
report on post-war education development in place by manifold. Short-term and long-term
India. In the light of that report, Government plans for development of technical education were
set up Sarkar Committee in 1945 which drawn during this plan period. It was emphasized
recommended establishment of four Indian that for the economic prosperity of the country,
Institutes of Technology (IITs) in the country. creation of technical manpower in emerging areas
Same time CABE recommended formation of All of engineering, science and technology is vital.
India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) During this plan period many new institutions
and programs started in the country, and AICTE
for coordination of technical education growth in
recommended re-structuring of polytechnic
India.
education.
ALL INDIA COUNCIL OF TECHNICAL
In 1986, National Policy of Education defined
EDUCATION (AICTE)
AICTE as the statutory authority for planning,
On recommendation of Central Advisory Board formulation and maintenance of norms and
of Education (CABE), Government of India standards, quality assurance through accreditation,
established AICTE in 1945 for regulating and priority areas for funding etc., for technical
technical education in India. Later in 1947, education. The formal AICTE Act was passed
a Scientific Manpower Committee was also in 1987. The domain of AICTE covers teaching
appointed to assess the national requirement and training in Engineering and Technology,
of technical manpower. This period was a Architecture, Town Planning, Management,
transition period for the technical education in Pharmacy, Applied Arts and Crafts, Hotel
India. Soon after independence, a commission Management and Catering etc.
under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan For the first five years of passing the AICTE
emphasized the need for new type of engineering Act, Minister of Human Resource Development
and technical institutes in India. served as the chairman of the council. A full
A working group under the chairmanship of time chairman was appointed in 1993 and
Prof. Thacker made recommendations in 1959 the council was reconstituted for three years.
for improvement of technical education in the Regional offices of MHRD were transferred to
AICTE to cover different geographical zones
country as follows :

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in the country. New regional committees were system that measures students’ performance
also established to distribute the activities of the through the outcomes, namely, knowledge, skills,
council. For smoother functioning , the AICTE and attitude. The OBE assesses the outcomes
established following Bureaus: (a) Approval through continuous evaluation. Some of the
(b) Administration (c) Finance (d) Policy and outcomes like, application of scientific principles
Academic Planning (e) Research Institution and to engineering problem, lifelong learning etc.,
Faculty Development. There are a number of cells are generic in nature and are applicable to all
that facilitate overall function of AICTE. engineering disciplines, while some outcomes
are discipline specific. The OBE model measures
The bureaus regulate the technical education
the progress of a graduate through Programme
landscape in the country. They decide, degree
Educational Objectives (PEO), Programme
nomenclature, approval and continuation of the
Outcomes (PO), and Course Outcomes (CO).
engineering colleges and institutions, intake of
students in various branches of engineering, The PEOs broadly define the professional
inspections of the institutions for compliance, accomplishments that a programme prepares the
norms for the tuition fees, model curricula, graduates for. Generally these can be measured
faculty training programmes, research and through the professional achievements of
infrastructural funding, schemes for mentoring graduates after 4-5 years of the completion of
engineering institutions, etc. The accreditation the programme. The Programme Outcomes
which was a part of AICTE earlier was shifted to (PO) on the other hand describe what a student
an independent body called the National Board of is able to do at the time of graduation. There are
Accreditation. 12 graduate attributes defined by NBA under this
category. The CO is the immediate assessment
NATIONAL BOARD OF
of the capability of a student acquired through a
ACCREDITATION (NBA) particular course.
With rapid expansion of engineering education In an outcome based system, the curriculum
towards the end of the previous century, it design must make sure that every attribute has
became almost mandatory to create mechanism been covered in the curriculum and each and
for controlling the quality of technical education every course covers at least one of the attributes.
in the country. The NBA was established by the There is a fair amount of flexibility in curriculum
AICTE in 1994. The NBA became an independent design as long as the curriculum meets the OBE
autonomous body since 2010. It also acquired a criteria. The OBE system also provides flexibility
full membership status in the Washington Accord. in method of assessment. The assessment
Washington accord is an international accreditation methods may include continuous evaluation
agreement for undergraduate professional through tutorials, assignments, periodic in-
engineering degrees, between the accreditation semester and final examinations, project work,
bodies of the signatory countries. It recognizes labs, presentation, employer feedback etc. Each
that there is a good equivalence of programmes programme, depending upon its objectives and
accredited by the signatories. The equivalence nature, is permitted to evolve its own evaluation
facilitates free acceptance of graduates from other and assessment strategy.
signatory countries. Curriculum design and teaching-learning
One of the most important aspect of Washington process play an important role in outcome
Accord is the outcome-based education. Outcome- based accreditation. While the teaching-learning
Based Education (OBE) is considered to be a leap process rests with individual institutions, the
jump in improving technical education in India. curriculum design is not fully under the control
The OBE system is a student-centric education of the institutions in an affiliated system that

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is prevalent in India. Most of the affiliated Within a short span of five years, four IITs were
engineering institutions therefore do not have established in four zones of India; Kharagpur
academic autonomy that is enjoyed by the fully in East, Bombay in West, Madras in South, and
autonomous institutions. To address this problem, Kanpur in North. Later, an IIT at Delhi was
NBA divided the engineering institutions in added by an amendment in 1963. The IITs were
two categories (Type I and type II institutions) primarily based on American University Model.
for the accreditation purpose. The weightages However, except IIT Kharagpur, each IIT received
given for the curriculum are different for the two mentorship from an advanced country. IIT Bombay
types of institutions. This was a welcome step was mentored by then USSR, IIT Madras was
as the institutions were not penalized for those mentored by Germany, IIT Kanpur was mentored
actions that were beyond their control. The NBA by the USA and IIT Delhi was mentored by the
accreditation has been playing an important role UK. Under the mentorship from these countries,
in building quality in engineering education in IITs received technical equipment, know-how and
India. faculty training. The IIT system established a new
The NBA accreditation is granted for a period of benchmark of technical education that was at par
five years. Institutions have to be re-accredited with the global standards.
after that. The biggest challenge for NBA is to In the initial phase of IITs, most of the faculty
give accreditation to all the qualifying institutions were either educated or trained in the advanced
in stipulated time. Due to rapid expansion in countries. These faculty had a good mix of
engineering education, NBA is barely able to teaching and research. While IITs imparted quality
meet 30-40% of the accreditation requirement. education, they also conducted quality research
The MHRD therefore is exploring possibility of that was of contemporary importance. This trend
expanding the base of accreditation bodies. continued for many decades and still dominates
PREMIER TECHNICAL the engineering education scene in India.
INSTITUTIONS A new IIT was set up at Guwahati in 1994 after
India has got institutions of multiple type that are almost a gap of thirty years since the creation
considered as the premier institutions. In technical of the IIT system. Two old established technical
domain, there are Indian Institutes of Technology universities were converted into IITs namely IIT
(IITs) and National Institutes of Technology Roorkee in 2002 and IIT-BHU in 2011.
(NITs). The Central universities on the other hand By the end of the last century, IIT became a global
enjoy the same status but are comprehensive in brand in engineering education. IIT graduates
nature. performed extraordinarily well at global level in
Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) all fields and walks of life. The IIT graduates were
not confined to only engineering and technology,
To make India self-reliant, a special thrust for but became very successful managers, IAS
technology was provided in independent India. officers, researchers, entrepreneurs and what
Although the idea of establishing high quality not! IITs became touch-stone and they became
technology institutions was mooted before first choice of every engineering aspirant in the
independence, the premier technology institutions
country. Due to fierce competition, the selection
by the name ‘Indian Institute of Technology’ came
into IITs became more and more difficult and a
into existence by an Act of parliament almost a
large number of bright high school graduates
decade after the independence. The Institutes
could not make into IITs.
of Technology Act, 1961 is a legislation that
provides legal status to Institutes of Technology. There was a need for more high quality engineering
It also declared these institutions as Institutes of institutions in the country. Considering the success
National Importance. of the IIT brand at the global level, Government

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of India decided to establish more IITs in the In last two decades IITs have become more post-
country. Through successive amendments to the graduate institutions. The PG to UG ratio in most
IIT-Act, IITs were established in every state of of the established IITs is 60:40. Although the
India in last one decade. Today there are 23 IITs in importance of the UG teaching is not undermined,
the country with total student enrolment of more IITs have provided special thrust on research in
than a lakh at the undergraduate level. last two decades. This helped in improving the
research quality and quantity, and global ranking
While the intent behind starting new IITs in large
of IITs.
numbers can be justified on the basis of national
need, the rapid expansion of the IIT system created The Ministry of Human Resource Development
execution problems. Right from creating the state constituted a committee under the Chairmanship
of the art infrastructure to hiring quality faculty, of Dr. Kakodkar to suggest a road map for
everything was a challenge for the new IITs. strengthening financial, administrative and
Today there is a clear distinction seen between the academic autonomy of IITs. The committee
old and the new IITs in terms of infrastructure and submitted its recommendations under the
the quality of the students. However, it is hoped title ‘Taking IITs to Excellence and Greater
that in the years to come, the new IITs also will Relevance’ in 2011. The committee provided
rise to the same level of academic excellence that thrust on quality manpower creation that can
the old IITs enjoy today. serve industry or can become faculty in other
engineering institutions. Enhancement of tuition
Although all IITs are autonomous and have
fee for making IITs more financially independent
independent governing structure, there is an apex
was also a recommendation of the committee. The
body called the ‘IIT Council’ which defines broad
committee recommended that all IITs together
policies for all IITs. The IIT Council consists
should produce 10000 engineering PhDs per year
of Chairmen and Directors of all IITs, eminent
to meet the acute shortage of faculty in non-IIT
academicians and industry professionals. The
technical institutions in India. It also suggested to
Council is chaired by the Minister of Human
increase the graduating engineers’ number from
Resource Development. The Supreme authority
all IITs to 1 Lac/year. To bring the ethos of IITs
in the IIT system is the President of India who is
to other institutions, the committee recommended
the Visitor of all IITs.
that 50 centrally funded institutions be mentored
The IITs do not go through the standard by IITs.
accreditation process of NBA. However, there
National Institutes of Technology (NITs)
is a provision to review IIT system as a whole,
as well as the individual IITs. So far, the IIT NITs have similar structure of that of IITs, and are
system as a whole, has been reviewed twice; by governed by independent NIT Act 2007. NITs are
Nayudamma Committee in 1986 and by P. Rama erstwhile Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs)
Rao committee in 2004. which were established in late fifties under the
second five-year plan. The RECs were a joint
The Nayudamma Committee provided thrust on
venture of central and the state governments, and
the PG programmes in IITs. It also emphasised
therefore 50% of the students were selected from
strong interaction of IITs with national laboratories
the respective states. However, after 2007, RECs
and industries. The Rama Rao Committee on the
became the National Institutions of Technology
other hand focused more on the operational aspect
through a separate NIT Act.
of the IIT system. It made recommendations
for the enhancement of the retirement age of NITs are now centrally funded autonomous
the faculty from 62 to 65 years. It also made institutes that have similar structure as that of IITs
recommendations for the admission process at though the funding levels may be different for the
UG and PhD level. two. There are overall 31 NITs (one in each state)

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that have a collective intake of almost 20000 per function with a shoe-string budget that leads to
year. Next to IITs, NITs contribute significantly to inadequate laboratory facilities and substandard
the PG programmes in engineering in the country. faculty. This has resulted into creation of large
number of engineering graduates that according
PRIVATIZATION OF TECHNICAL
to the industry, are unemployable. Due to excess
EDUCATION
capacity of the engineering seats in the country,
After 90’s, India has seen an exponential even not deserving candidates get admissions
growth in technical education. This was due into the engineering colleges and graduate with
to globalization and increasing demand of substandard technical capability. Today India
technical education for economic growth of the produces more than 10 lac engineering graduates
country. While government did expand its base of per year which is more than four times of that
technical education, government resources were produced by the USA. But the technological
not adequate to meet the need. Consequently, the impact of India is not commensurate with this.
major expansion of technical education took place According to National Association of Software
in the private sector. The objective of privatization and Services Companies (NASSCOM), only
of technical education can be broadly stated as: 20% engineering graduates are employable by the
i. Providing quality technical education to industry.
deserving students To emerge as economically developed nation,
ii. Meeting technical manpower need of the India needs not only more engineers but engineers
industry with excellence and innovative ability. There is no
iii. Reducing the financial burden of the choice but to encourage and mentor privatization
government of engineering education to meet the ever growing
demand of technical manpower. However, private
iv. Providing education in remote and smaller institutions should not merely reduce to teaching
urban areas. shops. There should be good regulation to build
v. Flexibility in education making it globally quality consciousness and intellectual rigour in
competitive. technical institutions. A strong industry linkage
While all the objectives were not met by large is also needed to strengthen private institutions to
number of private institutions, at least the produce better industry ready engineers, and at the
technical education base is expanded through same time to build an industry oriented research
privatization. Today, more than 80% of the base on a wider scale. Privatization of technical
engineering education is in private domain. education has to succeed in India, and that can
happen only when quality control, accreditation
Privatization of education is not new to India. and adherence to academic standards defined by
Schools and colleges were started by eminent AICTE are strictly followed by the colleges and
social reformers in the past. But the privatization universities in the country.
of technical education is more a commercial
activity (for profit making unofficially). NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR
Promoters and owners of engineering institutions TECHNOLOGY ENHANCED
today are not motivated by philanthropic LEARNING (NPTEL)
consideration like that in the past, but have As mentioned above, after 1990, a large number
interest in name, fame and profit. This increased of engineering institutions were established,
the cost of technical education substantially majority of them in private domain. By the end
with deterioration in the quality of education. of the last millennium there were more than 5000
Today majority of the engineering institutions engineering colleges in the country. Due to Y2K,

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most of these institutions started IT oriented subject was divided into small modules of 2-3
degree programmes. While this expansion was lecturers so that universities can mix and match
very much desirable in the country, there was the modules to cover their respective syllabi.
an acute shortage of the most precious resource, The first phase of NPTEL was completed in time
the faculty. The students admitted to these and was a great success. The quality e-content
colleges had a reasonable academic standard, developed in NPTEL phase-I was highly
but due to insufficient and substandard faculty appreciated, and was slowly adopted by the
in these colleges the quality of the engineering engineering colleges. It may be worth mentioning
graduates was not up to the mark. Realizing that here that the NPTEL and the Open Course Ware
the quality-faculty cannot be created overnight, (OCW) by MIT, USA were initiated almost at the
It was proposed to make use of Information and same time. MIT made the lectures of their faculty
Communication Technology (ICT) to fill the gap. freely available on the net under the OCW initiative
On the initiative of MHRD, all the IITs were asked similar to that of NPTEL. In that sense NPTEL
to develop video and web lectures for all courses and OCW are identical in nature. However, the
required in the engineering institutions. The idea motivations behind the two are different. OCW
was to identify the best possible professor from was created just to share the knowledge base of
IITs in each subject and record her/his class- MIT with the rest of the world. NPTEL objective
room lectures for the entire course. A project on the other hand, was to address the problem of
entitled ‘National Programme on Technology shortage of quality faculty in Indian engineering
Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) was approved education system.
by MHRD in 2000. The project envisaged
functioning in a nationally coordinated fashion With the success of phase-I of NTPEL, MHRD
to achieve the targets in most efficient manner. decided to extend the project further to enhance
The Director of IIT Madras was appointed as the its reach to all branches of engineering at both
National Coordinator for the project with one co- UG and PG level. All IITs together proposed to
coordinator from each of the IITs. Five branches develop about 1000 courses to cover most of the
of engineering namely, computer science and engineering disciplines. However, this time the
engineering, electronics and communications, proposal was to develop the e-content only in the
electrical engineering, mechanical engineering video lecture format because the user feedback
and civil engineering were taken up in the first on the e-content from the first phase was more in
phase of the project. 120 video and 120 web favour of video lectures than the web lectures. The
video lecture format was more close to the normal
courses in these five branches were developed in
classroom teaching. The video content of all the
the first phase. Video and web facilities were set
courses developed in the first and the subsequent
up at each IIT, and the best faculty for each course
phases of NPTEL can be freely accessed through
in the UG curricula were identified for developing
the national portal ‘SWAYAM’ under MHRD.
the courses. Each course was developed in the web
The lectures are also available on youtube.
and video format with typically 40-45 lecture-
hours of content. A peer review mechanism was Although the main objective of NPTEL was to
set up to improve the quality of the e-content make quality lectures freely available to large
developed in the video and the web format. Since number of engineering students, it is noticed that
the e-content was mainly created for the students the e-contents are more used by the engineering
in the engineering institutions from different college teachers than the students. The NPTEL
universities, and since different universities have content proved to be a valuable support for new
some degree of variation in their syllabi, the teachers. The NPTEL therefore has helped in
e-content was developed in a modular form. Each creating quality teachers in the colleges in addition

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to helping engineering students. Institutions are globally competitive. The World Bank assisted
encouraged to host the entire NPTEL content on Government of India to launch the Technical
their local server for easy and fast access through Education Quality Improvement Programme
the local campus network. (TEQIP) as a 10-12 year programme in 2 to 3
phases.
In NPTEL, only e-content has been developed
but the testing and evaluation mechanism was The TEQIP initiative was in alignment with the
not built. Universities and colleges have been National Education Policy (NEP) 1986.
encouraged to use NPTEL contents but the
examination has been the responsibility of the TEQIP phase-I started in March 2003 and
university. Since the testing style of universities completed in March 2009.
is quite different than that of IITs, the NPTEL The phase I of TEQIP had the following objectives:
courses could not get directly integrated into the
university system. While students acclaimed and (a) Promotion of Academic Excellence in
appreciated the NPTEL work, they could not make engineering institutions
good use of it for regular university examinations. (b) Networking of Institutions for quality
However, the courses became extremely useful enhancement and resource sharing
for preparing for the competitive examinations
like, GATE, IES, etc. (c) System management capacity improvement

The NPTEL finally culminated into Massive (d) Enhancing quality and reach of services to
Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Under MOOCs community and economy.
a student can study the NPTEL material at The TEQIP-I was implemented in 13 states and
predefined pace, appear for regular proctored covered 127 institutions including 18 centrally
evaluation, and obtain a certificate with a grade. funded institutions. The institutions were
To encourage usage of NPTEL content in categorised in two types namely, Lead Institutions
regular engineering programmes, AICTE has and Network Institutions. Selection of the
recommended 15% of the curricular subjects to institutions was made through a two-step process.
be studied through MOOCs. In the first step, eligibility of the institutions was
TECHNICAL EDUCATION QUALITY determined at the state level, separately for the
IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMME two types of institutions. Clusters of institutions
(TEQIP) consisting of one lead institution and 3-4
network institutions were formed. In the second
National Project Implementation Unit of MHRD step, proposals were invited from the clusters
(NPIU) implemented three technical education elaborating their vision, strategies and action plans
projects during 1991-2007 that were assisted by the to compete at the national level. Accreditation was
World Bank. The projects helped in strengthening a mandatory component of eligibility to participate
technical education system in India at polytechnic in the national competition. Total 40 (16 centrally
level. The projects received the highest success funded institution and 24 state institutions) were
rating of the World Bank. This encouraged the selected as Lead Institutions, and 87 (2 centrally
Government of India to seek financial assistance funded institutions and 85 state institutions) were
on similar grounds, from the World Bank to selected as the Network Institutions. A financial
transform the technical education system as a allocation in tune of about Rs. 1339 Crore was
whole. The thrust was on quality improvement made in the TEQIP-I.
of the engineering education in India. The World
Bank enthusiastically supported the initiative of The major achievements of TEQIP-I can be
making the Indian engineering education system summarized as; start of 89 new PG programmes,

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accreditation of about 90% courses, recruitment establishing/improving ERP systems for students
of almost 90% of the sanctioned faculty position and staff, etc. Under teaching-learning and
in the institutions, filing of about 500 patents, research competence building, the phase-III
and publication of about 37000 research papers. envisaged mentoring of partnering institutions
Curricula and syllabi in all the participating and promoting their application to UGC/NBA,
institutions were revised and updated. The helping faculty to enhance their productivity,
programme also helped in improving institutional preparation of MOOCs, developing credit based
governance and acquiring academic and system, greater access to the digital resources etc.
administrative autonomy. The institutions got
TEQIP-III also had a component of system level
better networked for academic exchange.
initiatives to strengthen sector governance and
With successful completion of TEQIP-I, the performance. This component would support
project was extended to TEQIP-II. About 200 MHRD and the key apex bodies like AICTE and
institutions were selected on competitive basis to NBA, to strengthen overall system of engineering
improve quality of technical education through education.
institutional and systemic reforms. The TEQIP-
The TEQIP has made a noticeable difference in
II envisioned creation of more PG graduates to
improving engineering education in India.
reduce the faculty shortage, and more R&D in
collaboration with the industry. Specifically the MAJOR CHALLENGES IN
TEQIP-II emphasised on improving learning TECHNICAL EDUCATION
outcomes and employability, demand driven
R&D and innovation, establishing centres of Although in last two decades, there is massive
excellence in focused areas of research, training expansion in higher and particularly in technical
of faculty for effective teaching, and enhancing education, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in
overall institutional effectiveness. India is still below the world average. That means
the expansion in higher education has to be still
In TEQIP-II, the states were made the funding more. The biggest challenge then is to maintain
partners to share the cost. The state contributed quality of technical education while it is still in
25% cost of the projects conducted in the
expansion mode. The excellence has to be at all
government institutions. For private state
levels; governance, teaching learning process,
institutions, 60% cost was shared by MHRD,
research, innovation and outreach. India faces an
20% by the State Government, and 20% by the
acute shortage of qualified faculty in technical
Institutions themselves. The project monitoring
education. As mentioned above, India needs to
responsibility was entrusted on the management
produce 10000 engineering PhDs per year for
of the institutions. Government of India and the
next ten years to meet the faculty shortage in
World Bank conducted joint review of the projects
technical institutions.
bi-annually.
The phase-III of the TEQIP was fully integrated Another challenge is to make the technical
with the twelfth five year plan objectives for education affordable to wider class of society.
technical education as key component with a It should be understood that quality technical
special consideration for the seven low income education does not come cheap, as it needs state
states, eight states in North-East, three Hill-states, of art laboratory infrastructure and equipment.
and a Union Territory. Some of the activities that With a severe restriction on the fees, the private
are supported under TEQIP-III are, procurement institutions are not financially viable. There is
of equipment and other goods, centralized therefore a need for the Government to create a
research hubs opened to all affiliated institutions, robust financial model for supporting technical

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institutions. This will help in reducing the societal put excess strain on natural resources, and the
divide and make the technical education more whole development appears to be unsustainable
inclusive. with the current rate. By the end of 21st century,
the world population will be up by 50%, energy
It is clear that if the technical institutions have
requirement will be up by 100%, electricity usage
to become more socially relevant and globally
will increase by 300%, water stressed population
competitive, only tuition fees cannot be the source
will be increased by 200%, and at the same time
of revenue. Philanthropic channels need to be
the natural resources will be down by 80-90%. In
created to encourage private donors for giving
this century, engineers cannot remain technology
donations to the technical institutions to build
suppliers without worrying about sustainability.
large corpuses. Also, industrial funding should
Engineers need to create a vision of the future
flow in these institutions to promote industrial
world that would be self-sustaining perpetually.
research that can be monetized by the industry.
Engineers will have to focus more on grand
This will help in developing strong linkages
challenges rather than exotic gadgets for human
between the academia and the industry. This
luxury and entertainment. Engineers will have to
will also reduce the brain drain, will make the
understand the meaning of a happy society that is
engineering graduates more industry ready, and
create a dynamic environment for ‘make in India’. cohesive and eco-friendly. Since the future world
will be dominated by technology, engineers have
FUTURE OF ENGINEERING to play an active role in policy making. Future
EDUCATION engineers therefore will need a comprehensive
Future engineering is going to face very different understanding of the world as a whole and not
kind of challenges, and the engineering education only technology. This will need integration of the
has to prepare the engineers to handle those liberal arts in engineering education. This aspect
challenges. The world is changing irreversibly has been amply emphasized in the proposed New
and catastrophically at an unprecedented rate. Education Policy (NEP) 2019.
New technologies like nano-technology, quantum Due to short life span of technology, essentials
scale electronics, meta-materials, biotechnology of future engineering education will be, life-
are emerging at a fast rate and the average life long and self-learning, interdisciplinary and
span of a technology has reduced to only few systemic approach, creation of policies, product
years. Extrapolation of technology is impossible, life cycle analysis, sustainability etc. Realizing
at best difficult. Future engineering education will that solutions to most of the societal problems
depend upon the way the future world will be, and lie at the intersection of multiple disciplines,
the future world would be shaped by the present engineering education will have to come out of
and future technology. This is an entangled compartmentalization. Integration of engineering,
problem. For defining future engineering, it is life sciences, information sciences and social
important that we first define what kind of world sciences will be the key to success for a future
we would like to have in future! engineer. Future engineering education hence
The growth of engineering in last century has will have to be radically different than what we
been organic. There was no defined path for have today. India consists of 20% of the world’s
development and progress. Technology went population that is multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, and
on feeding to whatever a select set of people multi-lingual. If developed correctly, the Indian
desired. There is no doubt that the technological engineering education model can become a role
advances of last century improved the quality model for the rest of the world in the coming
of human life by manifold. However, this has century.

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REFERENCE of Education in India, International Journal of

Educational Administration (2016)
1. U. R. Rao, Revitalizing Technical Education,
7. NPTEL, MHRD, https://swayam.gov.in/nc_
Report on Review Committee on AICTE, MHRD
details/NPTEL, https://nptel.ac.in
(2003)
8. National Education Policy (draft), www.mhrd.
2. R. Banerjee, V.P Muley, Engineering Research in ac.in
India, Observer Foundation (2008)
9. A. Kakodkar, https://mhrd.gov.in/report-dr-anil-
3. B.M. Naik, Privatization of Engineering kakodkar-committee
Education- Is Good but not Good Enough, Journal
of Engineering Education, July (1998) 10. C.M. Vest, Pursuing the Endless Frontier, MIT
Press (2005)
4. Website of AICTE, www.aicte-india.org
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6. M. Abrol, Emerging Trends of Privatization Washington DC, (2004)

256 Interdisciplinary Engineering

 ISBN: 978-81-942561-7-5

The Institution of Engineers (India)

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