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Science and Technology for G.S.-III Mains

INDEX

Origin of Modern Science

Indian Space Programme
Nuclear Science
Energy
Defence
Information and Comm. Tech.
Genetics and Biotechnology
Health and Medicine
Nanotechnology
Miscellaneous

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ORIGIN OF MODERN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The origins of the current science and technology system in India can be traced to the establishment of the
first scientific agencies that the British found necessary to manage and expand their Indian empire in the
18th and 19th centuries. The Survey of India goes back to 1767, and the Indian Meteorological Department
to 1875.
The establishment of institutes to carry out more general scientific research or technology development in
modern terms was more difficult. The landmark here was usually due to Indian enterprise rather than
British patronage. For example, the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science was established in
Calcutta in 1876 by a remarkable doctor, Mahendra Lal Sircar.
Beginning in the 1930s, the Indian National Congress, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash
Chandra Bose, started planning for science and industry, almost as if in anticipation of the times when
they would be able to make and executive national policy under their own government.
At independence, Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian Prime Minister, reposed his faith in science for solving
problems of hunger and poverty, of insanitation and illiteracy, of superstition and deadening customs in
the country. Under his leadership, the government set out to cure numerous social problems and inculcate
a scientific temper among its citizens.
After independence the government supported and funded various Science and technology initiatives
through its five-year plans to fulfill short-term needs, while aiming to provide the institutional base needed
to achieve long-term goals.

DURING THE FIVE YEAR PLANS

The first five-year plan (1951-56) aimed at setting up of new national laboratories and research institutions
training of personnel for manning the research institutions and running industries. The plan also
emphasized on exploration and survey of resources.
On 18 August 1951, the government inaugurated the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) at Kharagpur in
West Bengal.
With its inauguration the country got its first Higher Technical education institutions in Bombay, Madras,
Kanpur and Delhi. Today in 2017 the country has twenty – three IITs.
It was during the second five-year plan that the government released the Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958,
which called for embracing “by all appropriate means, the cultivation of science and scientific research in
all its aspects- pure, applied, and educational” and encouraged individual initiatives.
In the very same year the government merged the Technical Development Establishment and the Directorate
of Technical Development and production with the Defense Science Organisation to establish the
country’s premier military research and development organisation DRDO, also The Defense Research and
Development Organisation.
During the Fourth Five Year Plan, in 1971, the Department of Science and Technology (DST) was established.
Its main functions aimed at promoting and identifying frontline and priority areas of R & D in various
disciplines of Science and Technology (S&T), International scientific and technology affairs and
development of S&T entrepreneurship.
During the Fifth Five Year Plan on 18th May 1974, India detonated its nuclear bomb at Pokhran in Rajasthan.
ISRO built India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.
During the Sixth Five Year Plan, in 1980, ISRO launched Rohini, which became the first satellite to be placed
in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3. In 1981, the Indian Antarctic programme was started

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when the first Indian Expedition was flagged off for Antarctica from Goa. More missions were
subsequently sent each year to India’s Antarctic base Dakshin Gangotri.
The Seventh Five Year Plan, in 1986 a department of Biotechnology was set up as separate department under
the Ministry of Science and Technology which helped development in the sector in the country.
Indian agriculture benefitted from the developments in the field of Biotechnology. Massive Biotech parks
were established in India while the government provided tax deduction for research and development
under biotechnological firms.
In 1991, a new permanent Antarctic base Maître was founded, which continues to remain in operation to
the present times.
In the Eighth Five-Year Plan emphasis was laid on integration of S&T in the Socio – economic sectors. However,
after economic reforms of 1991, no major initiatives in public S&T, of the kind that had characterized the
earlier decades, seem to have been taken.
The Ninth Plan emphasized on self reliance in the context of growing global restrictions on high – technology
movement, and on the need to make science and the practitioners of science central to all planning and
operations in the country.
The plan called for environment consciousness to be worked into scientific processes so that clean and
eco-friendly technologies could be built.
Considering the global restrictions on so called ‘dual-use’ technologies, it was necessary to invest in and
further develop strategic sectors, such as atomic energy and space science.
The intellectual property Regime and its restriction needed to be faced and the challenge of foreign
countries patenting life forms needed to be met with suitable legislation to protect indigenous efforts.
During the Tenth plan, massive support was provided to basic research, especially in universities, so that India
could contribute significantly towards advancing that frontier.
While building on the comparative advantage that India possesses in the emerging areas of information
technology (IT) and biotechnology, special attention was given to agriculture and agro- based
industries and infrastructure sectors like energy, transportation, communication and housing S&T.
The Eleventh Plan admitted that “the scientific and technological output is not commensurate with the
potential of the country because of low investments in science and technology”.
The Eleventh Plan envisaged the formulation of a National Innovation policy to encourage competition
among enterprises, greater diffusion of Knowledge and increased support and early stage technology
development initiatives and grassroots level innovations.
The Twelfth Plan (2012-2017) considered that it was important for the country to move up from investing 1
per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the R&D sector to 2 percent of GDP and more, as has been
the case with several developed and emerging economies for quite some time now.
INDIAN SPACE PROGRAM: AN OVERVIEW

GENESIS

The space research was initiated in India during the early 1960’s, when applications using satellites were in
experimental stages even in the United States.
With the live transmission of Tokyo Olympic Games across the pacific by the American Satellite ‘Syncom-3’
demonstrating the power of communication satellites, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the founding father of Indian
space programmed, quickly recognized the benefits of space technology for India.
As a first step, the Department of Atomic Energy formed the INCOSPAR (India National Committee for Space
Research) under the leadership of Dr. Sarabhai and Dr. Ramanathan in 1962. The Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) was later formed on August 15, 1969.

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The prime objective of it being its application to various national needs. It is one of the six largest space
agencies in the world. The Department of Space (DOS) and the Space Commission were set up in 1972 and
ISRO was brought under DOS on June 1, 1972.
Since inception, the India space programme has been orchestrated well and had three distinct elements such
as, satellites for communication and remote sensing, the space transportation system and application
programmers.
Two major operational systems have been established- the India National Satellite (INSAT) for
telecommunication, television broadcasting, and meteorological services and the India Remote Sensing
Satellite (IRS) for monitoring and management of natural resources and Disaster Management Support.

Organisation and Objectives of Space Programme

The genesis of the Indian space programme lay in the Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) that was formed by the Department of Atomic Energy in 1962. The Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) was formed under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1969.
The space programme was formalised with the constitution of the Space Commission and the Department of
Space (DOS) in 1972 to formulate and implement space policies in the country. The Space Commission is
the nodal agency for coordinating R&D activities in space science and technology. The executive wing of
the Commission is:
the Department of Space (DOS) which operates through the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO),
Bengaluru,
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA),
the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad,
National Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere Radar Facility (NMRF),
North Eastern Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC), besides sponsoring research projects in other
institutions.

Space Centres and Units

Research and development activities under the space programme are carried out in various centers/ units of
ISRO/DOS. The projects of ISRO are executed by identified ‘lead centers’ depending upon the technology base
established in them.

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) is located at Thumba in Thiruvananthapuram. It has establishments at
Valiamala for major facilities of PSLV project and at Vottiyoorkavu for development of composites.

Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Shriharikota Ranga (SDSC-SHAR) is located in Sriharikota Island on the east
coast of Andhra Pradesh. It is the main launch base for satellite launch vehicles and sounding rockets.
The launch centre was named as Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in 2002 in memory of Prof. Dhawan
who was the chairman of ISRO from 1972 to 1984.
The country’s largest solid propellant space booster plant (SPROB) is located here. The centre also has
static test and evolution complex (STEX) and computerized data processing facilities to support
indigenous launch vehicle mission.
The main facilities in the centre include those for production of solid propellant rocket boosters, ground
and environmental qualification of rocket motors and their subsystems, integration, check out and
launch of satellite launch vehicles.

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Liquid propellants and cryogenic propellants storage and servicing facilities, tracking and telecom stations,
real time data processing and range and flight safety.

Space Applications Centre at Ahmedabad is involved in research and development in space applications. It
has the primary responsibility to conceptualize, plan and execute projects and research programmes
leading to practical use of space technology.

Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) is the centre of excellence in the area of Liquid propulsion of ISRO’s
launch vehicle and spacecraft programmes.

Master Control Facility (MCF) is located at Hassan in Karnataka and at Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, it is
responsible for initial orbit raising, payload testing and in-orbit operation of all geostationary satellites.
MCF has integrated facilities comprising satellite control earth stations with associated electronics. The
Satellite Control Centre (SSC) is the nerve centre for satellite control operations.

ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), with its headquarters at Bengaluru, operates a
network of ground stations (at Bengaluru, Lucknow, Sriharikota, Port Blair, and Thriuvananthapuram in
India as well as some outside India) to provide tracking, telemetry and command (TTC) support for launch
vehicle and satellite missions of ISRO.

National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad was an autonomous institution known as NRS Agency
supported by the DOS. It has been converted into a full – fledged agency of ISRO since September 2008.
The agency has facilities for surveying, identifying, classifying, and monitoring earth resources using aerial
and satellite data.
The analysis, computation and interpretation facilities are located in Hyderabad, and satellite reception
station is located at Shadnagar, near Hyderabad.

Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) at Ahmedabad is the premier national centre for research in space and
allied sciences. It is an autonomous institution supported mainly by the DOS.
North Eastern–Space Application Centre (NE-SAC), located in Shillong, was set up as an autonomous society
in December 2000 jointly with the North-Eastern Council to promote space technology and to ensure its
benefits to the population in the north eastern region.
NE-SAC addresses areas in natural resources management and developmental communications, besides
encouraging space science research in the region.

Antrix Corporation Limited is a wholly owned Government of India company under the administrative control
of the Department of Space.
Antrix was incorporated as a private limited company in September 1992 as a marketing arm of ISRO for
promotion and commercial exploitation of space products, technical consultancy services and transfer
of technologies developed by ISRO.
Another major objective is to facilitate development of space related industrial capabilities in India. Antrix
sells space products ranging from supply of hardware and software including simple subsystems to a

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complex spacecraft, for carried applications covering communications, earth observation, scientific
missions.
Space related service including remote sensing data services, Transponders lease service; Launch services
through the operational launch vehicles (PSLV and GSLV); Mission support services; and a host
consultancy and training services are also offered by Antrix.

Earth Observation System

Indian Earth Observation (EO) System became operational with the advent of India remote sensing satellites,
the first of which was launched in 1988. These satellites have been designed to provide necessary data in
diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to different user requirements in the country
and for global usage.
Several applications make use of the data from these satellites, for instance, agriculture, water resources,
urban planning, rural development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and
disaster management.
The India EO definition, development, operation and its applications are overseen by the National Natural
Resources Management System (NNRMS) for which DOS is the nodal agency. With its Headquarters in
Bengaluru, NNRMS is a unique system in which data from remote sensing are integrated with conventional
sources for effectively managing the country’s natural resources.
NNRMS undertakes natural resources survey and monitors projects in collaboration with Central and state
agencies. The NNRMS activities are guided by ten standing committees, namely,
Agriculture & Soils,
Bio-Resources,
Geology and Mineral Resources
Water Resources,
Ocean Resources,
Cartography & Mapping,
Urban Management,
Rural Development,
Technology & Training, and
Meteorology.
Each of these standing committees is chaired by the secretaries of respective government departments and
includes experts from major user departments/agencies.
The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), an autonomous organisation of DOS, continues to support high
quality remote sensing data, value added products and application services to facilitate their use in natural
resources management and disaster mitigation.
As the nodal agency for reception, archival, processing and dissemination of remote sensing data in India,
NRSA ensures availability of remote sensing data as well as propagates its benefits and awareness
among the user community.
NRSA also caters to the demand from the neighboring countries. As per the Remote Sensing Data Policy
(RSDP) of the government, NRSA is the national acquisition and distribution agency for all satellite
data within India.

Remote Sensing

The term ‘remote sensing’ refers to the process of sensing, identifying, and delineating various objects on
ground from a distance without coming into direct physical contact with them. It essentially involves

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measuring the electromagnetic radiation of the sun that is reflected, scattered or re- emitted by the
objects on the surface of the earth.
It is possible to identify surface objects from air-borne or space platform on the basis of the reflection on
natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable.
Given India’s size and its resource diversity, generating up to- date information on terrestrial resources and
environment is an essential element in the planning process which would be difficult through ground-
based survey mechanisms.
However, ground data is also important to provide sampling verifications of remote sensed data because,
often, different objects give out similar overlapping spectral responses.

Indian Remote Sensing (IRS)

IRS satellite system was commissioned with the launch of IRS-1A, in 1988. IRS is the largest civilian remote
sensing satellite constellation in the world providing imageries in a variety of spatial resolutions, spectral
bands and swaths.
The data is used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban development, mineral
protection, environment, forestry, drought and flood forecasting, ocean resources and disaster
management.
The IRS satellites are state of the art satellites, indigenously designed and put into polar orbit for useful
remote sensing applications.

IRS-1A, the first of the series of indigenous state of art remote sensing satellites, was successfully launched
into a polar sun- synchronous orbit on March 17, 1988 from the then Soviet Cosmodrome at Baikonur
(now in independent Kazakhstan).

IRS-P4 or OCEANSAT- I -(the first of the five planned ocean satellites) was launched atop PSLV-C2 in May 1999
and placed in a polar sun-synchronous orbit of 720 km. It carried tow payloads on – board, viz, ocean
colour monitor (OCM) and a multi-frequency scanning microwave radiometer (MSMR).

IRS – P6 or RESOURCESAT- 1 was launched by PSLV in February 2003. It carried the following payloads:
a multi – spectral camera LISS – 3 providing 23.5 m spatial resolution in four spectral bands with a swath
of 140 km;
a high resolution multi – spectral camera LISS – 4 with across track steer ability providing 5.8 m spatial
resolution and 23.5 km swath and operating in three spectral bands; and
an advanced wide field sensor (AWIFS) with a spatial resolution better than 56 m in three spectral bands
and providing a swath of 740 km.

CARTOSAT-2 is an advanced remote sensing satellite with a single panchromatic camera capable of providing
scene specific spot imageries for cartographic applications. It was launched by PSLV-C7 from SHAR in
January 2007.

RISAT – 2 is a radar imaging satellite with all weather capability to take images of the earth. This satellite will
enhance ISRO’s capability for disaster management applications.
RISAT-2 was launched by PSLV C-12 in April 2009. It cans send clear and precise images of water bodies
and vegetation.
It will also segment India’s defense surveillance capabilities by helping the security agencies in monitoring
the international borders.

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Ocansat – 2 satellite was launched by PSSLV- C 14 from SHAR in September 2009 and placed in a polar sun
synchronous orbit. The satellite mainframe systems derive their heritage from previous IRS missions.

Navigation Satellites

In the emerging service of satellite based navigation system that has strategic as well as commercial
applications, ISRO has taken some small steps. It has the aim of meeting the emerging demands of the
civil aviation sector and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on
the independent satellite navigation system.
To meet the civil aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in
establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) System.
To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the indigenous
system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation
Satellite System (IRNSS), an independent regional satellite navigation system.
The space segment of IRNSS consists of seven satellites. This constellation of seven satellites was named
as ‘NAVIC’ (Navigation Indian Constellation) by Prime Minister Modi and dedicated to the nation on
the occasion of successful launch of IRNSS – 1G, the seventh and last satellite of NAVIC.
All seven satellites, namely, IRNSS- 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F and IG have been successfully launched and were
functioning satisfactorily from their designated orbital positions as of mid – 2016. All the satellites will
be visible at all times in the Indian region.
IRNSS would provide freedom to India during potential conflicts as it was dependent on America’s Global
Positioning System (GPS) and Russia’s GLONASS.
The maintenance and operation of The IRNSS constellation is the responsibility of the ground segment
which provides the monitoring of the constellation status, computation of the orbital and clock
parameters and navigation data uploading.
The Ground segment comprises of TTC & Uplinking station, Spacecraft Control Centre, IRNSS Timing Centre
CDMA Ranging Stations, Navigation Control Centre and Data Communication Links. It is designed to
provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the the region extending up to
1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area.
Two types of services are to be provided: Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS). It is
expected that a position accuracy of better than 20m will be provided in the primary service area. The
IRNSS satellites will be useful for land, sea and air navigation. They have civil and defence applications.

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GAGAN

It was reported in June 2015 that ISRO was ready to provide navigational support to the country’s Railways
through ‘GAGAN’ (GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation) system. ISRO would provide satellite.
Generated information to the railways through space technology- based tools that would provide safety at
unmanned level crossings. With the use of GAGAN software system, a train would know the location of
any unmanned level crossing and soon a warning signal can be given.
At some places the railway tracks are under stress. If water accumulation happens, then based on digital
elevation model data lot of information which they generate can be given.
ISRO scientists pointed out that there is specific information provided for aligning the railway tracks,
particularly in mountainous regions, and also identifying tracks which are most stable when you are going
through tunnels. In all these things, space technology is useful.
GAGAN is an indigenous navigational guide system developed by ISRO on the lines of the GPS system of the
US. It was jointly developed by the ISRO and Airports Authority of India (AAI) with a view to assist aircraft
in accurate landing. The GAGAN signal is being broadcasted through two Geostationary Earth orbit (GEO)
satellites – GSAT8 and GSAT10.

Space Missions

India’s Moon Mission; Chandrayaan-1 on October 22, 2008, the PSLV-C11, blasted off from SHAR, Sriharikota
with the 1380- kg Chandrayaan- 1, making India the sixth nation to launch a moon mission.
The remarkable fact about precisely insetting Chandrayaan into the lunar orbit was that India did it in its
very first attempt, where the U.S., a technological powerhouse, floundered in its several initial
attempts.
Japan and China are other countries who were also successful in their first attempt.
Mars Orbiter : Mangalyaan On November 5, the ISRO’s PSLV-C25 rocket launched the Mangalyaan spacecraft
in a bid to fulfill the ambitions of reaching the Red Planet. The launch saw the Mangalyaan spacecraft
placed in an argument of perigee of 282.75 degrees which was considered necessary to enable the actual
400 million-km transition towards Mars on November 30.
The 268.63 degree argument of apogee achieved by the launch was only fractionally off the 282.55 degree
that would have been considered perfect.
The launch of Mars orbiter by ISRO was timed to keep in tune with a 780-day occurrence when Mars
comes within 55 million km distance of Earth as compared to the otherwise 400 million km distance.
The launch set the ground for the minimum energy transfer of the spacecraft into the Mars orbit. ISRO
followed a strategy of space travel known as the Hohmann Transfer Orbit or a minimum energy
transfer orbit to send the spacecraft from Earth to Mars with the least amount of fuel possible.

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Launch Vehicle Technology

India has made tremendous strides in launch vehicle technology to achieve self – reliance in satellite launch
vehicle programme with the operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

SLV -The indigenous capability for the development of satellite launch vehicle (SLV), was demonstrated
through the first successful launch of SLV-3 in July 1980, carrying the 40- kilogram Rohini satellite.
India became the sixth country to have the capability to orbit its own satellite. The 22.7 m – tall SLV-3 was
an all solid four – stage vehicle and had a lift off-weight of 17 tonnes.
Two more launches of SLV-3s were conducted in 1981 and 1983, with the Rohini satellites on board
carrying application oriented solid state imaging sensors.
The efforts in launch vehicle development are now concentrated on developing enhanced capability
towards realising launchers for the Indian remote sensing satellites and, subsequently, for
communication satellites.

ASLV - The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), basically derived from SLV-3, was originally meant for
putting 150 kilogram class technological/scientific payloads into near-circular orbit.
The first two developmental flights of ASLV failed but they provided valuable inputs for the future flights
and also validated a number of technologies.
The third development flight of the ASLV lifted off to a perfect launch. It released a 106-kg satellite
stretched Rohini series (SROSS-C) into orbit. However, the success of the mission was partial.
The satellite was put in a suboptimal orbit, because of a problem in the altitude control system of the final
fourth stage of the launch vehicle (AS4). As a result, the satellite lasted for only 55 days instead of the
targeted 180 days, and burnt up in the atmosphere.

PSLV - The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) represents ISRO’s first attempt to design and develop an
operational vehicle that can be used to orbit application satellites. While SLV-3 secured for India a place
in the community of space-faring nations, the ASLV provided the rites of passage into launch vehicle
technology for ISRO.
With PSLV, a new world – class vehicle arrived. The first developmental flight of the PSLV failed but the
second one proved a grand success for India’s space programme. This achievement enabled India to
enter the world launch vehicle market.
The PSLV is a four-stage rocket. The first stage is a solid propellant motor with six SLV-3 first stage motors
strapped to it.
The second stage is based on the liquid engine technology of the European launch vehicle, Ariane,, and
uses liquid propellant. (These stages form the core of the next generation GSLV.)
The third stage is a solid propellant motor and the fourth, a liquid propellant stage. A closed loop
guidance system with on – board processor is employed for the vehicle.

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Cryogenic Engine

On January 5, 2014, ISRO successfully launched the GSLV-D5, carrying communication satellite GSAT-14, form
SHAR. With this, India joined the ‘cryo club’, a select group of space exploring nations having the crucial
cryogenic engine technology, which is necessary to carry heavy satellites.
Countries which have such a capability are the U.S.A, Russia, France, Japan and China. Until now, India had to
depend on other countries to launch satellites of more than three tonnes, which is a costly matter. The
successful launch of GSLV-D5 was crucial for India as this was the first step towards building rockets that
can carry heavier payloads.
The GSLV programme was started by ISRO in response to India’s mounting communications needs. By 1987,
the government had approved the development of the second generation INSAT-2 series of satellites,
weighing more than 2 tonnes. ISRO wanted to develop a 2.5 – tonne class of satellites and put them into
a geostationary transfer orbit at 36,000 km from earth’s surface.
ISRO also wanted to make a vehicle that would be bigger, lighter and more efficient than the PSLV. There were
three fuel options: earth storable, semi- cryogenic, and cryogenic.
Cryogenic engines, which use liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer and give the most thrust,
are usually prepared for the ‘upper stages’- the last stage of the rocket- because this stage provides 50
per cent of the velocity of 10.2 km per second needed at the point of injection of a satellite.
In 1986, at a cost of Rs. 12 crore, ISRO scientists began developing a one-tonne cryogenic engine to try and
understand how to handle liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. At the same time, a design team was formed
at ISRO’s Liquid propulsion Centre at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu to come up with the design of a seven –
tone turbo – fed engine.
Although this development boosted the confidence of ISRO engineers, it was quite clear to the scientists that
India could not wait much longer to develop the indigenous engine.

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Deciding to procure cryogenic engines from other countries, India approved an offer by the Soviet Union’s
Glavkosmos space agency in 1990 after rejecting offers from the U.S. and France for both the sale of
engines and transfer of technology. India sent scientists to Moscow to work with Soviet scientists.
However, the Indian scientists did not have access to everything and could not learn as much as they wanted
to. Then, 15 months after the deal was signed, the U.S. raised objections citing a violation of the
International Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).
The West feared that cryogenic technology could be used by India to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles,
though India firmly rejected such notions. In 1993, Glavkosmos withdrew from the deal and revoked the
transfer of the technology agreement.
A deal was renegotiated, and Russia decided to provide four fully functional engines and two mock-ups,
besides agreeing to supply three more cryogenic engines at a cost of $9 million. At this point, the Space
Commission of India approved a Rs.280 crore project to develop an Indian cryogenic engine, the C12.
The super performance cryogenic engine was conceived, configured and realised by the Liquid propulsion
Systems Centre (LPSC). It is important to note that the engine design was totally an in- house effort with
experts from different fields like fluid dynamics, combustion, thermal, structural, metallurgy, fabrication,
rotor dynamics, and control components working together.
The manufacturing of major subsystems was carried out through Indian industries whereas the assembling
and integration of the engine and testing were carried out in ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC).
In the past, the LPSC developed a cryogenic upper stage of 12.5 tonne propellant loading for GSLV MK – II but
compared to that stage, the C25 stage has a higher propellant loading (27 tonne verus 12.5 tonne) and
higher engine thrust (19 tonne versus 7.5 tonne).

Space Applications

Space applications, as the name suggests, refer to those aspects of space science research that can be of
benefit to various sections of humanity.
There are several areas in which space applications have their impact: communication, agriculture, weather
and meteorology, geographical studies, urban and rural planning, establishing connectivity, and disaster
management, to just name a few.
Smart governance is enabled by space applications. Reliable information on various aspects of land and water
resources as well as settlements- all of which can be got through satellite imagery- is vital for the task of
planning for sustainable development.
Dissemination of information to remotest and not easily accessible areas is enabled through satellite
communication so that governance can be decentralized and made effective.
The project ‘Space based information Support for Decentralized Planning’ could play an important role in
empowering the local bodies to prepare the action plans for development of their locality. Digital India
programme also helps in smart governance.

Satellite Communication

Satellite communication has had far- reaching impact on the people of the world. Our telephone system
including the vast increasing use of mobile telephone system depends on satellites. Diverse applications
like television, DTH broadcasting, DSNG and VSAT to exploit the unique capabilities in terms of overage
and outreach are based on the utilization of satellite communication.
Village resource centers programme has been launched with the help of NGOs and state and central agencies
to provide the space based services directly to the rural areas in many states and Union Territories.

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Programmes address fields like agriculture/horticulture development; water resources; telehealth care;
awareness programmes; women’s empowerment.
It also addresses supplementary education; computer literacy; micro – credit; micro – finance; and skill
development/ vocational training.
A striking application of telecommunication for societal benefit is the field of telemedicine. In India,
telemedicine programme started in 2001. Over time, the programme has connected remote /rural /
medical college hospitals and mobile units through the Indian satellites to major specialty hospitals in
cities and towns.
The network covers various states/ regions including Ladakh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep
Islands, the north eastern states and other mainland states.
Many tribal districts of Kerala, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Jharkhand and Rajasthan are covered.
ISRO or the DOS provide the systems software; hardware and communication equipment, besides the satellite
bandwidth; the state governments and the speciality hospitals allocate funds for their infrastructure and
human resources. After EDUSAT was decommissioned, INSAT- 3A, INDAT-3C and INSAT- 4A are working
for telemedicine.
Satellite communication is very effective in delivering tele-education to people in scattered areas. India’s first
thematic satellite dedicated exclusively for educational services, EDUSAT, was used widely in interactive
educational delivery modes like one-way TV broadcast, video conferencing, computer conferencing, and
web-based instructions.
Till September 2010 when it was decommissioned, EDUSAT (GSAT-3) provided connectivity to schools,
colleges and higher levels of education besides providing support to non-formal education.
Now the services are provided by INSAT-4CR, INSAT- 3A, INSAT – 3C and GSAT-12. The tele – education
programme also meets the needs of those with special requirements such as the blind.
With the launch of INSAT- 3C and GSAT- 2 an S-band mobile satellite service (MSS) was added to INSAT
system.
A small potable satellite terminal that works with INSAT for voice / data communication, developed with
the participation of Indian industries, is connected to the EPABX at central hub station through satellite
channel.
Hence it could be considered as an extension of EPABX. The terminal is useful for voice communication
especially during disasters when other means of communication are affected. It can be used from any
location in India for emergency communication.
INSAT provides hi-fi programme channels for national and regional radio networking. Several All India
Radio (AIR) stations have been equipped with receive terminals. Direct to home television channels
are also facilitated by the satellite system.

Earth Observations

Space – based remote sensing , due to its advantage of synoptic and repetitive coverage and providing data in
a quantifiable manner, has enabled the monitoring and assessment of natural resources and environment
periodically and, thus, helps the decision makers to appropriately integrate the same with other
conventional inputs.
Under the aegis of NNRMS, projects of direct national relevance are being carried out by DOS as the nodal
agency of NNRMS, with the active involvement of user agencies.
Remote sensing has enabled mapping, studying, monitoring and management of various resources like
agriculture, forestry, geology, water, ocean etc. It has further enabled monitoring of environment and
thereby helping in conservation.

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Over time it has grown as a major tool for collecting information on almost every aspect on the earth. With
the availability of very high special resolution satellites in the recent years, the applications have
multiplied.
In India remote sensing has been used for various applications during the last few decades and has contributed
significantly towards development.
Remote sensing has numerous benefits for people, and the Indian remote sensing programme is
dovetailed to meet to needs of people.
In 1970, this first pilot project based on remote sensing was directed towards identifying coconut root-
wilt disease in Kerala. After this, the development of Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites took place.
The remote sensing satellites are equipped with a variety of devices to provide necessary date in
diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to meet the needs of different user requirements
in the county and the world.
The IRS satellites observe Earth from space and provide periodically synoptic and systematic information
regarding the land ocean and atmosphere and several aspects of environment. The governments take into
account this information before formulating programmes for:
food and water security,
sustaining our environment and eco-system,
understanding weather and climate,
monitoring and management of natural resources,
planning and monitoring of developmental activates,
support to management and mitigation during disaster events, and
information for better governance.
The private sector, non-governmental organizations and academic sector also make use of this technology in
different developmental sectors of the country. Rural development makes use of this technology in the
National Drinking Water Mission; wasteland mapping; watershed development and monitoring; besides
land records modernization.
In the field of agriculture and soil study, remote sensing technology is used for forecasting crop
production; mapping saline/ sodic soils; agro met services and disaster surveillance (pest, floods,
drought); and for horticulture development.
Satellite date provides important information for cropping system analysis, which includes crop area,
cropping pattern, crop rotation, crop calendar, crop vigour, soil type, etc.
The cropping patterns of Kharif, Rabi and summer season are combined to generate crop rotation
(sequence in which crops are grown in the same field during an agricultural year). These maps are of
use in assessing the crop diversity and cropping intensity.
Space applications have been adapted to respond integrated development of land and water resources, and
assess the improvements of the treated watershed. The integrated Mission for Sustainable Development
(IMSD) contributed towards soil and water conservation measures in drought prone and rainfed areas as
has the Sujala Watershed Development Programme.
Remote sensing techniques have helped to identify those areas which are undergoing fast degradation,
diagnose the potential and constraints of the land and suggest suitable remedial measures for
developing these degraded lands.
Satellite date has helped to map the area under sodic soil so the physical intervention like addition of
gypsum and improvements of drainage networks could be undertaken to reclaim the degraded soils
and restore the productivity. Waterlogged areas have similarly been identifies so that reclamation
efforts could be undertaken.
Under the Wasteland Mapping and Monitoring Project, remote sensing based mapping and monitoring of
wastelands over the entire country has been carried out and the total wasteland area in the country has
been put at 46.72 million hectares.

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This information has helped the Ministry of Rural Development of plan and implements wasteland
development activities.
Diversification and intensification of agriculture activities, especially in the rained areas, have also been
facilitated by this information.
The food security needs of a huge population requires a focus on development of rain – fed areas, degraded
lands, analysis of cropping system, proper monitoring and management of agricultural practices, assessing
the impact of droughts and floods and so on.
In this context, remote sensing technology is being effectively used in various aspects of agriculture crop
management and planning in support of timely import/export decisions and enhancing food security.
There is a need for reliable information on crop acreages, timely forecasts and estimates of production
and yields to help in domestic and foreign trade as well as for various downstream and upstream
activities.
Satellite date is analysed with ground based information on agro-meterology, market economics to
estimate crop acreage and production for major crops in the country, much before the harvest.
Timely information has brought down the gaps between crop production and post – harvest technology,
and facilitates decisions with regards to policy, pricing, procurement; etc.
The operational methodology is now institutionalized by setting up Mahalanobis National Crop
Forecasting Centre under the agriculture ministry in the Pusa campus, New Delhi.
In the context of global warming and fears of water shortage, water security has assumed importance. It
becomes necessary to assess and conserve the water. Spatial analysis of temporal satellite date has been
facilitating the evaluation of irrigation commands, reservoir capacity surveys, assessing gaps in potential
irrigation and utilisation, etc.
In recent times, noteworthy changes have taken place in India in the use of groundwater for irrigation as
well as for domestic use.
The alarming depletion of water tables, contamination (by fluoride and nitrates) and over –extraction of
groundwater have become critical issues in several regions of India.
Satellite date is used to identify the potential ground water sources and recharge sites, in a phased
manner. Satellite data helps in estimation of snow melt run – off; evaluation of reservoir capacity;
and selection of sites for hydro – power installations as well.
The need of judicious planning of water conservation and its distribution being fully understood, a major
project, Web Enabled Water Resources Information System (Indian – WRIS), has been taken up in
collaboration with Central Water Commission.
In the field of fishery, the people concerned have benefited from information on where the fish it to be found
in the seas. Advisories based on satellite studies on potential fishing zones are made available in local
language to the fishing zones by INCOIS; this has resulted in reduced time and effort required in fishing,
besides increased fish catch.
In the area of bio-resources and environment, remote sensing in useful in mapping forest cover and type;
creating wetland inventory and conservation plans; biodiversity characterization; mapping desertification
status; studies of coasts, mangroves, corals; and studies of snow cover and glaciers.
Remote sensing date has greatly helped us understand the loss of forest cover, resource depletion,
assessment of trees outside forest and planning for sustainable use of forest.
The forest Survey of India assesses the forest cover of the country on a two – year cycle, at national and
state level, to enable conservation measures to be planned.
Indian Forest Cover change Alert System, using high temporal resolution Resources AWIFS data, has been
initiated at the behest of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to establish a sub – annual forest
cover change monitoring.
It is through satellite data that the spatial distribution of different vegetation communities at landscape level
especially in the Eastern and Western Himalayas, the Shivaliks, the Vindhyan, the Eastern and Western

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Ghats and coastal areas, have been derived and the impacts of human activities on these plants and
vegetations could be studied.
It is reported that 125 vegetation types have been mapped for the entire country and a database of 6000
species has been generated under the Biodiversity Characterization Project, funded by the biotechnology
department.
The suitability of the wasteland pockets for the cultivation of natural rubber has been analysed on the basis
of remote sensing data, considering soil-climatic variables and land characteristics like soil fertility,
climate, slope, drainage, etc.
Sericulture development has benefited from the application of remote sensing and GIS. The changing nature
of the coastal zones calls for regular monitoring so that integrated management plans can be made for
sustainable conservation of coastal areas.
Satellite data has been valuable in the study of coastal zones, including coastal land use mapping, inventory
of coastal habitats, ecological status of all marine protected areas and the impact of rise in sea leave.
Wetlands in the country have been mapped with the help of satellite data so that national and state level at
least could be brought out: this would improve our understanding of the dynamics and distribution of
wetlands and their status as well help in planning conservation measures.
Remote sensing helps in making periodic inventory of natural resources. The Natural Resources Census
Project aims at generation of a set of thematic maps through systematic inventory and mapping from
space-based images and creation of a geospatial database for the whole country.
Using satellite data at different spatial resolutions, the project prepares natural resources information layers,
namely, land use / land cover, land degradation, wetlands, vegetation, snow and glaciers and
geomorphology at 1:50,000 scale.
In the field of geology, it is used for landslide hazard zonation; mineral exploration, locating mining areas;
seismic-tectonic studies; and engineering and geo-environmental studies.
In the context or urban infrastructure, remote sensing helps in mapping the urban sprawl in major cities;
making master plans and development plans of cities of towns; generating bee maps for towns; and
providing data for the national urban information system.
Remote sensing helps in oceanography by providing ocean primary productivity studies; oceans status
forecast; and strong surge modeling. It helps in regional weather predication, tropical cyclone and
musicale studies and extended range monsoon prediction.
In the context of weather and meteorology, the meteorological satellites provide a synoptic measurement of
weather parameters art frequent intervals. The satellite images on cloud cover and various parameters
such as winds, rainfall, sea surface temperature, etc., have become integral to weather forecasting.
In the field of climate change, studies which have assumed great importance now, remote sensing is used for
mapping the indications, monitoring the agents and modeling the impact; assessing the characterization
of climate variables; and studying methane emission and eh timber line.
Cartography gains in accuracy and can be done in minute scales with the help of earth observation satellites.

Disaster Management

Space application is useful in operationally addressing various natural disasters like floods, cyclone, drought,
landslide, earthquake and forest fire.
Earth observation provides the data in time and warnings and quick action can be taken to mitigate or prevent
the disaster from having too great a destructive effect. Research and development on early warning
systems and decision support tools are facilitated.

International Cooperation in Space

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India’s Department of Space places great emphasis on working together with other countries and international
bodies with the countries and international bodies in promoting the development and use of space
technology for different applications. The four major facets of international cooperation in which DOS
takes part are:
working with other space agencies in programmes of mutual interest,
participating in international committees and other forums dealing with space policies and coordination
of space operations,
seeking support from other countries for India’s space activities, and
providing expertise and services to other developing countries in the applications of space technology.
At present, DOS and ISRO have formal memoranda of understanding (MoU) or agreements with Australia,
Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, China, EUMETSAT-I, Europena Space Agency (ESA), France, Germany,
Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Mauritius, The Netherlands, Norway, Peru, Russia, Sweden, Syria,
Thailand, UK, Ukraine, and USA.
The Indo- French joint satellite mission, Megha- Tropiques, taken up by ISRO and CNES for study of the tropical
atmosphere and climate related to aspects such as monsoons, cyclones, etc, is progressing well. India plays
an active role in several international bodies such as:
the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPUOS),
United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific (UN-ESCAP),
the international COSPAS-SARSAT system for search and rescue operations,
the International Astronautical Federation (IAF),
the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS),
the committee on space Research (COSPAR),
the Inter Agency Debris Coordination Committee (IADC),
the space Frequency Coordination Group (SFCG),
the coordinating Group on Metrological Satellites (CGMS),
the International Space University (ISU),
the Asian Association for Remote Sensing (AARS),
the Internation Society for Photogrammety and Remote Sensing (ISPRS), etc.
After becoming a partner in the International Charter for Space and Major Disasters along with CNES, ESA, the
Canadian Space AGENCY (CSA) and NOAA, ISRO is working together with the other partners in planning to
provide satellite date for the management of natural disasters.
The Centre for Space Science and Technology Education for Asia and THE Pacific (CSSTE- AP) has been set up
in India under the initiative of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (UN OOSA) and offers ten month post
– graduate diploma courses in various spaces – related disciplines.

DEFENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

The Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is the nodal research and development agency
of Government of India in the field of defence. It is headquartered in New Delhi and was formed in the
year 1958.
It is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India. DRDO undertakes
research and development activities in various technologies related to defence.
Unlike ISRO, which is solely responsible for achievements in the field of space technology, our defence
technology equipment is mostly imported or produced with foreign collaboration. Only some part of it is
indigenous.
MISSILES

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Missiles are the most important component of a nation’s defence capability. They are used to intercept
incoming objects such as missiles and aircrafts of enemy nations as well as to launch an offensive strike.
The missile technology is deeply linked to launch vehicle technology used for various space missions. Based
on their principles, missiles are classified into different types. On the basis of range, they are classified
into:
Short range missiles: These missiles have a range of less than 500km.
Intermediate range missiles: These missiles have a range of 500-5,000km.
Long range missiles: These missiles have a range of more than 5,000 km. These missiles are also called
intercontinental missiles.
On the basis of starting and ending points, they are classified into:
Surface to surface missiles: These missiles are launched from land and hit their target present on land.
Surface to air missiles: These missiles are launched from land and hit their target in the air such as an
aircraft or an incoming missile.
Air to air missiles: These missiles are launched from air i.e., aircraft and hit their target in the air such as
an aircraft or an incoming missile.
On the basis of path/trajectory, they are classified into:
Ballistic missiles: These missiles travel outside Earth’s atmosphere and re-enter into Earth’s atmosphere.
A ballistic missile is only guided during relatively brief periods of flight, during initial launch and when
it is about to hit the target.
Most of its trajectory is unpowered and governed by gravity and air resistance. The ballistic missile
covers a large distance under the influence of gravity and its re – entry into the atmosphere.
Ballistic missiles are highly fuel-efficient. There have fuel requirements only during the lift – off phase
and course correction.
Due to fuel efficiency, their pay load carrying capacity is significantly more than that of the cruise
missiles. Ballistic missile technology is important for developing and long range missiles.
Cruise missiles: These missiles travel parallel to the surface of earth. They are guided throughout their
path and remain in the atmosphere. They maintain constant speed. Cruise missile technology is
suitable for short-range missiles.
On the basis of utility, they are classified into:
Strategic missiles: Strategic weapons are those weapons which can be aimed upon distant targets. Usually,
medium- and long – range weapons are regarded as strategic weapons.
Tactical missiles: Tactical weapons are useful for local battlefield use, and are designed to be deployed
against targets strictly of immediate military value. Tactical weapons are short – range weapons.

Space Garbage and Dealing With it

Space Scientists have been working to find a way of capturing and securing space junk. Scientists estimate that
1,000 – 10, 000 tonnes of meteoritic material falls on the earth each day. Launches have left earth
surrounded by a halo of space junk: more than 17,000 tractable objects larger than a coffee cup which
threatens working missions with catastrophic collision.
Cast – off equipment, including old satellites, pieces of rocket and other fragments are uselessly orbiting the
earth in a band 800-1,400 kilometers from the surface of the planet at terrific speed. Several different
solutions have been considered to address the problem including a thrownet, clamping mechanisms,
robotic arms and a tethered harpoon.
The European Space Agency’s (ESA) ambitious mission called e. DeOrbit would use a satellite to net space
debris and remove it from low earth orbit, it was reported in June 2014. The agency’s Clean Space

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initiative is studying the e-DeOrbit mission for removing all the space debris, thus aiming to reduce the
environmental impact of the space industry on earth and space alike.

*****

3. NUCLEAR SCIENCE

Nuclear Science

Radioactivity

The property of certain types of matter by which they emit energy and subatomic particles spontaneously is
known as radioactivity. The property is, in fact, and attribute of individual atomic nuclei.
Unstable atomic nuclei will spontaneously decompose to form nuclei will spontaneously decompose to form
nuclei with a higher stability. The energy and particles which are released during the decomposition
process are called radiations. When unstable nuclei decompose in nature, the process is referred to as
natural radioactivity.
When the unstable nuclei are prepared in the laboratory, the decomposition is called induced radioactivity.
The nuclei will decompose into more stable configurations only in a few specific ways by admitting certain
particles or certain forms of electromagnetic energy.

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Radiation

Radiation exists naturally everywhere: it is the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving
subatomic particles. The wide range of energies that form the electromagnetic spectrum characterizes
radiation.
There are two major divisions in the spectrum: non-ionising radiation and ionizing. Non – ionizing radiation
is radiation with enough energy to move around atoms in a molecule or cause them to vibrate, but not
enough to remove electrons.
Examples of such radiation are the infrared radiation that can be used to keep food warm, microwave
radiation that is used to cook, and radio and telecommunication waves that are used in broadcasts
and phone/cell phone communication.
Ionizing radiation is radiation with enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, thus
creating ions. When people refer to ‘radiation’, it is this type they mean. Its properties are put to use in
the generation of electricity of electricity and in destroying cancer cells, besides many manufacturing
processes.
Alpha particles have a positive electrical charge. They consist of two protons and two neutrons, and are
identical with the nuclei of helium atoms. Alpha particles are emitted with high energies, but lose energy
rapidly when passing through matter.
Beta particles are high – energy (high – speed) particles that have been emitted by an unstable atom. They
have almost no mass and travel at approximately 250,000 kilometers per second. Beta particles may be
negatively charged (beta minus), or positively charged (beta plus).
The beta minus particle is actually an electron created in the nucleus during beta decay without any
relationship to the orbital electron cloud of the atom.
The beta plus particles, also called the positron, is the antiparticle of the electron; when brought together,
two such particles will mutually annihilate each other.
Gamma rays are quanta (pulses) of high energy emitted from an unstable atom. Gamma radiation may occur
in several ways. In one process, the alpha or beta particle emitted by a nucleus does not carry off all the
energy available.
After emission, the nucleus has more energy than in its most stable state. It rids itself of the excess by
emitting gamma rays. Gamma rays have no electrical charge.
They are similar to X-rays, but they usually have a shorter wavelength. Whereas X-rays. Cobalt is a pure
gamma source. Beta particles are much more penetrating than alpha and beta particles.

Radioactive Decay

Atoms that are either missing or have extra electrons and so have a charge are known as ions. An atom that
has one neutron less or one extra neutron is called an isotope. Radioactive isotopes or radio-isotopes are
isotopes of an element having an unstable nucleus that decays (emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays) until
stability is reached.
Scientists measure radioactive decay in units of time called half-lives. A half-life equals the time required for
half the atoms of a particular radioactive element of isotope to decay into another elements or isotope.

Radioactive (or radiometric) Dating

Radioactive dating is the calculation of a substance’s age by measuring the radioactive material it contains or
of the amount of natural atomic fission that has occurred in the substance. These methods of calculating
age are used in geology, anthropology, archaeology, and other fields.

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The age of organic material (material of plant or animal origin) up to some 50,000 years in age can be
calculated using a radioactive isotope of carbon. Radiocarbon dating (or simply carbon dating) is a process
used to determine the age of an ancient object by measuring its radiocarbon content.
This technique was developed in the late 1940s by Willard F. Libby, an American Chemist. Radiocarbon atoms,
like all radioactive substance, decay at an exact and uniform rate. Half of the radiocarbon disappears after
5,730 years.
Therefore, radiocarbon has a half-life of that period of time. After about 11,400 years, a fourth of the original
amount of radiocarbon remains. After another 5,730 years, only an eight remains, and so on.

Nuclear Power

Nuclear energy results from changes in the nucleus of atoms. Scientists and engineers have found many uses
for this energy, especially in producing electricity. But they do not yet have the ability to make full use of
nuclear power. If nuclear energy were fully developed, it could supply the entire world’s electricity for
millions of years.
A nucleus make up most of the mass of every atom and this nucleus is held together by an extremely powerful
force. A huge amount of energy is concentrated in the nucleus because of this force.
Scientists first released nuclear energy on a large scale at the University of Chicago in 1942, three years after
World War II began. This achievement led to the development of the atomic bomb. It is since 1945 that
nuclear energy has been put to peaceful uses such as production of electricity.
Einstein pointed out that if the energy of a body changes by an amount E, its mass changes by an amount m
given by the equation, E = mc2 . The implication is that any reaction in which there is a decrease of mass,
called a mass defect, is a source of energy.
The energy and mass changes in physical and chemical changes are very small; those in some nuclear reactions,
such as radioactive decay, are millions of times greater. The sum of the masses of the products of a nuclear
reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the reacting particles. This lost mass is converted into energy.
Electricity generated from nuclear means is unique in that it inherently addresses many of the short-comings
of the other means for power generation. The use of nuclear power provides answers for many problems
in the areas of the environment, safety, economics, reliability, sustainability, and even waste.

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the process whereby an atomic nucleus breaks up into two or more major fragments with
the emission of two or three neutrons. It is accompanied by the release of energy in the form of gamma
radiation and the kinetic energy of the emitted particles.
Fission occurs spontaneously in nuclei of uranium-235, the main fuel used in nuclear reactors. However, the
process can also be induced by bombarding nuclei with neutrons because a nucleus that has absorbed a
neutron becomes unstable and soon splits.
If the fission neutrons split other uranium-235 nuclei, a chain reaction is set up. In practice, some fission
neutrons are lost by escaping from the surface of the uranium before this happens. The ration of those
escaping to those causing fission decreases as the mass of uranium-235 increases.
This must exceed a certain critical mass for a chain reaction to start. Critical mass is thus the minimum mass
of fissile material that can undergo a continuous chain reaction. Above the critical mass, the reaction may
accelerate into a nuclear explosion if uncontrolled.
The U-238 isotope would make an ideal nuclear reactor fuel because it is abundant in nature. But U–238 nuclei
usually absorb free neutrons without fissioning.

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An absorbed neutron simply becomes part of the nucleus. The scarce uranium isotope U-235 is the only natural
material that nuclear reactors can use to produce a chain reaction. Uranium with an abundant amount of
U-235 is called enriched uranium.

Nuclear Reaction

A nuclear reactor is the central component of a nuclear power station that generates nuclear energy under
controlled conditions for use as a source of electrical power. Power reactors generally consist of three
main parts. They are:
the reactor, or pressure, vessel;
the core; and
control rods.
The reactor vessel holds the other reactor parts. It is installed near the base of the reactor building. The vessel
has steel walls at least 15 centimeters thick. Steel pipes lead into and out of the vessel to carry water and
steam.
The core contains the nuclear fuel and so is the part of the reactor where fission occurs. The core is near the
bottom of the reactor vessel. It consists mainly of the nuclear fuel held in place between an upper and a
lower support plate.
Control rods are long metal rods that contain such elements as boron or cadmium. These elements absorb
free neutrons and thus help control a chain reaction. The control rods are inserted into the core or
withdraw to slow down or speed up a chain reaction.
Moderators and Coolants Reactor operations also depend on substances called moderators and coolants. A
moderator is a substance, such as water or carbon that slows down neutrons which pass through it.
Reactors require a moderator because the neutrons released by fission are fast neutrons. But slow neutrons
are needed to cause a chain reaction in the mixture of U- 2385 and U-235 that reactors use as fuel.
A coolant is a substance, such as water or carbon dioxide, that conducts heat well but does not easily absorb
free neutrons. The coolant carries heat from the chain reaction. By doing so, the coolant servers both to
prevent the reactor core from melting and two produce steam.
Many power reactors are light water reactors, which use light (ordinary) water as both the moderator and the
coolant. Heavy water reactors use deuterium oxide, or heavy water, as both the moderator and the
coolant, Graphite is another moderator. Indian reactors (except the one at Tarapur) use heavy water.
Fuel Preparation The uranium used in light waters reactors must be enriched-that is, the percentage of U-235
must be increased. Free neutrons then have a better chance of striking a U-235 nucleus.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion occurs when two lightweight nuclei fuse (combine) and form a nucleus of a heavier element.
The products of the fusion weigh less than the combined weights of the original nuclei. The lost matter
has therefore been changed into energy.
Fusion reactions that produce large amounts of energy can be created only by means of extremely intense
heat. Such reactions are called Thermo – nuclear reactions. Thermonuclear reactions produce the energy
of both the sun and the hydrogen bomb.

Applications of Nuclear S&T

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Nuclear science and technology have led to the betterment of human life in many ways. Besides the provision
of electricity, nuclear power is used for propulsion purposes in ships, submarines and even rockets.
Radioisotopes find application in many fields for the benefit of humanity.
Many radioisotopes are made in nuclear reactors, some in cyclotrons (particle accelerators). Generally
neutron-rich ones and those resulting from nuclear fission need to be made in reactors, while neutron
depleted ones are made in cyclotrons.

Commercial and Industrial Uses

Commercial use of radiation include irradiators (machines used to kill bacteria and other pathogens in food
and other items), devices that test the density of highway and construction materials, emergency exit
signs, pacemakers, smoke detectors, and security screening at airports and shipping ports.
Radioluminescence, the phenomenon by which light is produced in a material by bombardment with ionizing
radiation such as beta particles, is made use of in emergency exit signs or other applications where light
must be produced for long times without external energy sources.
Tritium is used with phosphor in rifle sights to increase firing accuracy in the dark. Some runway markers and
building exit signs use the same technology, to remain illuminated during blackouts. Tritium is also used
by watchmakers to make dials glow.
Betavoltaics are generators of electrical current (a form of battery), using energy from a radioactive source
emitting beta particles. A common source used is tritium. Betavoltaic power sources are particularly well
– suited to low- power electrical applications where long life of the energy source is needed.
Such as artificial pacemaker and cochlear implants or military; and space applications. Ionization is useful
in smoke detection.
Radioactive americium releases alpha radiation, which ionizes the air inside the smoke detector. Smoke
from a fire absorbs alpha radiation, altering the ionization and triggering the alarm.
In industry, beta radiation is used as tracers and for monitoring the thickness of materials.
Tracers are radioactive chemicals that are used for medical imaging. Certain chemicals concentrate in different
damaged or diseased parts of the body, and the radiation concentrates with it. Radiation detectors placed
outside the body detect the radiation emitted and, with the aid of computers, build up an image of internal
organs of the body.
In industry, radiation in detectors can monitor and control the thickness of materials such as paper, plastic
and aluminum. The thicker the material, the more radiation is absorbed and less the radiation that reaches
the detector. Signals are sent to the equipment that corrects the thickness of the material.
Radioisotopes provide tracers that allow for inspection and detection of pollutants, gauges that materials,
radiography techniques that identify invisible cracks before they affect bridges, pipelines or heavy
equipment.
Since radioactive isotopes behave, chemically, mostly like the inactive element, the behavior of a certain
chemical substance can be followed by tracing the radioactivity. Adding a gamma tracer to a gas or
liquid in a closed system makes it possible to find a hole in a tube.
Adding a tracer to the surface of the component of a motor makes it possible to measure wheat by
measuring the activity of the lubricating oil.
Gamma rays can be used to examine metallic castings or welds in oil pipelines for weak points. The rays
pass through the metal and darken a photographic film at places opposite the weak spots.
Manufacturers may place a radio-isotope that emits beta particles above a sheet of material. A beta-
particle detector on the other side measures the strength of the radiations coming through. If the
sheet thickness increases, fewer particles reach the detector.

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The detector can control rollers and keep the sheet at desired thicknesses. Gamma radiation may be used
in pest control, especially ingrain stores. Irradiated food has a longer shelf life.
Radioisotopes may be used to sterilize items including cosmetics, medical products and surgical
instruments. Safer and cheaper than other methods, radiation sterilizes after an item is packaged and
provides for an extended shelf life. Gamma radiation is used in the treatment of cancel, testing
equipment and sterilizing medical instruments.

Nuclear Waste Disposal In India

Management of radioactive waste in Indian context includes all types of radioactive wastes generated from
the entire nuclear fuel cycle and also from installations using radionuclindes in medicine, industry and
research. In the choice of processes and technologies adopted utmost emphasis is given to waste
minimization and volume reduction.
The comprehensive radioactive waste management operations are carried out fulfilling all prescribed
regulatory requirements. Latest technology is used for disposing the nuclear waste generated during
operation of nuclear power plants.
The low and intermediate level nuclear waste containing radioactive substances with short half life are
generated at nuclear power plants and are processed at the site.
The waste generated during operation and maintenance of nuclear power plants is segregated, its volume
reduced using various technologies and solidified by fixing this in materials like cement, polymers,
glass etc., to ensure that it does not move, so as to facilitate handling, transport and disposal.
As the waste is fixed in cement, glass, polymer, it is immobilized and its placement in high integrity
containers inside a pit ensures that the radioactive wastes is completely insulated from the
environment.
Disposal of low and intermediate level waste is carried out in specially constructed structures such as stone
lined trenches, reinforced concrete trenches and tile holes. These disposal structures are located both
above and underground in access- controlled areas.
Disposal system is designed based on multi barrier principle for ensuring effective containment of the
radioactivity. The areas where the disposal structures are located are kept under constant surveillance
with the help of bore-wells laid out in a planned manner.
The underground soil and water samples from these bore wells are routinely monitored to confirm effective
confinement of radioactivity present in the disposed waste.
Gaseous waste is treated at the source of generation. The techniques used are adsorption on activated
charcoal and filtration by high efficiency particulate air filters. The treated gases are then diluted with
exhaust air and discharged through a tall stack with monitoring.
Liquid waste streams are treated by various techniques, such as filtration, adsorption, chemical treatment,
evaporation, ion exchange; reverse osmosis etc. depending upon the nature, volume and radioactivity
content.
The emphasis is on volume reduction and the concentrate generated therefore is immobilized in inert
materials like cement, etc. The radioactivity level of the stored wastes reduces with time and by the end
of the plant life, including decommissioning falls to normal levels.
Such facilities for handling low and intermediate level waste are located at all the nucler power stations
viz. Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh),
Kakrapar ( Gujarat) and Kaiga ( Karnataka).
The quantity of low and intermediate level waste to be stored at site during the life time including
decommissioning is within 0.15 cubic meters / year MW.

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The spent fuel which contains long lived radioisotopes are stored for a long period to reduce the level of
radioactivity and subsequently reprocessed at reprocessing plants for collecting fissile elements. The
generation of HLW is at reprocessing plants.
The quantity of this waste in India is much smaller due to the adoption of the closed fuel cycle. During
reprocessing, only about two to three per cent of the spent fuel becomes waste and the rest is recycled.
This waste, called high level waste (HLW), is converted into glass through a process, called nitrification. The
vitrified waste is stored in a solid storage surveillance facility (engineered vaults) with necessary
surveillance facilities, for some 30-40 years for natural cooling.
After cooling down in these storage facilities, wastes containers will be stored for long term in deep geological
repositories. The need for a deep geological repository will arise only after three top four decades.

India’s Nuclear Science Programme

Organisation

The executive agency for all activities pertaining to atomic energy in the country is the Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE), which was set up in 1954. Policies pertaining to the functioning of DAE are laid down by the
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) which was set up in 1948.
The DAE has all along been under the charge of the prime minister. The programmes of the DAE are geared
towards:
enhancing the share of unclear power through deployment of indigenous and other proven technologies,
and also developing fast breeder reactors, and thorium reactors with associated fuel cycle facilities;
building and operation of research reactors for production of radioisotopes, and carrying out radiation
technology applications in the field of medicine, agriculture and industry;
developing advanced technologies, advanced materials and instrumentation, and encouraging transfer of
ethnology to industry;
supporting basic research in nuclear energy and related frontier areas of science;
interacting with universities and academic institution;
supporting research and development projects having a bearing on DAE’s programmes, and
international cooperation in related advanced areas of research, and contribution to national security.
When the country’s atomic energy programme was launched in a three – stage nuclear energy programme
was envisaged to use the available uranium and vast thorium resources.
First stage: Build natural uranium – fuelled pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) which would
produce power, and plutonium as a by-product.
Second stage: Build plutonium – fuelled fast breeder reactors which, in addition to producing power and
plutonium, would give U-238 from thorium.
Third stage: Once the size of the programme becomes large, sizable quantities of U – 233 from thorium
could be produced to start a series of thorium U-233 fuelled reactors.
The first phase has reached the commercial stage. The second phase has commenced with the successful
operation of the fast breeder test reactor (FBTR) at Kalpakkam. Progress has also been made in the third
stage with the successful development of a U-233 based fuel.

Power Production

The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL) is responsible for designing, constructing, commissioning
and operating all nuclear power reactors in the country.

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The two Tarapur 150 MWe Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) BUILT BY General Electic on a turnkey contract
before the advent of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty were originally 200 MWe. They were down –
rated due to recurrent problems but have run well since.
They have been using imported enriched uranium and are under International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) safeguards. However, late in 2004 Russia deferred to the Nuclear Suppliers’ Group and declined
to supply further uranium for them.
They underwent six months refurbishment over 2005-06, and in March 2006 Russia agreed to resume fuel
supply. In December 2008 a $ 700 million contract with Rosatom was announced for continued
uranium supply to them.
The two small Canadian (Candu) PHWRs at Rajasthan nuclear power plant started up in 1972 & 1980, and
are also under safeguards. Rajasthan I was down – rated early in its life and has operated very little
since 2002 due to ongoing problems and has been shut down since 2004 as the government considers
its future.
Rajasthan 2 was downrated in 1990. It had major refurbishment 2007-09 and has been running on
imported uranium at full capacity. The 220 MWe PHWRs (202 MWe net) were indigenously designed
and constructed by NPCIL, based on a Canadian design.
The only accident to an Indian nuclear plant was due to a turbine hall fire in 1993 at Narora, which resulted in
a 17-hour total station blackout, There was no core damage or radiological impact and it was rated 3 on
the INES scale – a ‘serious incident’.
The Madras (MAPS) reactors were refurbished in 2002-03 and 2004-05 and their capacity restored to 220
MWe gross (from 170). Much of the core of each reactor was replaced, and the lifespans extended to
2033/36.
Kakrapar unit 1 was fully refurbished and upgraded in 2009-10, after 16 year operation, as was Narora 2, with
cooling channel (calandria tube) replacement.
Following the Fukushima accident in March 2011, four NPCIL taskforces evaluated the situation in India and in
an interim report in July made recommendations for safety improvements of the Tarapur BWRs and each
PHWR type.
The report of a high – level committee appointed by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) was
submitted at the end of August 2011, saying that the Tarapur and Maadras plants needed some
supplementary provisions to cope with major disasters.
The two Tarapur BWRs have already been upgraded to ensure continuous cooling of the reactor during
prolonged station blackouts and to provide nitrogen injection to containment structures, but further
work is recommended.
Madras needs enhanced flood faiences in case of tsunamis higher than that in 2004. The prototype fast
breeder reactor (PFR) under construction next door at Kalpakkam has defenses which are already
sufficiently high, following some flooding of the site in 2004.
The Tarapur 3 and 4 reactores of 540 MWe gross ( 490 MWe net) were developed indigenously from the
220 MWe (gross) model PHWR and were built by NPCIL. The first – Tarapur 4 – was connected to the
grid in June 2005 and started commercial operation in September.
Tarapur 4’s criticality came five years after pouring first concrete and seven months ahead of schedule. Its
twin unit 3- was about a year behind it and was connected to the grid in June 2006 which commercial
operation in August, five months ahead of schedule. Tarapur 3 & 4 cost about $1200/ KW, and are
competitive with imported coal.
Future indigenous PHWR rectors will be 700 MWe gross (640 MWe net). The first four are being built at
Kakrapar and Rajasthan. They are due on line by 2017 after 60 months construction from first concrete
to criticality. Cost is quoted at about Rs 12,000 crore (120 billion rupees) each, or $1700. Kw.
Up to 40% of the fuel they use will be slightly enriched uranium (SEU) – about 1.1% U-235, to achieve higher
fuel burn-up – about 21,000 MWd/t instead of one third of this. Initially this fuel will be imported as SEU.

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Kudankualm I and 2: Russia’s Atomstroyexport is supplying the country’s first large nuclear powr plant,
comprising two VVER- 1000 reactors, under a Russian financed US$ 3 billion contract. A long – term credit
facility covers about half the cost of the plant.
The AES-92 Units at Kundankulam in Tamil Nadu state have been built NPCIL and also commissioned and
operated by NPCIL under IAEA safeguards.
The turbines are made by Leningrad Metal Works. Unlike other Atomstroyexport projects such as in Iran,
there have been only about 80 Russian supervisory staff on the Job. Construction started in March
2002.
Russia is supplying all the enriched fuel through the life of the plant, through India will reprocess it and keep
the plutonium. (The original agreement in 1988 specified return of used fuel to Russia, but a 1998
supplemental agreement allowed India to retain and reprocess it.)
The first unit was due to start supplying power in March 2008 and go into commercial operation late in 2008,
but this schedule has slipped by five years. In the latter part of 2011 and into 2012 completion and fuel
loading was delayed by public protests, but in March 2012 the state government approved the plant’s
commissioning and said it would deal with any obstruction.
Fuel loading was in September, and unit 1 started up in mid-July 2013, with unit 2 expected to do so late in
2014. Unit 1 was connected to the grid in October 2013 and was expected commercial operation in August
2014 after reaching full power, with unit 2 following in March 2015 after late 2014 start-up. Each is 917
MWe net.

R&D Units

A significant feature of the Indian atomic energy programme is that it has all along been backed by a
comprehensive R & D programme encompassing a wide range of multi-disciplinary activities relating to
atomic energy.
This includes fundamental research in basis sciences, disciplines like nuclear engineering, metallurgy,
medicine, agriculture, isotopes, etc. Research is also being carried out in FBR technology and frontline
areas like fusion, lasers and accelerators.
All the organizations of DAE which are engaged in these activities can be considered to be one of the following
categories, namely, R&D units, PSUs, industries and mineral (I&M) sector units, aided institutions, or
service sector units.
R&D work is mainly carried out at BARC at Trombay, Mumbai Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
(IGGAR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) at Indore, Madhya Pradesh,
and Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Kolkata, West Bengal.
BARC was set up in 1957 as the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay, and in 1967 was renamed as BARC in
memory of its founder Dr Homi Bhabha. It is the premier national centre for research and development
work in nuclear energy and related disciplines.
Apsara was the Country’s first research reactor of one MW built indigenously in 1956. Cirus, a 40 MW
research reactor, was commissioned at Tarapur in 1960 for developmental work, such as production
of isotopes, besides training and experimentation.
Purnima I, a plutionum – fuelled reactor built at Trombay, was modified to Purniama II to use U 233 fuel
in solution form.
Dhruva is an indigenous 100 MWe reactor commissioned in 1985 for research in advanced nuclear physics
and for isotope production.
At Kalpakkam is a neutron source reactor, Kamini. There is a 5.5 MeV Van de Graff accelerator at Trombay.

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Collaborating with the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TFR), Mumbai, Maharashtra, BARC has set up
a 14 MV pelletron accelerator. It has also set up a beryllium plant and radio pharmaceuticals laboratory at
Vashi, Navi Mumbai.
The VECC at Kolkata is a national facility for advanced work in nuclear chemistry, production of isotopes for
various applications, and radiation damage studies on reactor materials. The Seismic Activity Monitoring
Station at
Gauribidanur, near Bangalore, helps in detection and identification of underground nuclear explosions
anywhere in the world. The Nuclear Research Laboratory at Srinagar and High- Altitude Reasearch
Laboratory at Gulmarg in Jammu and Kashmir conduct research in atmospheric physics and cosmic ray
physics.
The Radiation Medicine Centre at Mumbai uses radioisotopes for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
Production facilities exist at Vashi, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad for radiopharmaceuticals. ISOMED is the
radiation sterilization plant at Trombay.
The activities of BARC are wide, encompassing such fields as Physics, chemistry, engineering, metallurgy, fuel
reprocessing, fuel fabrication, radioisotopes, waste management, electronics, instrumentation, lasers,
biology, agriculture, food technology, radiation, medicine, etc.
Following the global interest in fabrication high temperature superconducting materials, BARC also geared
its R&D in this frontier discipline.
It has succeeded in synthesizing a single phase superconducting compound of bismuth lead-calcium-
strontium and copper oxide with a Tc~120 K, BARC is also spearheading research in cold fusion, yet
mother frontier area.
From BARC’s experiments, it emerged that the primary product of deuterium-deuterium reactions was
tritium rather than neutrons.
Studies have also been undertaken to ascertain the mechanism of cold fusion. With a view to developing
intense sauces of particles and radiation for plasma fusion research, BARC continued its research on
pulse power and particle beam technology.

BASICS

Introduction to the Atom

Matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of nuclei and electrons. Different atoms have different
compositions of subatomic particles in their nuclei.
The number of protons makes an element specific and identifiable. Protons are positively charged and the
number of them present gives the atomic number.
Within a sample of atoms of an element, there can also be a different number of neutrons, which do not affect
the atomic charge or atomic number, but only atomic mass, and these variations of mass number are
known as isotopes.
Isotopes are those having the same atomic number but different mass number. For e.g. Hydrogen has got 3
isotopes i.e.
1H1 – Protium
1H2 - Deuterium
1H3 – Tritium
When Protium reacts with oxygen, it forms light water and when Deuterium reacts with oxygen, it forms heavy
water.

Radioactivity

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In 1899, Ernest Rutherford discovered that uranium compounds produce three different kinds of radiation. He
separated the radiations according to their penetrating abilities and named them a alpha, b beta, and g gamma
radiation, after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet. The a radiation can be stopped by a sheet of paper.

Uranium Enrichment

Uranium has got many isotopes, some of them are Uranium-233, Uranium-235 and Uranium-238. Out of
these three, Uranium-233 and Uranium-235 are Fissile i.e. they undergo the process of Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission is when an element breaks down when bombarded with a neutron. Uranium-23 is fertile or
fissionable i.e. when bombarded with a neutron, it will transform into another element which is Plutonium-
239 and this new element then demonstrates the process of fission.
Similarly, Thorium-232 is also fertile. It changes into Uranium-233.
Uranium Enrichment: Naturally occurring Uranium is comprised of Uranium-235 and Uranium-238. Uranium-
238 is 99.3 percent and the remaining is Uranium-235.
Uranium enrichment is the process in which the percentage of Uranium -235 is enhanced. One of the most
common methods used for enrichment is of centrifuges. The other methods are laser separation and
diffusion.
On the basis of enrichment, Uranium is of two types:
LEU - Low Enriched Uranium: Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) is used for civilian purpose like a fuel in the
nuclear reactors.
HEU - Highly Enriched Uranium: Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) also known as weapon grade
Uranium. It is used for conducting the nuclear tests or configuring nuclear warheads.

Nuclear Power Programme of India

Nuclear power for civil use is well established in India. Since building the two small boiling water reactors at
Tarapur in the 1960s, its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the
nuclear fuel cycle.
It is necessary because it is excluded from the 1970 Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT) due to it acquiring
nuclear weapons capability after 1970. (Those five countries doing so before 1970 were accorded the
status of Nuclear Weapons States under the NPT.)
India’s three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s to secure the
country’s long term energy independence, through the use of uranium and thorium reserves found in the
monazite sands of coastal regions of South India.
The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of India to be utilised in meeting
the country’s energy requirements.
The long-term objective is to utilize the vast reserves of Thorium.

Stage-I

For first stage, fuel is Uranium-235 and the reactors are;

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWsR)
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR): They use light water as the moderator and coolant, fuel is enriched Uranium-
235 (2.5-3.5 percent).

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In 1962, an agreement was signed between India and U.S. Under that agreement, General Electric (GE) of
U.S. agreed to supply two reactors but with the condition that the supply should be exempted from
the nuclear liability which was accepted by India.
These reactors were installed at Tarapur.
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR): It is also known as CANDU, i.e., Canadian Deuterium Uranium.
They use heavy water as the moderator and the coolant which is circulated under increased pressure to
minimize the vaporization. The fuel is natural Uranium.
In 1965, an agreement was signed between India and Canada. Under that agreement, Atomic Energy
Canada Limited agreed to supply these reactors but with a condition that it should be exempted from
nuclear liability which was accepted by India.
These reactors comprise a comprehensive majority of the nuclear reactors in the country at present. All
the reactors at Rawatbhata in Rajasthan (RAPS), Kaiga in Karnataka, Madras (Madras Atomic Power
Station-MAPS), Kakrapar in Gujarat and 2 at Tarapur are of this type.

Stage-II

For second stage, the fuel is Plutonium-239 and the reactor is Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR). It is known as
Breeder Reactor because it produces more fuel than it consumes. The Fast Breeder Reactor transforms
Uranium-238 into Plutonium-239 and Thorium-232 into Uranium-233. For every 1 kilogram of fuel
consumed, there is generation of 20 percent extra.
The Plutonium obtained from these reactors is of weapon grade. They do not use any moderator. Therefore,
they are also known as fast neutron reactor. The coolant is liquid Sodium, therefore known as Light Metal
Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR).
As of now, India has not put its Fast Breeder Reactor in the Civilian List for the inspection of IAEA but in future
if the Plutonium which is being obtained from the reprocessing of the spent fuel will be imported under
the Nuclear deals.
If this Plutonium will be used as fuel in a Fast Breeder Reactor then those reactors will be put under the
inspection of IAEA.
India’s first Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) with the name Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) has been
constructed at Kalpakkam by Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI).
Proposal for the construction of few more Fast Breeder Reactors has been accepted.
Besides India, Russia is the only other country which is pursuing this program. The disadvantage with these
reactors is that Reprocessing of the spent fuel is very costly.

Stage-III

The long-term objective of the Indian Program is to utilize the vast reserves of Thorium found in the coastal
states. Thorium offers the following advantages compared to Uranium:
It is abundant than Uranium not only in India but globally. Per Unit Mass, Thorium gives more energy than
Uranium.
Waste generated from the use of Thorium is less harmful.
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is developing India’s first Thorium based reactor with the name
Advance Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). It will use Uranium 233 as the fuel, heavy water as the moderator
and light water as the coolant.
International Treaties and Arrangements for Nuclear Technology

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Hague Code of Conduct Against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (HCOC)- The HCOC is intended to supplement
the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). Under the HCOC, states make politically binding
commitments to curb the proliferation of WMD-capable ballistic missiles.

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)- The MTCR is an informal, non-treaty association of governments
sharing common interests in the nonproliferation of missiles, unmanned air vehicles, and related
technologies.

Australia Group (AG)- The Australia Group is an informal association of 41-member states that aims to allow
exporters or transshipment countries to minimize the risk of proliferation of chemical and biological
weapons.

Wassenaar Arrangement- The Wassenaar Arrangement is an export control regime with 41 participating
states that promotes transparency of national export control regimes on conventional arms and dual-use
goods and technologies.

Zangger Committee (ZAC)- The Committee consists of 38 states and establishes guidelines for implementing
export control provisions. The Committee established a Trigger List of items that are subject to IAEA
safeguard inspections.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)- The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is the
international center for nuclear cooperation and promotes safe, secure and peaceful nuclear technologies
through cooperation with its 151 Member States.

Atoms for Peace- A U.S. program was announced by President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the United Nations
on 8th December 1953 to share nuclear materials and technology for peaceful purposes with other
countries.
This program required countries receiving nuclear materials to agree to inspections of the transferred
technology to ensure it was not used for military purposes.
The program was formally established in 1954, following the passage of the Atomic Energy Act, and ended
abruptly in 1974 following India’s first nuclear test.

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)- Opened for signature in 1996 at the UN General Assembly,
the CTBT prohibits all nuclear testing if it enters into force.
The treaty establishes the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) to ensure the
implementation of its provisions and verify compliance through a global monitoring system upon entry
into force.
Pending the treaty’s entry into force, the Preparatory Commission of the CTBTO is charged with
establishing the International Monitoring System (IMS) and promoting treaty ratifications.
CTBT entry into force is contingent on ratification by 44 Annex II states.

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Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT)- Signed in 1968, the Treaty on the Non- Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT) is the most widely adhered-to international security agreement. The “three pillars” of the NPT are
nuclear disarmament, nonproliferation, and peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
Article VI of the NPT commits states possessing nuclear weapons to negotiate in good faith toward halting
the arms race and the complete elimination of nuclear weapons.
The Treaty stipulates that non-nuclear-weapon states will not seek to acquire nuclear weapons, and will
accept International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on their nuclear activities, while nuclear
weapon states commit not to transfer nuclear weapons to other states.
All states have a right to the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and should assist one another in its
development.
The NPT provides for conferences of member states to review treaty implementation at five-year intervals.
Initially of 25-years duration, the NPT was extended indefinitely in 1995.

Conference on Disarmament (CD)- The CD is an international forum focused on multilateral disarmament

efforts. Although it reports to the UN General Assembly and has a relationship with the United Nations, it
adopts its own rules of procedure and agenda, giving it some degree of independence.
The CD has a permanent agenda devoted to the negotiation of disarmament issues. The CD and its
predecessors have negotiated major nonproliferation and disarmament agreements such as the NPT,
the BTWC, the CWC, and the CTBT.
In recent years, the CD has focused on negotiating a treaty banning the production of fissile material for
nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices; the prevention of an arms race in outer space
(PAROS); and negative security assurances.

Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT)- Treaty currently under discussion in the Conference on Disarmament
(CD) is to end the production of weapons-usable fissile material (highly enriched uranium and plutonium)
for nuclear weapons.
Status

It is currently being discussed in the Conference on Disarmament (CD). Since negotiations have not yet
begun, it is unclear if scope of the treaty will include pre-existing stocks of fissile material.
States in favor of including stocks tend to call for a Fissile Material Treaty (FMT) while States favoring a
ban on production often refer to a Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT).
The designation FM(C)T, used by the International Panel on Fissile Materials (IPFM), makes this
disagreement explicit.

Geneva Protocol- Formally known as the Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating,
Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, this protocol prohibits the use in
war of asphyxiating, poisonous, or other gases, and bans bacteriological warfare. It was opened for
signature on 17 June 1925.

Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)- The NSG was established in 1975, and its members commit themselves to
exporting sensitive nuclear technologies only to countries that adhere to strict non-proliferation
standards.
The Nuclear Suppliers Group is a group of nuclear supplier countries that seeks to contribute to the
nonproliferation of nuclear weapons through the implementation of two sets of Guidelines for nuclear
exports and nuclear-related exports.

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The NSG first met in November 1975 in London and is thus popularly referred to as the “London Club”
(“Club de Londres”).
The NSG Guidelines are consistent with, and complement, the various international, legally binding
instruments in the field of nuclear non-proliferation.
They aim to ensure that nuclear trade for peaceful purposes does not contribute to the proliferation of
nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices, while not hindering international trade and
cooperation in the nuclear field.
The NSG Guidelines facilitate the development of peaceful nuclear trade by providing the means whereby
obligations to facilitate peaceful nuclear cooperation can be implemented in a manner consistent with
international nuclear nonproliferation norms.
NSG members commit themselves to conditions of supply, in the context of the further development of
the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

Membership: 48 supplier states:

Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cyprus,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta,
Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation,
Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United
Kingdom, and United States.
Permanent Observer
European Commission
Membership Criteria:
Factors taken into account for membership include the following:
The ability to supply items (including items in transit) covered by the annexes to Parts 1 and
2 of the NSG Guidelines;
Adherence to the Guidelines and action in accordance with them;
Enforcement of a legally based domestic export control system which gives effect to the
commitment to act in accordance with the Guidelines;
Full compliance with the obligations of one or more of the following: the Treaty on the Non-
Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the Treaties of Pelindaba, Rarotonga,
Tlatelolco, Bangkok, or an equivalent international nuclear nonproliferation
agreement; and
Support of international efforts towards non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction
and of their delivery vehicles.
Goals:
NSG members pursue the aims of the NSG through adherence to NSG Guidelines that are
adopted by consensus, and through an exchange of information, notably on developments of
nuclear proliferation concern.
Guidelines
The first set of NSG Guidelines governs the export of items that are especially designed or
prepared for nuclear use. These include:
(i) nuclear material;
(ii) nuclear reactors and equipment therefore;
(iii) non-nuclear material for reactors;
(iv) plant and equipment for reprocessing, enrichment, and conversion of nuclear material and
for fuel fabrication and heavy water production; and
(v) technology associated with each of the above items.

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The second set of NSG Guidelines governs the export of nuclear-related dual-use items and
technologies (items that have both nuclear and non-nuclear applications), which could make a
significant contribution to an unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activity.

Group

Australia Group
Missile Technology
Control Regime
Wassenaar Arrangement
Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism

India-Membership of Export Control Regimes, Non-Proliferation Initiatives, and Safeguards

Nuclear Suppliers Group Not a member but vowed to “harmonize” its export con-
trols with those advocated by the voluntary 45-member
group.
India is prohibited from importing key nuclear materials and
technologies from group members because New Delhi does
not subject its entire nuclear enterprise to safeguards
administered by the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA).
International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA approved India’s additional protocol on March 3, 2009.
(IAEA) Additional Protocol India ratified it in June 2014.
Hague Code of Conduct against Member
Ballistic Missile Proliferation
Proliferation Security Initiative Not a participant
UN Security Council Resolutions Has filed reports on its activities to fulfill the resolutions and
1540 and 1673 offered to host IAEA courses on physical security of nuclear
facilities.

*****

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4. ENERGY

SOURCES OF ENERGY

The sources of energy can be divided into two categories based on how long they have been in use:
Conventional sources: These are the sources which are in use since a long period of time such as the fossil
fuels.
Unconventional sources: These are the sources which have been used only recently like solar energy,
nuclear energy, etc.
The sources of energy can be divided into two more categories based on their supply-
These are the sources, the availability of which is unlimited. They can also be termed as non-exhaustible
sources of energy. These include solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc.

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These are the sources, the availability of which is limited. They can also be termed as exhaustible sources
of energy. These include coal, petrol, etc.

Fossil Fuels

These are the sources which have developed under the earth’s crust over a long period of time, to be precise
over millions of years. These include, coal, petrol, oil, natural gas, etc.,
These sources take very long to form and once they are consumed, their regeneration requires millions of
years and thus they are regarded as non-renewable resources. They are the most commonly used source
of energy and if they continue to be used at this rate, they will soon be exhausted.

Working of Thermal Power Plants

A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combusting into electrical energy is known as thermal
power station. Fossil fuels are used in thermal power plants to generate electricity. Mainly coal is used in
these plants.
The coal is burnt in the furnace due to which, high pressure steam is produced in the boiler. This steam rotates
the blades of the turbine. This rotation of the blades drives the alternator attached to the turbine to
produce electricity.
Thermal plants are mostly set up near coal or oil fields so that the transfer of coal to the plant is easy and
efficient.

Coal Reserves in India

As on 31st March 2015, India had been estimated to have coal reserves of 306.6 billion metric tonnes, the fifth
largest coal reserve in the world.
India is the fourth largest producer of coal in the world, producing 536.5 million metric tonnes in 2014. Coal
production in India is hampered due to various factors such as:
Luck of mining and exploration technology.
High cost of exploration and mining.
Possibility of corruption in the allocation of coal blocks. Consequently, the Supreme Court decision has
deallocated the coal blocks.
Refusal for mining by the environment Ministry.

Issue with the Quality of Coal

There are four types of coal: Peat, Iignite, bituminous and anthracite.
Peat is of the lowest quality, while anthracite is of the highest quality (having high calorific and carbon
value). Indian coal reserves contain lignite and bituminous types of coal.
Lignite has high moisture content and hence it breaks easily. It cannot be transported to longer distances;
its calorific value is low and it also causes more pollution.
Bituminous is widely used in industries; it has high calorific value. It is used mainly as cooking coal (to
obtain coal as by-product).
On the other hand, anthracite has high carbon content (more than 90%), causes less pollution and has low
ash content. Thus, India imports coal mainly from Australia to meet its requirements.

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Problems with Indian coal

Lower calorific value.

Higher ash content.
High sulphur content.

Advantages of Coal-based Thermal Power Plants

The fuel used is quite cheap.

The initial cost of setting coal-based power plant is far low as compared to other power generating plants.
It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. Coal can be easily transported to the site.
It requires less space as compared to hydropower plants.

Disadvantages of Coal-based Power Plants

On burning, coal releases a lot of smoke. This smoke causes air pollution because poisonous gases such as
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide are released in the form of smoke.
It is costlier to operate coal-based power plants as compared to hydroelectric plants.

Hydropower

Hydropower is a form of electricity which is produced using the force of falling or running water. It is a
conventional source of energy as it has been used from a very long time.
However, it is a renewable source of energy as it can be used again and again. Due to improvements in civil
engineering, the amount of hydropower harnessed has been enhanced.

Working of a Hydroelectricity plant

To obstruct the flow of water, high – rise dams or reservoirs are constructed on the river and water is collected
in larger reservoirs.
The water from the high level in the dam is carried through pipes to the turbine which is located at the bottom
of the dam.
Water coming at such a high speed rotates the turbine. And this rotation causes the generator, which is
attached with the turbine, to produce electricity.

Disadvantages of a Hydropower Plant

These plants need large areas to be set up. Therefore, they can be set up in certain places only.
These plants obstruct the flow of water and store water in a large reservoir. Obstruction in the flow of water
leads to submersion of numerous villages adjoining the river. Thus, hydropower projects demand large –
scale rehabilitation of people.
Storage of water leads to disruption in the aquatic ecosystem. Many plant and animal species submerge. Also,
vegetation submerged below the water in the dam produces methane which causes the green-house
effect.

Run of the River Hydroelectric Power Projects

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Run of the River (ROR) hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric generation plant whereby, little or no water
storage is provided. The storage reservoir is referred to as pondage. A plant without pondage has no water
storage and is, therefore, subject to seasonal river flows.
Advantages of ROR Hydroelectric Projects:
These projects involve minimal environment impact, because there is no large scale storage of water.
There is no submergence of villages.
ROR projects do not obstruct river flow and are thus, permitted on international rivers.
Disadvantages of ROR Hydroelectric Projects:
These projects are more suitable for perennial rivers and not seasonal rivers. During dry seasons,
electricity cannot be generated in these projects. In India, these projects are more suitable on
Himalayan Rivers which are perennial in nature and not on peninsular rivers which are seasonal in
nature.
In these projects, adjustments cannot be made in amount of electricity produced or plant load capacity,
because flow of water is determined by nature.
ROR projects may cause habitat fragmentation, especially when transmission pipes are constructed to
transport water over large distances.

Biomass

Biomass is a fuel that is developed from organic materials such as wood, agricultural waste, cow dung etc., it
is a renewable and sustainable source of energy which is used to create electricity or other forms of power.
A big disadvantage of this is that it releases less energy and produces a lot of smoke. A new technique has
been devised so that this disadvantage could be removed. When wood is burnt, it releases a lot of smoke.
With the usage of the new technique, initially, wood is burnt in low oxygen so that it loses water and all the
other volatile substances, leaving charcoal as the residue. The benefit of charcoal over wood is that is
releases less smoke and produces more energy.

Working of a Biogas Plant

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A biogas plant is usually made with bricks.

The various forms of organic waste and cow dung are mixed along with equal quantity of water in a mixing
tank. This forms slurry.
The slurry is fed to the digester (which is a sealed chamber in which there is no oxygen) through inlet chamber.
Anaerobic microorganisms (microorganisms which do not require oxygen for their growth) decompose or
break down complex compounds of the cow dung slurry.
The decomposition process takes a few days to complete and produces gases like, methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
These gases are called biogases which are used as fuel.

Advantages of Biogas

Use of biogas does not produce smoke or ash.

The waste left in the biogas plant acts as a good fertiliser because of the significant presence of nitrogen and
phosphorous.
Biogas can be more suitably harnessed from rural areas, because rural areas generate large amount of biomass.
Thus, biogas can serve the energy needs of rural areas.
Biogas can be used for a variety of purposes such as generation of electricity, lighting and cooking food.

Biofuels

Biofuels may be derived for agricultural crops, including conventional food crops or from special energy crops.
Biofuels may also be derived from forestry, fishery products or municipal wastes.
A distinction is made between primary and secondary biofuels.

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Primary biofuels such as fuel wood and organic materials are used in unprocessed form, primarily for
heating, cooking or lighting purposes.
Secondary biofuels result from the processing of biomass and include liquid biofuels such as ethanol and
biodiesel that can be used in vehicles and industrial processes.

Liquid Biofuels

The most widely used liquid biofuels for transport are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is a type of alcohol that
can be produced using any feedstock containing significant amounts of sugar, such as sugarcane and sugar
beet or starch such as maize and wheat.
Sugar can be directly fermented to alcohol, while starch first needs to be converted to sugar. The
fermentation process is similar to that used to make wine or beer, and pure ethanol is obtained by
distillation.
Ethanol can be blended with petrol or burnt in nearly pure form in slightly modified spark- ignition engines.
One litre of ethanol contains approximately two thirds of the energy provided by one litre of petrol.
However, when mixed with petrol, it improves the combustion performance and lowers the emissions of
carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide.
Biodiesel is produced by combining vegetable oil or animal fat with alcohol. Biodiesel can be blended with
traditional diesel fuel or even burnt in its pure form. Its energy content is somewhat less than that of diesel
(88-95%).
Biodiesel can be derived from a wide range of oilseeds, including rapeseed, soybean, palm, coconut or
jatropha plant and therefore, the resulting fuels can display a greater variety of physical properties
than those displayed by ethanol.
Diesel engines can also run on vegetable oils and animal fats; for instance, used cooking oils from
restaurants and fat from meat processing industries.

Second- generation Biofuels

Currently used liquid biofuels use only a portion of the potential energy available in the biomass. Most plant
matter is composed of cellulose. The ‘second–generation biofuel’ technologies refer to processes that are
able to convert these components into liquid fuels.
Once commercially viable, these could significantly expand the volume and variety of sources that could be
used for biofuel production. Potential sources include municipal waste and waste products from
agriculture, forestry, processing industry as well as new energy crops such as fast growing trees and
greases.
As a result, second-generation biofuel production could present major advantages in terms of environmental
sustainability and reduced competition for land with food and feed production. It could also offer
advantages in terms of greenhouse gas emissions.
Various techniques are currently being developed to produce second-generation biofuels. However, it is
uncertain when such technologies will enter production on a significant commercial scale.
The conversion of cellulose to ethanol involves two steps.
The cellulosic components of the plant material are first broken down into sugars, which are then
fermented to obtain ethanol.
The first step is technically difficult, although research continues on developing efficient and cost-effective
ways of carrying out process.
Wind Energy

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Wind energy arises from solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere, the
irregularities of the earth’s surface, and rotation of Earth.
Electricity can be generated using this wind flow. With the help of wind turbines, the kinetic energy of the
wind can be converted into mechanical energy. A generator is used to convert this mechanical power into
electricity.

Working of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are usually set up in areas where the wind flows at a great speed. The most suitable location
for harnessing wind energy is coastal locations. In India, Tamil Nadu holds the maximum potential for
harnessing wind energy.
The wind causes the blades of the turbines to rotate around the rotor. A shaft connects the rotor to a
generator. When the blades rotate, the rotor also spins with them.
This further spins the generator, leading to the production of electricity. The electricity produced is
transmitted to a substation with the help of cables.
To generate electricity at a small level, single turbine can be used. To generate electricity at a large level, wind
farms are set up which constitute a large number of wind turbines. The largest wind farm in India is located
at Mandvi in Gujarat.

Advantages

Does not cause pollution.

Once the cost of installation has been incurred, the operational cost is very low.
It is a renewable source of energy.

Disadvantages

Wind farms can be set up only in those areas where the wind speed is more than 15km per hour.
The wind turbines cannot work in the absence of wind of when the speed of the wind is not so high. In such a
case, a power backup is required.
Cost of installation is very high.
During rough weather, blades get damaged.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

Solar Energy

Solar energy is the energy emitted from the sun. Sun is the main source of energy for all the living organisms
on Earth. As long as the sun exists, this source of energy is going to be present. Therefore, it is a renewable
source of energy.
It is also a non-conventional source of energy as it has come into use recently. Solar energy can be either used
directly in the form of heat energy (such as solar cooker) or can be converted into electricity (such as
through solar panel).

Working of a Solar Cooker

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Solar cooker is a device which uses the direct sunlight to cook food. Interior of the cooker is black in colour so
as to absorb maximum heat.
A plane or a concave mirror is put at the top side of the cooker. On the other side of the cooker, a transparent
glass is placed.
The light reflected from the mirror generates heat inside the cooker so that food can be cooked with the help
of the heat. The transparent glass allows the incoming heat rays to penetrate, but does not allow the
outgoing rays to pass outside the cooker.
The solar cooker is covered by a wooden box. This box has a thermocol on the inner side. Both the thermocol
and the wooden box are poor conductors of heat and thus prevent loss of heat from solar cooker.

Solar Panel

Solar panels are devices that are used to convert the solar energy into electricity. Solar panel comprises of
several individual cells that are made up of semi-conductors such as silicon. When light strikes a silicon
semi-conductor, it causes electrons to flow and thereby produce electricity.
Solar power generating systems take advantage of this property to convert sunlight directly into electrical
energy. The more sunlight the solar panel gets the more electricity it generates.
Use of a Solar Panel
Used in satellites and probes.
Used in street lights and traffic signals.
Used in calculators, etc.
Used in TV stations and radio stations.
Advantages of a Solar Panel
Can be used where the electricity grids cannot reach.
Easy to set up.
Requires little maintenance.
It is a renewable source of energy.
Clean source of energy.
Disadvantages of a Solar Panel
Installation is costly. Special grade of silicon, which is costlier, is required to make the solar cells.
Can produce energy only on the days when they receive sunlight.

Energy from the Sea

Seventy – one percent of the earth’s surface is covered by water. It contains a lot of energy and the energy is
available in the following forms:
Tidal energy
Wave energy
Ocean thermal energy.

Tidal Energy

The tides of the water contain a lot of energy in them. Tidal energy is a form of energy which uses the energy
generated from the tides and converts them into a useful form of energy such as electricity.
Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun light. Therefore, tidal energy has the potential to
generate large amount of energy. However, at present, tidal energy has not been harnessed at a large
scale.

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Working of Tidal Energy Plants

Due to the gravitational pull of the moon, the level of water in the ocean changes twice in a day. Rise in water
level is called high tide and fall in water level is called low tide.
During the high tide, water is collected in the reservoirs which are constructed near the seashores. As the
water flows into the reservoir, the turbines rotate and generate electricity.
When the tide recedes, the water stored in the reservoir is released into the ocean, thereby again rotating the
turbine and generating electricity.

Wave Energy- Waves are generated due to the strong movement of wind on the ocean surface. A wide variety
of devices have been developed to trap the kinetic energy in the waves and convert them into electricity. But
this proposition is viable in only those areas where the wind is very strong.

Ocean Thermal Energy- The hot rays of the sun heat the surface of the ocean, while the water in the deeper
section is relatively cold. This difference in the temperature can be exploited to obtain thermal energy in ocean
thermal energy plants.

Working of Ocean Thermal Energy Plants

The temperature between the hot and cold water of the ocean should be at least 20o C for the plants to
generate electricity.
The warm water at the surface is used to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia which has low boiling point. The
vapours formed after boiling are used to spin the turbines.
The vapours are then cooled by pumping the deep ocean water and this changes the vaporised ammonia back
into liquid, which is reusable.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy refers to the heat energy, available on the surface of the earth in the form of hot geysers
or steam, from the inside of the earth’s crust.
The sources of energy are found a few kilometres beneath the earth’s surface such as trapped natural gas
reserves or even deeper in the form of molten rock called magma. It is a clean and renewable form of
energy.
Due to earthquakes and magma movements, the earth’s crust breaks and the molten rock is pushed out. This
molten rock accumulates on the surface. When the underground water comes in contact with the molten
rock, steam is generated.
With the help of pipes, the steam trapped in rocks is routed to a turbine and electricity is generated with the
help of it. Also, sometimes hot water from such region finds outlets on the surface. Such outlets are known
as hot springs.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy
The steam used in geothermal plants is available naturally and thus, does not entail any cost.
It is pollution free.
It is available round the clock.

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Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

Such occurrences are very few.
There is less certainty of future continuity.
Most of the heat energy is lost and cannot be put to use.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear power is produced in nuclear reactions. When relatively large atoms like atoms of uranium, thorium
are hit by fast moving neutrons, they split and energy is released. In this process, a single atom breaks into
small atoms, three neutrons and heat.
The process of splitting of an atom is known as nuclear fission. This heat which is generated by nuclear fission
is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in nuclear power plants.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
Holds a lot of energy.
A huge amount of electricity can be produced.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
Cost of setting up is very high.
Chances of accident are there. If accident happens, the radiations emitted can cause huge loss of life.
Wastage disposal is a difficult task as the waste is of radioactive nature.

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HOW LONG WILL THE SOURCES OF ENERGY LAST?

We have already discussed that the sources of energy are of two types – one that is exhaustible, that is non-
renewable and the second which is non-exhaustible, that is renewable.
If we keep on depending upon the non-renewable sources, then the day is not far when they will be depleted
from the earth and will no longer be available.
On the other hand, if we learn to manage the renewable sauces of energy more efficiently and effectively,
then we can reduce the use of non-renewable resources and shift to renewable resources.

Fuel Cell

A fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen into electricity, water and heat. It produces electricity through a
chemical reaction, but without combustion. The fuel cell operates like a battery, except that it does not
require electrical recharging.
A battery stores all its chemicals inside and converts the chemicals into electricity. Once these chemicals run
out, the battery dies. The fuel cell, on the other hand, receives the hydrogen and oxygen from outside.
Thus, it does not run out of fuel.
The reactions that produce electricity happen at the electrodes. Every fuel cell has two electrodes. One
positive, called the anode, and one negative, called the cathode. These are separated by an electrolyte
barrier which acts as a catalyst to the chemical reaction.
Fuels such as hydrogen go to the anode side, while oxygen (or just air) goes to the cathode side. When both
of these chemicals hit the electrolyte barrier, they react. Due to chemical reaction, the electrons spilt and
start moving, creating an electric current.
Benefits of Fuel Cells:
Environmental friendly: Hydrogen fuel cells don’t produce air pollution or greenhouse gases.
Energy efficiency: Fuel cells are two to three times more efficient than combustion engines. In other words,
they can generate two to three times more energy with the same amount of fuel.
Scalability: Fuel cells can be of various sizes. They can provide power from milliwatts to megawatts.

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Microbial Fuel Cell

The Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) uses bacteria to break down organic wastes and sewage to generate an electric
current. The MFC is divided into two halves: aerobic (Sufficient oxygen) and anaerobic (lack of oxygen).
The aerobic half has a positively charged electrode (anode) and is filled with oxygen. The anaerobic half does
not have oxygen. It has a negatively charged electrode (cathode). Bacteria are present on this positively
charged electrode.
The chambers are separated by a semi permeable membrane to keep oxygen out of the anaerobic chamber,
but at the same time allow the hydrogen ions (H+) to pass through the membrane.
When organic matter is introduced into the anaerobic chamber, the bacteria at the anode, decomposes the
organic matter and cause free movement of H+ ions and electrons. The electrons flow from the bacteria
to the anode.
The electrons flow up from the anode, through the wire, and onto the cathode. While flowing through the
wire, an electrical current is generated that can be used to perform work. As the concentration of H+ ions
rise near the anode, the H+ ions flow through the semi permeable membrane to the cathode due to
osmosis.
Benefits of MFC are:
Using microbes to generate electricity implies the MFC are self sustaining; the bacteria replicate and
continue to produce power indefinitely as long as there is a food source to nourish the bacteria.
MFC do not cause any pollution.
MFC can run effectively on sources like food waste and sewage.

Applications of MFC- The MFC has potential applications in various fields. Some of these applications are
already in use. These applications are:

Brewery and food manufacturing wastewater treatment:

Brewery and food manufacturing wastewater can be treated by MFCs, because their wastewater is rich in
organic compounds that can serve as food for the microorganisms.
Moreover, breweries are ideal for the implementation of MFCs, as their wastewater composition is always
the same; these constant conditions allow bacteria to adapt and become more efficient.
Sewage treatment:
Sewage wastewater can also be converted via microbial fuel cells to decompose the waste organic
material contained within it.
Desalination:
Any attempt at desalination of sea water has been cost – prohibitive because of the amount of energy
required to remove the dissolved salts from the water. However, by using an adapted MFC, this
process could be undertaken without external electrical energy input.
As part of the adaption, a third chamber is added in between the two electrodes of standard MFC. This
third chamber is filled with sea water. The cell’s positive and negative electrodes attract the negative
and positive salt ions respectively present in the water.

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These ions pass though the semi permeable membranes. Thus salt can be filtered from water through
adapted MFC. However, salt removal efficiency of up to 90% has been recorded in laboratory testing,
which is not sufficient to produce water suitable for consumption.
Hydrogen production:
MFCs can be used to generate hydrogen for use as an alternative fuel. They have become an interesting
and promising area of research.
Many new applications are beginning to be tested and may come into widespread use in the near future.

*****

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5. DEFENCE

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) is a Ministry of Defence programme for the
comprehensive research and development in the range of missiles. It was launched in the year 1983 under
the leadership of the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi.
IGMDP is the most ambitious missile development programme that was launched in India. IGMDP covers the
following five types of missiles:
Agni: The Agni missile is a family of surface to surface medium to intercontinental range ballistic missiles
developed by India. Various versions of Agni missile are mentioned below. It is to be noted that a
missile is tested numerous times before it is operational, i.e., put under the command of armed forces.

Name Type Range

Agni-I Operational MRBM 700-800 KM
Agni-II Operational MRBM 2,000-3,000 Km
Agni-III Operational IRBM 3,000-4,000 km
Agni-IV About to be operational IRBM 3,500-5,000 km
Afni-V Under testing CBM 5,000 – 6,000 km

Prithvi: It is a tactical surface to surface short range ballistic missile. The Prithvi missile project
encompassed developing three variants for use by the Indian Army, Indian Air Force (IAF) and the
Indian Navy. These are following:

Name Type Range

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Prithvi-I- Army version 150 km

Prithvi-II Air force version 350 km
Prithvi-III (Dhanush) Naval version (under testing) 350 km
Prithvi – I is no longer in service. Prithvi-II is already under service. Prithvi – III is under testing.

Trishul: It is a short- range surface to air missile for navy which is used for immediate combat action. It has
a range of 9 km. This missile is not in service at present.

Akash: Akash is a group of four medium – range surface to air missiles along with a radar called Rajendra.
The missiles in Akash system are useful for defence purposes. The missiles have a multi target
engagement capacity.
The radar detects incoming objects and the missiles are fired up on these objects. The incoming
objects can be fighter jets, cruise missiles and ballistic missiles.
The missile system can target up to 30 km, at altitudes up to 18,000 m. The Akash system of missiles
is already in use.

Nag- Nag is an anti-tank missile for immediate combat situation. It has a range of only 4km. It is a thermo-
sensitive missile. In other words, this missile has heat sensors. Whenever a tank fires, it is hot enough
to be detected by heat sensors of the Nag missile. The missile is already in use.

Missiles outside Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme

Brahmos- It is a short – range (290 km) scramjet supersonic cruise missile. It is developed out of the joint
venture between Russia and India. The name Brahmos is adopted from the names of two rivers, the
Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia. India and Russia are presently engaged in the
development of Brahmos missile with a range of 580 km.
Astra- It is an air- to - air missile which is developed indigenously for close combat. It has a range of 80 km. It
is already in service.
Barak-1 - It is a short- range surface-to-air missile attached to a frigate. It can also be targeted on land. It has
a range of 12 km. India has purchased this missile from Israel.
Barak- 8- It is a short range surface- to -air missile attached to a frigate. It can also be targeted on land. It has
a range of 80km. It can also carry larger amount of warhead as compared to Barak-1. Thus, it has more
destruction capacity. India has purchased this missile from Israel.
K-15 -K-15 is also called Sagarika. It is a ballistic missile which is fitted on Arihant, the indigenously developed
nuclear – powered submarine. This missile is already in service. It was developed indigenously.
The missile will carry nuclear warhead and can be launched from under water to hit the target on the
ground. It has a range of 700 km.
It is an effective deterrent for the enemy because the exact location of the submarine cannot be
determined by the enemy, unlike the ground nuclear installations which are mostly known to the
enemy and can be destroyed in a pre- emptive strike.
K-4- is a ballistic missile which will be fitted on Arihant, the indigenously developed nuclear powered
submarine. This missile is under the process of development. It is also being developed indigenously. It is
a superior version of K-15 missile.
The missile will carry nuclear warhead and will be launched from under water to hit the target on the
bound. It will have a ground.
It will have a range of 3,500 km. It will be an effective deterrent for the enemy because it will also be fitted
on a submarine.

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Nirbhay- is also being developed indigenously. It is a cruise missile with a range of 1,000 km when put under
command. It will be the longest range cruise missile of India.
Prahaar - is an immediate combat ballistic missile with a range of 150 km. It is a surface to surface missile. It
is already in service.
Shaurya- is a surface – to – surface ballistic missile with a range of 1,000 km. It is already in service. It is a
hypersonic missile. The missile can fly at 7.5 Mach, that is, 7.5 times the speed of sound. In its test flight,
it converged a distance of 700km in 500 seconds. ‘Hypersonic’ refers to the speed which is more than five
times the speed of sound (Mach 5).

Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme

The Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi- layered ballistic
missile defence system to protect from ballistic missile attacks. It is a double tier system consisting of two
land- and sea –based interceptor missiles namely,
the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) missile for high altitude interception (for exo – atmospheric range), and
the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile for lower altitude interception (for endo- atmospheric range).
The two tier shield should be able to intercept any incoming missile launched 5,000 km away. The system also
includes an overlapping network of early warning and tracking radars, as well as command and control
posts.
The PAD was tested in November 2006, followed by the AAD in December 2007. With the test of the PAD
missile, India became the fourth country to have successfully developed an anti-ballistic missile system,
after United States, Russia, and Israel.
The system has undergone several tests, but the system is yet to be officially commissioned. DRDO, engaged
in the development of the missile defence system expects to have the shield ready for deployment by
2022.

Fighter Planes

The various generation of technologies employed in the fighter planes are as follows:
The first generation technology uses rotary piston type propeller engines. This generation of fighter
aircraft is no longer in use.
The second generation fighters replaced piston engines with turbo-prop engines equipped with traditional
ammunition.
The third generation included single/ double turbo-jet engines along with advance avionics (application of
electronic to aviation) and Beyond Visual Range (BVR) guided missiles.
The 4 and 4.5 generation jets are the ones with hypersonic speed, advanced avionics, multiple sensors,
radars and much better control systems.
The latest of the trend, the fifth generation planes include stealth characteristics to the fighter jets. The
headings below explain about military aircrafts and different fighter planes of the Indian Air Force.

Mig – 21- is the first supersonic fighter plane of India which was introduced in the Indian Air Force in the year
1962. It was procured from Russia. It was the second generation fighter aircraft. It was decommissioned
in 2013.
Dassault Mirage 2000 - India purchased 49 Mirage 2000 fighter planes in the year 1980 from Dassault Aviation,
a French company, and renamed it as ‘Vajra’ before inducting it into the IAF. It is the fourth generation
fighter aircraft.

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It was upgraded by Dassault in 1985 and to it nuclear warhead carrying capability was added. Again a new
contract was signed with Dassault, France for up gradation of the entire fleet of 49 fighter planes in
the year 2011.
The upgraded fighter jets are to be equipped with the new avionics system and missiles.
MiG-29 -MiG-29, renamed as BAAZ, was inducted into the IAF in 1985. It has three different variants MiG –
29M, MiG-29K and MiG-35.
MiG-29M is a multiple role version. It can be used both as fighter aircraft and for the transportation of
men and materials.
MiG-29K is a naval version.
MiG-35 is the most advanced variant which has the latest avionics, sensors and even the capability of mid-
air refueling.
Sukhoi Su-30- This was inducted into the Indian Air Force in the year 2002. The technology is adopted from
Sukhoi Company of Russia and the manufacturing was undertaken by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL), India.
This fighter plane is considered as the backbone of the IAF. This fighter jet depicts the advanced Russian
technology and is equipped with French and Israeli avionics. In the first deal with Russia in 1996, India
purchased preassembled 50 Sukhoi Su- 30 fighter planes.
The naval version of Sukhoi Su – 30, which can be launched from an aircraft carrier, is Sukhoi Su-33. It can
take off and land on short runways.
Tejas or Light Combat Aircraft -Tejas, the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) is the first indigenous fighter aircraft
designed and built in India. Tejas has been developed for the IAF and the Navy.
It has been designed by Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and developed by HAL to meet the
tactical requirements of a modern air force.
Tejas fighter planes were incorporated in the IAF in the year 2016. The current IAF fighters are of French
origin Mirage – 2000s and the Russian origin Sukhoi-30s and the old MiGs. The LCA was conceived in
1985 to replace the MiG-21 Series.

Major Ground Attack Fighter Planes of India

A ground attack fighter plane is a tactical military aircraft that has a primary role of carrying out airstrikes with
greater precision than bombers, and is prepared to encounter strong low-level air defences while pressing
the attack. This is also called an attack aircraft, strike aircraft, or attack bomber.
Jaguar fighter planes are ground attack fighter planes which were produced as a result of the joint venture
between England and France. India placed the order for Jaguar fighter planes in 1978. Some were made
available in ready – to – fly condition and others were manufactured by HAL in India. The jaguar fighters
were renamed as Shamsher.
MiG-27- The MiG-27 is based on the similar structure as that of MiG-23. MiG-27 was renamed as Bahadur
before getting inducted into the IAF. It is also a ground attack type of aircraft produced by HAL under
license along with the technology transfer.
A number of MiG-27 fighter planes (more than ten) have crashed. The fleet of 150 fighters was grounded
in 2010 due to these crashes. The entire fleet has been decommissioned.

Important Transportation and Training Aircrafts and Helicopters

These aircrafts are not only used during wars for assistance purposes, but also during humanitarian, civilian,
training, search and rescue operations.

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IIyushin (IL)-78- It is manufactured by Russia. It is fitted with Mid-Air Refueling System (MARS). It has the
ability to refuel three fighter jets at a time. It is presently in service.
C-17 Globemaster- It was inducted into the IAF in the year 2013. It is jointly manufactured by the US
companies, Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. The aircraft is primarily meant for rapid airlifting and
transporting troops, cargo, equipment and warfare materials, tanks, etc.
C-130j Super Hercules- It is a transport aircraft built by Lockheed Martin, United States. It is used not only
for military transport but also for civilian and other related humanitarian rescue operations. It was
also inducted into the IAF for the first time in the year 2013.
Pilotless Target Aircraft or Lakshya -Indigenously developed, Pilotless Target Aircraft (PTA) (named as
Lakshya) is a reusable aerial target system. Lakshya is remotely operated from the ground to provide
aerial target for the training of gun and missile crew and Air Defence pilots for all the three services.
Nishant or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle - Nishant or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is primarily tasked with
intelligence gathering over enemy territory and also for training, surveillance, target designation and
damage assessment. It is also indigenously developed.
Advanced Jet Trainers or Hawks- Hawk is an advanced, British trainer air craft. Hawks are also called
advanced jet trainers. Hawks are developed by BAE systems, a United Kingdom company. India has
purchased Hawks for the purpose of training IAF pilots to fly fighter aircrafts.
Advaced light Helicopter or Dhruv - Dhruv is a utility helicopter developed and manufactured in India. It
is a multipurpose helicopter used for the transportation of men and material. India even exports this
helicopter to other countries such as Ecuador.

INDIAN ARMY MAIN BATTLE TANKS

Presently, the Indian Army Main Battle Tanks (MBTS) comprise of Arjun MBT, T-90 Bhishma and T-72 Ajeya. T-
55 AND Vijayanta tanks have been defunct.
Arjun Main Battle Tank- Arjun is the premier tank of the Indian Army. The tank is indigenously designed
and manufactured by Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi, Tamil Nadu. The Indian Army possesses 248 Arjun
tanks at present. Further order to procure more Arjun tanks has already been placed.
T-90 Bhisma Main Battle Tank- T-90 tanks have been manufactured in India under license from Russia.
Indian Army possesses around 1,650 T-90 tanks at present.
T-72 Aajeya Main Battle Tank- T-72 tanks are locally manufactured in India under license from Poland and
Russia. The Indian Army possesses around 2,410 T-72 tanks at present.
T-55 MBT and Vijayanta Tanks- Both these tanks are now withdrawn from the service of Indian Army.

SUBMARINE

A submarine is a warship designed to operate completely submerged in a water body for long periods and
typically armed with torpedoes or missiles. Submarine can be nuclear- powered or diesel-powered.
A diesel – powered submarine is required to come over the surface of the water body after regular intervals
of time such as a week or more, because burning of diesel requires oxygen, which charges the battery of
the submarine. Presently, the Indian Navy possesses 13 diesel – powered submarines.
On the other hand, a nuclear powered submarine gets energy from the nuclear reactor and thus, can stay
underwater for months. It is very difficult for an enemy nation to detect it. It can even floss near the
territorial waters of an enemy nation.
It is an effective deterrent to enemy, because even if the ground nuclear installations are destroyed by
enemy in the first strike, the nuclear – powered submarine can be used to launch nuclear weapons.
Thus, nuclear – powered submarine provides effective second striking capability to the nation.

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Presently, the Indian Navy is using two nuclear – powered submarines.

INS Chakra -India currently operates the Russian origin Akula-II class nuclear – powered submarine which
has been renamed INS Chakra. It is leased to India for a period of ten years in 2012. It can carry ballistic
missiles.
INS – Arihant – It is India’s first indigenous nuclear-powered submarine. Its design is based on the Russian
Akula- I class submarine and its 83 MW pressurized water reactor has been built with significant
Russian assistance.
It is a SSBN (Submersible Ship Ballistic Missile Nuclear Powered), or a nuclear- powered submarine
that can carry ballistic missiles. Arihant has four vertical launch tubes, which can carry 12K-15
missiles or four larger K-4 missiles.
It is important here to note that INS-Arihant completes India’s nuclear triad – capability of firing
nuclear weapons from land, air and sea.
Nuclear triad nation is a term used to denote a nation which has capabilities of nuclear stricke from
land, air and water. Other nations that have nuclear triad are: Russia, United States, United
Kingdom, France and China.

AIRCRAFT CARRIER

An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as an airbase which moves over a water body. Thus, aircrafts can be
parked, take off and land on an aircraft carrier. It allows a naval force to project air power worldwide
without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations.
Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets. The past, present and future aircraft carriers of
India are as follows:
INS Vikramaditya
INS Vikramaditya is a modified aircraft carrier which entered into service with the Indian Navy in 2013. It
has been renamed in the honor of Vikramaditya, the legendary Emperor of Ujjain, India.
Originally commissioned in 1987, the carrier served the Russian Navy (as Admiral Gorshkov) before being
decommissioned in 1996.
The carrier was purchased by India. Thereafter, up gradations were made to the carrier. The carrier has a
capacity of carrying 30 to 50 fighter jets.
INS Vikrant
INS Vikrant is the oldest aircraft carrier of the Indian Navy. The ship was contracted for the British Royal
Navy during World War II, but the construction was put on hold when the war ended.
India purchased the incomplete carrier in 1957, and construction was completed in 1961. It was
decommissioned in 1997.
The Indian Navy is currently constructing its first home built carrier, also named INS Vikrant, with the new
carrier scheduled to be commissioned by the end of 2018. The aircraft carrier is being built by Cochin
Shipyard Limited (CSL) in Kochi, Kerala.
INS Viraat
INS Viraat was the flagship of the Indian Navy before INS Vikramaditya was commissioned in 2013. It was
commissioned in 1959 by the British Royal Navy and was decommissioned in 1984.
It was sold to India in 1987. It was decommissioned in India in the year 2016.

AIRBORNE WARNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM

Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) helps the Air Force to detect incoming missiles and enemy
aircrafts into the country’s Air Space. AWACS is described as an ‘eye in the sky’.

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Phalcon AWACS- Indian has purchased Phalcon AWACS from Israel. The range of Phalcon is around 500 km in
all the directions from the centre. Phalcon AWACS has been mounted on Ilyushin plane (IL-76) acquired
from Russia.

INTEGRATED ELECTRONIC WARFARE SYSTEM

Electronic warfare has the objective to disable enemy’s electronic devices and maintain effective functioning
of nation’s own electronic system. It includes activities such as hacking navigation signals of enemy armed
forces, listening to enemy’s radio signals, sensing the enemy’s radar and so on.
DRDO has developed three versions of the integrated electronic warfare system:
Samyukta: It is designed for the Army. Samyukta is a mobile integrated electronic warfare system,
counted to be the largest electronic warfare system in India; it was developed jointly by DRDO, BHL,
Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL), and Indian Army Corps of Signals. The system is fully
mobile and is meant for tactical battlefield use.
Samgraja: It is designed for the Navy. Snagraha is the naval version of Smayukta. †
Tempest: It is designed for the Air Force. Tempest is the air force version of Samyukta.

STEALTH TECHNOLOGY

Stealth technology is used to make aircrafts, missiles and ships less visible or invisible to the enemy. In other
worlds, Stealth equipment is designed to avoid detection using a variety of technologies.
That reduce reflection/ emission of radar, infrared, visible lighting, radio-frequency (RF) spectrum, and so on.
Specifically, stealth can be incorporated in the following.
Paint coating: Aircrafts are coasted with special paint which merges with the background of the aircraft.
The paint coasting, named after chameleon, is called chameleon coating.
Design: Aircrafts are designed in such a manner that the incoming ultrasound rays from the radar are
reflected sideways and not sent back to the radar.
Construction material: Some construction material can absorb the rays which are sent to detect ship or
an aircraft.

*****

INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

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Wifi

Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. It is a form of wireless communication system in which internet signals are
transmitted in the form of radio waves in a range of about 100 m.

WiMAX

It stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. WiMAX system sends signals at high
frequency range of about 2 GHz to 11 GHz. It is a wireless communication designed for creating
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). It is considered to be similar to the Wi-Fi standard, but its range of
coverage is far more.
A Wi-Fi signal can cover a radius of several hundred feet only, whereas a fixed WiMAX station can cover a
range of up to 50 km. Mobile WiMAX stations have strength to broadcast up to 16 km.
Setting up of Wi-Fi is a good option, but it is an impractical idea for larger areas, because to cover a large
area, multiple Wi-Fi repeaters need to be set up at consistent intervals.
Also, it requires a lot of maintenance. On the other hand, WiMAX can cover several miles using a single
station. This makes it much easier to maintain and to offer more reliable coverage.

Li-Fi

A German physicist, Herald Hass has evolved a method to transfer data through illumination, which is called
D-light (or Li-Fi). It is a very advanced version of Wi-Fi.
It uses visible light to transfer data instead of radio wave communication as used in Wi-Fi. As speed of light is
much faster than the radio waves, Li-Fi will have the speed of around 250 times more than any high speed
broadband.

Working of Li-Fi

A new era of large, bright light-emitting diode (LED) forms the core part of the Li-Fi technology. If the LED light
is on, a digital 1 is transmitted. If the LED light is off, a digital 0 is transmitted.
These large, bright LED lights can be switched on and off very quickly which gives us a very good chance for
transmitting data through light.
There is a light emitter on one corner, for example, an LED, and a photo detector (light sensor) on the other
corner. The photo detector registers a binary 1 when the LED is on and a binary 0 if the LED is off, just like
a microprocessor.
To generate any message, the LED is flashed numerous times or an array of LEDs is used to obtain data rates
in the range of hundreds of megabits per second.

Advantages of Li-Fi Technology

Capacity: Light itself has 10,000 times wider bandwidth than the radio waves. Thus, large amount of data can
be transmitted at multiple frequencies.
Efficiency: LED lights consume less energy and are very efficient. As the Li- Fi system is based on LED lights, it
is cheaper.
Availability: As light is present everywhere, Li-Fi can be made available almost everywhere.

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Security: Light waves cannot penetrate through walls. Thus, data transmitted through light waves is difficult
to hack.
Low cost: Li-Fi requires a very few components. Thus, the cost of Li-Fi is comparatively low as compared to the
existing internet systems.

Limitations of Li-Fi

Li-Fi works in direct line of light. So, if the receiver is blocked by any physical obstruction, then the signal will
immediately stop.
External line from sources such as sunlight, normal bulbs and opaque materials can interfere with Li-Fi
network.

Applications of Li-Fi- Li-Fi has application in all the fields which use internet. Some of the important
applications of Li-Fi are as follows:

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Medical applications: Unlike Wi-Fi, Li-Fi does not cause electromagnetic interference and thus, does not
interfere with medical instruments such as MRI scanners. Wi-Fi cannot be used in such facilities.
Internet in aircrafts: In the aircrafts, Wi-Fi cannot be used, as it can interfere with the navigational systems of
the pilots. But, Li-Fi can be used in aircrafts.
Underwater applications: Light can pass through water. Thus Li-Fi can work underwater, whereas Wi-Fi fails
completely. Thus, Li-Fi provides endless opportunities for ocean exploration with the help of internet –
enabled robots.
Disaster management: Li-Fi can be a powerful means of communication in times of earthquakes or hurricanes
when normal electricity grid is disrupted. Li-Fi bulbs could provide cheap high speed web access to every
street corner.
Applications in sensitive areas: Radio frequencies used under Wi-Fi can cause accidents in power plants,
petroleum pumps or chemical plants. But. Li-Fi can be used safely even at such places.

NEAR FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)

NFC stands for Near Field Communication; and it enables short-range communication between compatible
devices. This requires at least two devices, one to transmit the signal, and another to receive the signal.
A range of devices can use the NFC standard and depending on how the device works, can be considered
either passive or active.
Passive NFC devices do not need a power source of their own. They include tags and other small transmitters
that can send information to other NFC devices. They do not really process any information sent from
other sources and also cannot be connected to other passive components.
Active devices are able to do both – send and receive data. Unlike passive NFC, active NFC devices can
communicate with each other as well as with the passive devices. Smart phones are by far the most
common implementation of active NFC devices. Some other examples of this technology are public
transport card readers and touch payment terminals.

CELLULAR TECHNOLOGIES

Enhanced Data Rates for Global/GPRS Evolution (Edge): The GSM EDGE cellular technology is an upgrade to
the existing GSM/GPRS networks. GSM EDGE evolution can provide data rate of up to 384 kbps, and this
means that it offers a significantly higher data rate than GPRS.
The GSM EDGE evolution systems may also be known as EGPRS or Enhanced General Packet Radio Service
systems.
Strictly speaking a ‘2.75G’ system that uses the GSM EDGE cellular technology is capable of providing data
rates which are much more than those that could be supported by GPRS.
The EDGE evolution is projected to be constructed on the improvements provided by the addition of
General packet Radio Service (GPRS), where packet switching is applied to a network.
This means that the speed at which the data can be transferred increases three – fold by adopting a new
form of modulation.
GSM uses a form of modulation known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK), but EDGE evolution
changes the modulation to 8 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) and thereby enabling a significant increase in
data rate to be achieved.
This makes it a particularly attractive option proving virtually 3G data rates for a small upgrade to an
existing GPRS network.

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Long – Term Evolution (LTE): The LTE is a 4G wireless broadband technology. It has been named as ‘Long-
Term Evolution’, because it represents the next step (4G) in a progression from GSM, A 2G standard, to
Universal Mobile Telecommunications Services (UMTS), the 3G technologies based upon GSM.
The LTE provides significantly increased peak data rates, with the potential for 100 Mbps downstream and
30 Mbps upstream, reduced inactivity, accessible bandwidth capacity, and backwards compatibility
with the existing GSM and UMTS technologies.
The upper layers of LTE are based upon TCP/IP, which will likely result in an all – IP network similar to the
current state of wired communications. The LTE will support mixed data, voice, video and messaging
traffic.
The LTE uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and, in later releases, Multiple Input
Multiple Output (MIMO) antenna technology.
The higher Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver enabled by MIMO, along with OFDM, provides
improved coverage and material, especially in dense urban areas.

National Supercomputing Mission

In March 2015, the Union cabinet approved the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) with a total outlay
of Rs 4500 crore for a period of 7 years. In April the mission was launched. The mission would be
implemented jointly by Department of Science and Technology (DST) and Department of Electronics and
Information Technology (DeitY).
The mission is driven with the aim of consolidating various ongoing efforts into a nationally coordinated
collaborative programme involving developers and users of supercomputing systems as well as academic
and research institutions along with effective collaborative, governance and monitoring mechanisms.
To build a culture of supercomputing for solving complex R&D problems and designing solutions addressing
various country specific requirements for scientific, strategic and societal applications. One of the
deliverables would be a grid connecting 70 supercomputers located in R&D Institutions, Universities and
the l million core cloud using National Knowledge Network (NKN).
The NSM would facilitate the Digital India vision of the government by making available huge data storage
space and linking systems together. The mission envisages manufacturing of supercomputing systems in
India and may play a lead role in Make in India vision.
The plan is to deliver high performance computing on the cloud from supercomputers installed across 17
locations, for applications ranging from accurate weather prediction to drug discovery and data crunching
for scientific research.
In the next seven years, supercomputer performance is expected to reach ExaFLOPS (1000 peta (lops) level
and the idea is that India should not be left behind. The mission was actually proposed in 2011 by a group
of scientists and the Planning Commission which saw the need to supplement India’s supercomputing
capabilities.
The government of the time had also given in principle approval to the project. However, till now nothing has
been done. The funds sanctioned by the government now will go a long way in building the
supercomputing ecosystem in the country.
Building supercomputers is a little easier today, say scientists as commodity hardware and software can be
used. Over the years, India’s supercomputing powers have not matched up with other nations. Currently,
China, the USA, Japan, Switzerland and Germany are the prominent figures in the list of countries with
most supercomputing powers.
The Chinese Tianhe-2 is the fastest in the world with a performance of 33.86 peta- flops per second
(quadrillions of calculations per second) according to the November 2015 list of Top500, a ranking of
supercomputers across the world.

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Supercomputing will also help the government manage big data and deliver services to citizens smartly. Geo
exploration, finding reserves of oil and gas, astrophysics, disaster management and flood forecasting, can
all be helped by supercomputers.
Make in India Supercomputer under the NSM

In May 2016, it was announced that the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), which had
built India’s first supercomputer, has been assigned the responsibility to create and build Make in India
supercomputer under National Supercomputing Mission.
This new supercomputer would be one of the few fully indigenously built supercomputers, ever created in
India. It is expected to be unveiled in 2017. C-DAC will be overseeing the construction of this PARAM series
system to be built under India’s NSM.

Top 500: the Fastest Computers in the World

In June 2017, the 49th list of rankings for the fastest computers in the world was released in Frankfurt,
Germany. The Top500 is compiled by:
Erich Strohmaier of the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC)/Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory,
Jack Dongarra of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Horst Simon of NERSC/ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and
Martin Meuer of Prometeus GmbH, a German technology company.
Hans Meuer of the University of Mannheim, Germany, was a contributor till he died in 2014.
The list ranks the world’s most powerful supercomputers based on the Linpack benchmark and is released
twice per year. Topping the June 2017 list is the Sunway Taihu Light, a system developed by China’s
National Research Center of Parallel Computer Engineering and Technology (NRCPC) and installed at the
National Supercomputing Center in Wux.
Sunway TaihuLight is built entirely using processors designed and made in China. Containing some 41,000
chips and with a Linpack performance of carrying out 93014 quadrillion calculations per second, Taihu
Light is the most powerful number cruncher on the planet.
Taihu Light has maintained the first slot since June 2016. It is intended for use in engineering and research
including climate, weather, life sciences, advanced manufacturing and data analytics.
Tianhe-2, (Milky Way-2), a system developed by China’s National University of Defense Technology (NUDT)
and deployed at the National Supercomputer Center in Guangzho, China, occupies the second position
with 33.9 petaflops. This system was in first position for three consecutive years till Taihu Light took its
place.
At number three position is the upgraded Piz Daint, a Cray XC50 system installed at the Swiss National
Supercomputing Centre (CSCS). The upgrade, accomplished with additional NVIDIA Tesla P100 GPUs,
doubled the system’s linpack performance from its previous mark of 9.8 petaflops in November 2016,
which itself was the result of a significant upgrade.
Piz Daint’s current Linpack result of 19.6 petaflops enabled the system to move up five positions in the
ranking.
In the event of the upgrade of Piz Daint, Titan, a Cray XK7 system installed at the Department of Energy’s
(DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US, had to be satisfied with being ranked at number four. Its Linpack
mark of 17.6 petaflops has remained constant since its installation in 2012.

The next six positions in the top 10 were as follows:

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Sequoia (17.2 petaflops), an IBM BlueGene/ C) system installed at the DOE’s Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, USA
Cori (14.0 petaflops), a Cray XC40 system housed at the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center
(NERSC), USA
Oakforest-PACS (13.6 petaflops), a Fujitsu PRIMERGY system running at the Joint Center for Advanced High
Performance Computing, Japan
Fujitsu’s K computer (10.5 petaflops), installed at the RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational Science
(AICS), Japan
Mira (8,6 petaflops), an IBM BlueGene/Q system installed at DOE’s Argonne National Laboratory, USA
Trinity (8.1 petaflops), a Cray XC40 system running at Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA

In the 24-year history of the Top500 rankings, it was only in 1996 (and now in June 2017) that the US has not
found a place in the first three positions. In 1996, Japanese systems captured the top three positions.
However, the US still claims five of the top 10 supercomputers, which is more than any other nation.
However, there is still a lot of presence of the U.S.A in the computers round the world. The computer that
pushed the US to fourth rank was built by Cray and is filled with Intel processors and NVIDIA GPUs, all
creations of US companies.
Even the second- ranking Tianhe-2 is based on Intel processors and co-processors. Intel continues to
provide the processors for the largest share (92.8 percent) of Top500 systems.
Cray continues to be a clear leader in the Top500 list in performance and has a considerable lead with a
21.4 percent share of installed total performance.
The biggest change in recent years has been the adoption of accelerators to boost performance on certain
high-throughput, parallel workloads while keeping the power manageable. A total of 91 systems on the
list use accelerator/co-processor technology, up from 86 in November 2016, out of which 71 use NVIDIA
chips.
The number of systems in the USA decreased to 169 from 171 in November 2016, while the number of systems
installed in China decreased to 159, compared to 171 on the last list. Performance-wise the USA leads with
33.5 per cent of the overall installed performance; China is second with 31.2 per cent of the overall
installed performance.
Green500: The computers on the Top500 list showed a rise in energy efficiency, and this is reflected in the
Green500. In the Green 500 list, the top four positions are all occupied by newly installed systems in Japan,
with the upgraded Piz Daint supercomputer coming fifth. All of these use NVIDIA’s latest P100 GPUs.
The most energy-efficient system on the Green500 list is the new TSUBAME 3.0, installed at the Tokyo
Institute of Technology. It is ranked number 61 on the Top500 list.
Second is the kukai system at the Yahoo Japan Corporation, which achieves 14.045 gigaflops/watt. It
occupies position 466 on the current Top500 list.
In third place is the AIST AI Cloud system at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology, Japan. This system from NEC achieves 12.68 gigaflops/watt and is ranked number 148 on
the Top500.
Number 4 slot is taken by the RAIDEN GPU system, a Fujitsu System at the Center for Advanced
Intelligence
Project, RIKEN, Japan using NVIDIA Tesla P100 to achieve 10.6 GFlops/Watt power efficiency. It is on
position 306 in the Top500.
Ranked 5 is the Piz Daint system, in Switzerland, which is listed at third position in the Top500.

India in the Top500 List

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In June 2017, there were four Indian supercomputers on the Top500 list. The fastest Indian supercomputer
remains the Cray XC40 system at the Supercomputing Education and Research Centre (SERC) of the Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore. With its speed of 901.5 teraflops it was placed at the rank of 165 in the
June 2017 Top500.
Then comes the IBM DataPlex DX360M4 at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, ranked 260
with 719.2 teraflops.
Another Cray, an XC30 belonging to the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and installed in
Hyderabad for the Indian Lattice Gauge Theory Initiative, with 558.8 teraflops has a ranking of 355.
The fourth India-based supercomputer, an Apollo 6000 from Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE), at the Indian
Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, having a maximum speed of 524.4 teraflops is ranked 391.
The only indigenous super computer in India- the ParamYuva II at the Centre for Development of Advanced
Computing (CDAC), Pune, assembled by NetWeb Technologies -is not on the June 2017 list of the world’s
Top500 ranking of fastest computers. In November 2016, it was on the list ranked 447 with its maximum
speed of 388.4 tera flops.

White Space and White Fi

It was reported recently that Microsoft India had a plan to provide free last-mile internet connectivity across
the country using ‘white space’. In the communications context, the term ‘white space’ refers to
underutilised portions of the radio frequency (RF) spectrum.
The switchover to digital television left large portions of the spectrum unused, in particular the frequencies
allocated for analog television and those used as buffers to prevent interference between channels.
Sufficient space has to be left so that even when tropospheric propagation conditions increase the
distances over which signals can be received, interference does not normally occur.
This means that there are significant areas where these channels are unused and this leads to very poor
spectrum use efficiency.
‘White-fi’ is a term being used to describe the use of a Wi-Fi technology within the TV unused spectrum, or TV
white space. This space in the wireless spectrum is similar to what is used for 4G and so it can be used to
deliver widespread broadband internet.
Typical home Wi-Fi can travel through two walls. White space broadband can travel up to 10 km, through
vegetation, buildings, and other obstacles. Tablets, phones, and computers can all access this wireless
internet using white space through fixed or portable power stations.
The actual amounts of spectrum vary from region to region, but white space spectrum ranges from 470
MHz to 790 Mhz.
Wi-Fi applications require low power, so it is possible to use this unused spectrum between the coverage
areas without the fear of interference being caused within the television transmitter coverage area.
An advantage of using TV white space is that additional otherwise unused frequencies can be accessed.
However, it will be necessary to aggregate several TV channels to provide the bandwidths that Wi-Fi uses
on 2.4 and 5.6 GHz, to achieve the required data throughput rates.
It is possible that vacant channels in any given area will vary widely in frequency and this presents some
challenges in managing the data sharing across the different channels.
White space Wi-Fi will require new hardware but offers improvements in range, speed and penetration of
obstacles that could lead to better quality service at a lower cost. The greater range can enable better
quality wireless networks for underserved areas.
One of the major problems with wireless technologies is that they are easily obstructed. Better penetration
of obstacles should improve performance and reliability.

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At speed of up to 400-800 megabits per second, 3G and 4G mobile broadband speeds are exceeded, even
at long range, possibly ending predatory pricing on mobile data.
Fewer network devices are required to cover an area, which is especially important to businesses that
provide large Wi-Fi networks.
It is possible to use solar power to run it and thus a major problem that internet service providers face,
namely that of high cost of installation equipment, can be overcome.
In India, unlike in Western countries, the gaps of white space spectrum amidst heavy occupancies of terrestrial
broadcasting are not small; on the contrary, there is the tremendous advantage of availability of UHF band
4 (470-5 90MHz) as most of it lies unused.
Since the country has only one terrestrial broadcaster- Doordarshan, IIT Bombay experts had pointed out
as long ago as in 2013 that, on a very conservative basis, at least 70 per cent of the band, viz., at least
84MHz, can be freed by reassignment of TV channel frequencies in India.
This is 84x22=1848MHz, which is more than 90 per cent of the total spectrum across six bands being put
up for auction.
If auctioned along with the lower UHF band, the face of Indian mobile communications and broadband
could be dramatically transformed for the benefit of the consumers, the unconnected citizens and the
economy, as well as increased inflow to the exchequer.
The government’s Digital India initiative envisages the use of the national optic fibre network project to
deliver e-services to all corners of the country. However, in order to the reach the end consumer, wireless
technology may still be required; this is particularly so in remote areas as network will be deployed only
at the gram panchayat level.
White- Fi using vacant spectrum could provide this last mile connectivity. Free connectivity to large sections
of the Indian population could be possible through wider coverage and economical deployment and
license-free access.
White-Fi is best suited for providing digital connectivity to low-income groups, a proposition that mostly does
not attract commercial telecom providers. Overburdened licensed mobile networks could get some relief
if white spaces are allowed to be used by phone and tablet users.
Microsoft India has suggested that the spectrum required for White-Fi be made available free of cost for it to
be able to roll out the technology on a mass scale.
Microsoft has said it has no intention of becoming a service provider and that the company will empower
local entrepreneurs to offer last- mile connectivity in areas that are difficult for telecom service
providers to reach.
Microsoft points out that 100 MHz should be made free so that anybody, be it a bank, post office, kirana
store or a self-help group, can use it to provide wi-fi in their area by deploying the equipment and
charging the users a small fee.
Microsoft has previously implemented the technology on a pilot basis in Ghana, Botswana, Namibia,
Tanzania, South Africa, Kenya and Singapore, besides the US and London.
However, before using the white fi, existing gadgets may be required to be configured to tune into the new
frequencies. Moreover, the channel width of white space is just 6 MHz which can be theoretically used for
a data rate of 40 Mbps.
Solar powered receivers are as yet not practical given the little progress made on solar storage batteries. So
there might be problems at night or during heavy rains. The Indian government does not seem amenable
to the plan.
The government has said that there will be no exception made for any company and that companies will
have to purchase or acquire the spectrum by going through the standard procedure of bidding at
auctions held.
The only exception will be for the defence and the security establishments. The government has also set
up a committee to come up with policies and plans for proper utilisation of TV white space.

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All About Spectrum Allocation

In the context of spectrum allocation, spectrum refers to a band of frequencies of electromagnetic waves also
called as radio waves. Electromagnetic waves range from extremely low frequency waves to gamma rays.
Examples of radio waves are-
Waves used for communication and broadcasting purposes including satellite communications,
Visible region of light,
Infrared rays,
Ultraviolet rays,
X-rays, and
Gamma rays.
Radio waves are used for communication and broadcasting e.g.
FM transmission-88 MHz to 108 MHz
Satellite communication—4000-6000 MHz and 11000-14000 MHz
Mobile service providers—900-1800 MHz
It should be noted that two operators are not allotted the same frequency in the same region due to creation
of interference between them. But same frequencies can be used at two different places separated by a
sufficient distance so that there will not be any interference. This is known as space diversity.
The bandwidth of the frequency spectrum allocated is directly proportional to the number of voice channels
that can be supported, since the radio frequency spectrum is a limited resource. For example, defence
personnel use a particular band for wireless sets, mobile operators use a particular band and so on, so
that all can operate without any interference to anybody.
A particular agency coordinates and allots the radio frequencies to different users. The operators use these
frequencies to provide service and earn revenue. As revenue earned is very high, there is a competition
to get frequency band and hence auctions are held with some regulations.
For an FM station, 150 KHz of bandwidth is enough for it to provide radio services properly and hence a number
of FM stations can exist in the 88-108 MHz bandwidth—allotted for FM radio service.

Mesh Networks

Mesh networks are alternative technology that provides connectivity without internet or mobile coverage.
The technology allows smartphones to connect to one another via Bluetooth and peer-to-peer Wi-Fi.
These are sometimes termed as self-healing networks because the increase in the number of users increases
the strength of the network. A number of Indian firms like Air Jaldi Networks, Digital Empowerment
Foundation (DEF), etc. are using mesh networks.
They are providing internet connectivity in rural areas. For example, Digital Empowerment Foundation (DEF)
has been providing connectivity to 30 rural schools and more than 50 village councils in Madhya Pradesh.
A US-based firm, Open Garden Technology, is active in India through its messaging app Firechat. Firechat has
been used around the world during crisis as well as in civil disobedience movements such as Hong Kong’s
Umbrella Revolution.
The Umbrella Movement is a pro-democracy political movement that was created spontaneously during
protests in Hong Kong in 2014. In India, Firechat was used in Kashmir at the time of heavy rainfall in March
2015.
For establishing wireless connectivity through mesh networks, an operator needs a small cell tower that in
turn talks to a base station and finally to an internet service provider. The advantages of mesh-networks

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for a country like India are immense, because it has connectivity and penetration especially in the rural
areas.

Identity Theft

Fraudulently using another person’s name and personal information for financial gain is identity theft. Identity
theft rarely involves the unauthorised taking of a victim’s personal possessions; however it does involve
the perpetrator of the crime taking the victim’s personal information and then using this in an
unauthorised way for his/her own personal gain.
One can then use the information to commit financial fraud, such as credit card fraud, bank fraud, and
telecommunications fraud. Identity thieves can also use the identity of a person when they commit crimes,
such as entering (or exiting) a country illegally, trafficking drugs, smuggling other substances, committing
cyber crimes and laundering money.
As technology evolves, the ways in which sensitive information is stolen has also changed. Here are some
common ways in which digital information is stolen and misused.
Vishing is when someone calls a person on the phone to get information.
Phishing involves emails from imitation or spoofed email IDs sent to customers to extract their online
banking credentials and card details.
In Smishing, someone sends text messages to a person’s phone to get personal information. Generally,
fraudsters pretend to call or send mails and mails and messages from an institution or entity that one
is currently associated, with such as banks and other lenders.
Hacking involves fraudsters hacking into computer or laptop, mobile or devices such as a tablet, to steal
personal information. Hackers often install malware such as keystroke logging software (records
keystrokes and websites and takes screenshots), which helps them get information without anyone
noticing.
It is more beneficial to steal information from large organisations through malware attacks or data breach.
Cyber thieves attack databases or websites of institutions to obtain sensitive information.
Malware-based attacks include malware injected on banks’ websites to extract customer banking information
during a transaction. ATMs may be infected with malware to eject money.
Consequences for victims of identity theft If a criminal has used another person’s identity to commit a
crime, this can put the victim under police suspicion.
The victims may find themselves being investigated as part of a criminal investigation, and in some cases
they may find it difficult to prove their innocence. If someone uses a person’s details in any form of
monetary transaction, the person could end up being saddled with debts.
Stopping Identity Theft Methods of identity theft evolve rapidly as new mediums, such as social media,
develop quickly, so it is almost impossible to completely prevent identity theft. However certain
precautions may prove timely in preventing thefts.
One should take care to protect one’s data by being aware of one’s privacy settings on social media. Be aware
of suspicious emails which may be phishing for data. It is better to completely destroy all documents
containing personal data, rather than just discarding them.

Global Cyber Security held to Ransomware

Starting in May 2017, several computers across the world were locked up and users’ files held for ransom by
a malware. Malware is a general term that refers to software that’s harmful to computers. It is a malicious
software.

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In the recent cyber attack, corporate, hospital and government agencies throughout the world were hit by the
malicious software. Ransomware (a type of malware) takes over a computer and prohibits the users’
access to data on it until a ransom is paid. So, ransomware malware is a tool for cyber extortion.
Once installed in a computer, the Trojan (a programme used to hack computers by misleading users about
its actual content) installs a ransomware that encrypts the data stored in the computer.
Then victims are sent notifications through a screen alert demanding a ransom to be paid in Bitcoins to
use their data. Most attackers demanded between $300 and $500 to remove the malicious software,
and the price could double if it is not paid within 24 hours.
The ‘WannaCry’ ransomware attack of May 2017, used a flaw in Microsoft software to infiltrate victim
computers. It affected more than 150 countries and a total of more than 200,000 victims. In Britain,
National Health Service got disrupted.
As a result, hospitals and clinics turned away patients after losing access to computers. In Russia, about
1,000 computers at Interior Ministry got infected. In Japan, it affected 2,000 computers at 600
companies.
Similarly various institutions in Spain, US, France, Germany, China were hit by the ransomware attack. The
malware encrypts the data in a hacked computer and then asks for ransom to be paid in Bitcoins.
Just a month after WannaCry, a similar malware, believed to have started from an update by a third- party
Ukranian software called MeDoc, hit organisations worldwide on June 27, 2017. Some IT experts identified
the virus as ‘Petrwrap’, a modified version of the Petya ransomware which had hit last year and demanded
money from victims in exchange for the return of their data.
But preliminary findings by Russian cybersecurity firm Kaspersky suggest that this was a ransomware not
seen before, which it named ‘NotPetya’. While Ukraine and Russia are believed to be the worst hit by
the attacks, companies across US, UK, and India were impacted.
The Petya ransomware encrypts files, and overwrites and encrypts the master boot record and hard drive.
The system shuts down about an hour after the infection and asks for ransom on rebooting.
Cyber-criminals behind the ransomware demanded $300 in bitcoins to be paid to recover encrypted files.
However, cyber security firms say that ransom should not be paid as there is no evidence of files being
restored after such payment.
The ransomware attack has been described as the largest-ever of its kind that struck banks, hospitals and
government agencies among a variety of other targets, exploiting known vulnerabilities in older
Microsoft computer operating systems.
The vulnerabilities in the older version of Windows were known to Microsoft for quite some time, but it
did not do much to patch them up, except for customers who paid to remove the deficiencies.
Customers, on their part, also acted indiscreetly by not updating their versions, despite being aware of the
risks involved. So, it is a lesson for both software manufacturers and users that any loophole left in
the security set-up is prone to be exploited by cyber criminals.
A serious revelation has also come to light that the malware was possibly stolen from a stockpile of weapons
built up over the years by the National Security Agency (NSA) of the US as a counter-offensive to cyber-
attacks on the US and its allies by countries like Russia, China and North Korea.

India Among Victims of Petya and WannaCry Ransomwares

Internet security solutions firm Symantec has ranked India seventh in terms of number of victims of Petya
ransomware attack. About 20 organisations fell victim to the ransomware in India. The main targets of
these attacks were governments, harbour terminals, airports, electricity grids, banks, factories, insurance
and pharmaceutical companies.

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Similarly, the WannaCry ransomware is estimated to have hit lakhs of computers in India, according to
Moscow-based Kaspersky Labs.
In West Bengal, the State Electricity Distribution Company’s computers were affected.
Panchayat offices in Kerala’s Wayanad district were also reported to have been affected by ransomware.
BFSI (Banking, Financial Services and Insurance) and telecom firms became the biggest victims of the
attacks of WannaCry.
A total of 34 incidents of infections from the two global ransomware attacks, WannaCry and Petya, were
reported to the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) by various organisations and
individuals.
But many companies are believed to have paid the bitcoins with the help of third-party service providers. In
many cases, Indian companies and even banks do not wish to report the cases or file a complaint with the
investigative authorities.
In fact, India is reported to have been the third largest target of the WannaCry malware. Russia, Ukraine,
India, Taiwan were the most seriously affected countries. Fortunately, there has been no major impact of
the WannaCry and Petya attack on the country.

Need to Evolve Digital Security

The ransomware cyber attacks have once again revealed the hidden dangers of a connected world. The threat
is due to many factors- the influx of millions of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, the emergence of a mobile-
first market in India, and the movement of data from desktops to the cloud.
Moreover, more than 80-90 per cent of the software running on these devices is either open source or
supplied by foreign sources. This opens up a massive base prone to attack. Connecting any strategic
infrastructure to the internet market makes it vulnerable to security threats because hackers find new
ways to break into online systems.
At the national level, there is a need to address these challenges for a self-reliant and secure Digital India by
developing indigenous, world- class software and systems, and educating the commoner about risks
involved in going digital and the caution they need to inculcate.
It also involves imparting security education. The policy-makers and technology companies should embed
security into everything planned and implemented. Laws relating to data security and information
protection should be put in place, and there is a need to build security mechanism around end-users.
Last, but not the least, encryption of vital, if not all the data in the hardware or system, is a crucial way to
minimise damage.

DNA Computer

It was reported in February 2017 that scientists from the University of Manchester in the UK showed the
feasibility of engineering a Universal Turing Machine (UTM) - a computer that can be programmed to
compute anything that any other device can process.
They for the first time have designed a new, super- fast form of a ‘magic’ computer made of DNA molecules
that grows as it computes and can outperform all standard systems in solving important practical
problems. The research was published in the Journal of the Royal Society Interface.
Current computers use a finite number of processors to perform these sorts of operations. A computer that
uses DNA molecules can grow more of itself and so perform many calculations simultaneously, seemingly
without limit.
Though quantum computers, still in their infancy, can also process concurrently, they still need specific set ups
to do so, which limits their usefulness. DNA computers have no such constraint.

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As one of the researchers pointed out, quantum computers can also follow two possible paths in a maze, but
only if the maze has certain symmetries, which greatly limits their use.
As DNA molecules are very small, a desktop computer could potentially utilise more processors than all the
electronic computers in the world combined-and therefore outperform the world’s current fastest
supercomputer, while consuming a tiny fraction of its energy.
Computing with DNA was first proposed in 1994 as a way to solve problems faster than with normal
computers. DNA has a number of advantages over silicon that makes it ideal for problem solving, namely
that it is extremely small and highly stable. But the biggest advantage of DNA is that it can copy itself.
In computing terms, this means that a DNA computer can run any number of calculations at the same
time, which is very important for solving complex problems.
While a typical computer might have to do a billion calculations one after another, a DNA computer can
just make a billion copies of itself and do all the calculations at once.
Just as the four key proteins of DNA can be combined to tell cells to attack infections or grow hair, they
could also theoretically be used to analyse massive amounts of climate data.
In DNA computing, information is represented using the four-character genetic alphabet - A (adenine), G
(guanine), C (cytosine) and T (thymine) - rather than the binary alphabet, which is a series of Is and
Os used by traditional computers.
The theoretical properties of such a computing machine, including its exponential boost in speed over
electronic and quantum computers, have been well understood for many years - but the breakthrough
demonstrates that it is actually possible to physically create a UTM using DNA molecules.

Quantum Computer

In a classical computer, a sequence of bits is used for calculations. The bits are based on the flow of electrical
current, and make up the digital language in which all computing functions; ‘off’ means 0 and ‘on’ means
1, and those two states encode all of the computer’s operations.
In place of bits, a quantum computer uses quantum bits—known as qubits. Qubits are not based on the
‘yes/no’ electrical switches, but rather on a particle’s quantum properties, such as the direction in which
an electron spins.
Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons or electrons and their respective control devices that are working
together to act as computer memory and a processor.
And in the quantum world, a particle can simultaneously exist in a variety of states more complex than
simply on/off—a phenomenon known as superposition.
Because a quantum computer can contain these multiple states simultaneously, it has the potential to be
several times more powerful than the most powerful supercomputers in operation at present. That
power grows exponentially with the number of qubits.
A 30-qubit quantum computer would equal the processing power of a conventional computer that could
run at 10 teraflops (trillions of floating-point operations per second).
Quantum computers are not intended to replace classical computers, but are expected to be a different tool
to be used to solve complex problems that are beyond the capabilities of a classical computer.
Theoretically, quantum computers could create mathematical models too complex for standard
computers, and thus vastly extend the range and accuracy of things like weather forecasts and
financial market predictions.
They could simulate physical processes such as photosynthesis, and thus open up new vistas in green
energy.
Quantum computing could also take artificial intelligence to a very much greater degree of sophistication.
But the challenge is also huge and complex.

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SARAT App

SARAT is a mobile app developed by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
based in Hyderabad, which can assist in searching for more than 64 types of missing objects like boats,
ships, man- over- board etc., at sea. The app was formally launched in July 2017.
Work is going on to integrate it with the INSAT for improved real-time transmission and relay of information,
according to INCOIS Director. The app will enable the Indian Coast Guard, Navy and Coastal Security Police
to shorten search time during their various operations to minimise loss of life, injury and property damage.
It will ensure quick action and make the system available to all. Request forms and generated responses have
been provided in local languages of all Indian coastal States so that fishermen can easily use it to search
when their fellow fishermen are in distress.
Conducting search and rescue operations at sea is an extremely challenging prospect. Search and rescue
operations are most frequent during bad weather over the high seas, when the fisher folk inadvertently
venture out and meet with disaster.
App users can select a specific point where the person or object was last seen using the interactive map or
they can select a nearby coastal location, approximate distance travelled and the bearing angle so that
the missing point is calculated.
The most probable ‘search area’ is then generated and relayed in map form as well as a text message. The
rescuer can share his GPS location in the app to calculate his closest route to easily reach the search area.
The SARAT app may be used by the rescuer in advance while still on land to determine the search area and
then download the generated approach route. The system can predict the most probable search area for
up to five days.
The SARAT system proved helpful in the recovery of the Indian Coast Guard’s missing Domier aircraft off
Chennai in 2015. The app is expected to be compatible to most Android-based handsets in use and
includes support up to Marshmallow (API 23).

India’s First Industrial Robot

India’s first indigenously made industrial articulated robot for micro, small and medium enterprises, Brabo,
has been designed and manufactured by TAL, Manufacturing Solutions Ltd, a Tata Enterprise. TAL
manufactured it as a part of Make in India drive in a period of three years.
TAL said that this is the first time that an industrial robot has been conceptualised, designed and manufactured
in India. Brabo stands for ‘Bravo Robot’. Its purpose is to complement the human workforce and
repeatedly perform tasks of high volume, dangerous and time- consuming nature, ranging from handling
of raw materials to packaging of finished products.
The manufacturer has released two variants for payloads of 2 kg and 10 kg. TAL’s Pune factory designed
and manufactured Brabo.
All its parts except the motors and the drives for the Robo-ann which are sourced from Italy are
indigenously manufactured.
TAL has applied for intellectual property certification of the robot.The robot offers various advantages in
terms of easy installation, usage, program and maintenance. It is also about 40 per cent cheaper (at
Rs 5 lakh to Rs 7 lakh) than imported robots.
It has a low-cost power transmission system. It will be able to work on single phase power supply suitable
for MSMEs, and has an inbuilt programmable logic controller and can act as a virtual controller for
simulation.

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Industrial robots prove beneficial in reducing cost, improving quality, increasing productivity and enhancing
health and safety at workplace. According to the company, the robot can increase productivity by 15 per
cent to 30 per cent, and its payback period is of 15 to 18 months.
An articulated robot is a robot fitted with one or more rotary joints. With rotary joints a full range of motion
is possible; the joints rotate through multiple planes, and the capabilities of the robot is considerably
increased.
Besides, the rotary joints enable the robot to engage in very precise movements. An articulated robot can
use other types of joints too, depending on the design of the robot and what it is intended for.
Articulated robots are very useful in manufacturing lines where they utilise their flexibility to bend in a
variety of directions.
With multiple arms the robot has greater control over its task besides the ability to conduct multiple tasks
at once: rotary joints allow robots to do things like turning back and forth between different work
areas.
These versatile robots can be used for several applications - welding, material handling, dispensing and
material removal.

*****
7. GENETICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

What is Biotechnology ?

Biotechnology is the industrial use of microorganism and living plant and animal cells to produce substances
or effects beneficial to people. It involves genetic manipulation, and encompasses the manufacture of
antibiotics, vitamins, vaccines, etc.
It encompasses a variety of technologies that rely on knowledge gained by modern discoveries in cell biology,
biochemistry, and molecular biology. These technologies are already making an enormous impact in many
areas of life, including agriculture, food processing, medical technology, and waste treatment.
In its narrow senses, biotechnology refers to growing microorganisms, such as yeast and bacteria, under
controlled conditions in devices known as bioreactors. For this reason, brewing is sometimes called the
oldest form biotechnology.
In the broader sense, it can mean any of the modern technologies that rely on discoveries made in modern
biology. Many familiar products owe their existence to biotechnology, from anti-cancer drugs to vitamin
tablets, and from biomass fuels to detergents.
Biotechnology remains a controversial area of science, because many people are concerned about the
unexpected consequences of reshaping nature in ways we do not entirely understand.

Biotechnology Techniques

Bioreactors

Perhaps the most important single piece of equipment used in biotechnology is the bioreactor. Bioreactors
are containers that allow a biological process to take place in optimum conditions, producing a useful
substance in large amounts.
People have been using simple bioreactors for centuries- to make wine and beer produced by fermentation:
in the absence of air- the cells of a microscopic fungus known as yeast break down sugar in a vat of liquid

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to produce alcohol. The term fermentation has now come to mean any process by which microorganisms
turn raw material into useful products.
Many modern bioreactors contain bacterial cultures (collections consisting of billion of cells). Because of
advances in genetic engineering, bioreactors can now also manufacture complex biological substances
that were once extremely difficult or impossible to obtain.
One of the first, such products made in a bioreactor was the human hormone insulin, which is used to
treat diabetes.
Bacteria are extremely versatile tools in biotechnology, but they are unable to produce very large or
complex proteins. Instead, the cells of more advanced organisms are used for this purpose.
More recently, scientists have devised ways of culturing mammalian cells in bioreactors to produce
antibodies and other useful proteins.
Some bioreactors carry out a chemical process without using living cells. Instead, enzymes are used to trigger
the conversion of one chemical or material into another. This process, called biotransformation, is a major
area of biotechnology. Many important materials are now produced in this way, including corn syrup,
vitamin C, and certain chemicals used by the pharmaceutical industry.
Most bioreactors used in biotechnology are tank bioreactors. Also called a fermented, a tank bioreactor is a
large, stainless steel vat that contains cultured cells suspended in a broth of nutrients. The temperature,
Ph (acidity), and oxygen level must all be kept at the optimum level if the bacteria are to grow properly.
Immobilized – cell bioreactors are used to culture delicate or complex cells such as mammalian and plant
cells. The culture cells are confined within an inert mesh (a mesh made form a material that does not react
with the cells) or enclosed by a permeable membrane (a thin sheet of tissue that allows some substances
to pass through it).
In either case, vital nutrients can pass directly to the cells, but the cells are protected from the stirring
forces within the liquid medium.
Such techniques have the added benefit of making it easy to separate the culture cells from the medium.

Cell Fusion

Cell fusion involves combining two cells to make a single cell that contains all the genetic material of the
original cells. The technique has been used to create new plants by fusing cells from species that do not
naturally hybridise (from a crossbreed) and then generating whole plants from the fused cells.
The pomato is a cross between a potato and a tomato. Pomato plants have the characteristics of both parents;
they produce both potatoes and tomatoes, although the tomatoes, although the tomatoes are rather
small.
Cell fusion is used to make the fused cells known a monoclonal antibodies, which are protective proteins
produced by the clone of a single immune cell. Monoclonal antibodies are increasingly important for
devising new and more accurate diagnostic tests.
For example, they are used to test blood, to measure blood levels of various drugs, to diagnose pregnancy
and detect ovulation, to detect sex hormones in urine, and to test for the presence of cancer cells.
Since monoclonal antibodies can be made to seek out and recognize cancers wherever they may be in the
body, much research has been conducted into the possibility of using this method to carry a toxic or
radioactive agent to the tumor cells and destroy them.
There are several ways of performing cell fusion. For animal and bacterial cells, the most common technique
is to use a virus or chemical polymer to weaken the outer wall of the cells and cause them to bind together.
Plant cells cannot be fused in this way; their cell walls must be completely removed. This is done by having
them digested by enzymes.

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Use of Liposomes

Liposomes are microscopic spherical capsules that form when biological molecules called lipids form a
suspension in water. The lipid molecules in a liposome arrange themselves so as to create a tiny space
inside the centre of the liposome that can carry another substance, such as a drug.
Liposomes are important in biotechnology, because they may offer new means of delivering certain drugs to
particular parts of the body. For example, drugs called peptides could be encapsulated in liposomes and
swallowed.
The liposomes would protect the peptides from digestion by acids in the stomach, allowing them to be
absorbed into the intestines. Liposomes could also be injected directly into the blood. They are known to
accumulate in inflamed tissue and in certain types of tumors, so they might help deliver anti-cancer or
anti-inflammatory drugs to their targets.

Cell Tissue Culture

Tissue culture is a technique in which individual cells grow and divide in a bath of sterile, nutritive fluid which
often contains growth substances. Living tissue is grown in vitro (Latin, in glass) or in vivo (in what is alive).
For in vitro culture, tissue from a plant or animal is placed in a medium, usually liquid, in which an
assortment of substances has been dissolved.
Some of these nourish the tissue; others approximate the chemical make – up of its normal environment.
In vivo, tissue culture is carried out by implanting tissue into a living plant or animal.
For example, a scientist might transfer cancerous tissue from a mouse to a number of other mice, to test
the effects of varying concentrations of an anticancer drug.
Both the in vitro and in vivo methods have been refined to a point where a single cell isolated from a tissue
can be cultured successfully. The technique is called cell culture. Cell/tissue culture helps in many ways:
Vaccines against viral diseases such as polio require the virus to be cultivated on living tissue in vitro;
for recognition under the microscope of chromosomes that denote various kind of disorders in the foetus,
the foetal tissue for examination is first grown in vitro;
growing skin for grafting onto extensive burns;
propagation of desirable varieties of asparagus, orchids, and many other plants, using extremely thin slices
of tissue;
producing identical plants (clones) by the thousands.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the term applied to the techniques that alter the genes (hereditary material) or
combination of genes in an organism. By changing an organism’s genes, scientists can give the organisms
and its descendents different traits.
For thousands of years, breeders of plants and animals have used breeding methods to produce favourable
combinations of genes. These “genetic engineers” have produced most of the economically important
varieties of flowers, vegetables, grains, cows, horses, dogs and cats.
In the 1970s and 1980s, scientists developed ways to isolate individual genes and reintroduced them into cells
or into plants, animals or other organisms; such techniques alter the heredity of the cells or organisms.
To isolate a gene, scientists use a technique called gene splicing. In gene splicing, a gene- sized fragment
of DNA is isolated form one organism and joined to a DNA molecule from another organism or from
the same organism. Gene-sized DNA fragments are isolated by means of restriction enzymes.

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These enzymes react chemically with a specific base sequence in the DNA molecule and break the
molecule at that point. This point is called the cleavage site after a gene has been isolated; an enzyme
called ligase is used to splice the gene to another DNA fragment.
The hybrid molecule formed is called recombinant DNA. Recombinant DNA is then inserted back into a
cell. It is able to replicate within the cell as the cell divides. Thus, the number of recombinant DNA
molecules increases rapidly.
Some bacteria contain small, circular DNA molecules called plasmids. Plasmids are found in the bacterial
cell outside the cell’s chromosomes. A plasmid can be isolated and split at a cleavage site by using a
restriction enzyme.
A fragment of DNA from any source can then be joined to the plasmid, using ligase to form a hybrid circular
molecule of DNA. When hybrid DNA plasmids are mixed with specially prepared bacterial cells, a few
of the cells will take up a hybrid molecule in a process called transformation.
The mixture of bacterial cells is then placed on a special culture medium so that the transformed cells with
the newly added genetic information grows overnight into a colony of millions of cells. This colony
represents a clone-that is, a group of genetically identical cells.
Techniques for isolating and altering genes were first developed by American geneticists during the early
1970s. During the late 1970s, researchers used recombinant- DNA techniques to engineer bacteria to
produce small quantities of insulin.
Insulin is produced by splicing the insulin gene from human cells to plasmids from cells of Escherichia coli or
E.Coli to make proteins called interferons. These proteins are normally produced by body cells in response
to viral infections. By the early 1980s, methods of genetic engineering had been adapted to large – scale
production of these substances.
In 1982, in the United States, bacterially produced insulin became the first recombinant DNA drug
approved for use on people.
Also, in the early 1980s, geneticists made progress in using genetic engineering techniques to add genes
to higher organisms. Researchers inserted a human growth- hormone gene into mice, and the mice
grew to twice their normal size.
In 1982, researchers succeeded in transferring a gene from one species of fruit fly to another. The same
year, geneticists proved that genes can be transferred among plant species.
In 1987, scientists introduced a gene from a bacterial cell into tomato plants, making the plants resistant
to caterpillars.
The first patent was issued in the United States in 1986, on a genetically engineered plant a variety of corn
with increased nutritional value.
In 1988, the first patent on a genetically engineered higher animal was issued, again in the United States.
The animal, a type of mouse, was developed for use in cancer research.
Many people suffer from diseases caused by genetic defects inherited from their parents. Using recombinant
DNA techniques, scientists have tested DNA isolated from cells or unborn babies to learn whether the
babies will have a disease. Doctors may eventually be able to treat babies in the mother’s womb to prevent
a disease.
Also, researchers have investigated methods of gene therapy in an effort to cure diseases. Such methods
involve inserting genes from another individual or organism into a patient’s cell outside the body and then
returning these altered cells into the patient’s body.
Genetically engineered microbes have been used to improve the efficiency of food production. For example,
rennin, an enzyme used in making cheese, is produced naturally in the stomachs of calves. By means of
gene- splicing, rennin can be obtained more cheaply.
Genetic engineering also has potential in controlling pollution. Researchers have developed microorganisms
that chemically break down rubbish, toxic substances and other common wastes.

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Large amounts of a growth hormone found in cows have been obtained from genetically engineered bacteria.
When treated with this hormone, dairy cows increase their amount of milk, and beef cattle have leaner
meat.
Genetic engineering also has been used to increase the nutritional value and herbicide resistance of maize.
Genetically altered bacteria have used on crops to protect them from insects and from frost.

DNA Fingerprinting

DNA Fingerprinting is also called genetic fingerprinting; the technique is used for indentifying the components
of DNA (the material of the genes) that is unique to a particular individual.
Just as a person’s fingerprints are different from everyone else’s and can be used for identification, so a small
section of the DNA of an organism uniquely distinguishes that particular organism from all others. These
varying bits of genetic material take the form of sequences of DNA called mini-satellites, which are
repeated several times. The number of repetitions of mini satellite per region of a gene can vary
enormously between unrelated individuals.
Chemical analysis of an organism’s DNA from a sample of blood, tissue, semen, etc., using the techniques of
chromatography and electrophoresis, produces a two – dimensional pattern of spots. This corresponds
to the genetic profile of that organism, complete with the repeating sequence which can be picked out.
DNA fingerprinting is becoming an established forensic technique and has been used successfully as evidence
in court cases of rape and in cases of proving paternity suits. It is also being used:
to investigate family relationships in animal populations, and
to measure the extent of inbreeding by looking at the degree of variability in DNA profiles.

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Comparing the DNA patterns of parents and offsprings could be useful in preventing trade in endangered
species.

Cloning

Cloning is the production of identical animals, plants or microorganisms from a single individual. A clone is an
organism that is derived from a single parent through non- sexual activities. Natural cloning is common in
plants, microorganisms and simple animals such as corals. Many organisms which reproduce asexually
produce their own clones.
But mammals, all of which reproduce sexually, cannot clone naturally. The progeny of a mammal inherits its
genetic matter not from one parent but half each from both parents. Therefore, the young one produced
is never an identical copy of any one of its parents. Natural clones in mammals are confined to the
production of identical twins.
Some plants such as carrots and tobacco can be cloned by taking a few cells from a living specimen and growing
them on a nutrient jelly. The cells then grow and divide until a whole plant is formed. This form of tissue
culture is now widespread.
Cloning of animals has been based on a technique known as nuclear transfer. This involves fusing two cells
together; a donor cell containing all of its DNA and an egg cell from which the DNA has been removed.
Once the two cells are fused with the help of an electric pulse, the resultant ‘enucleated’ egg is implanted
in the mother.
For a long time, however, the nuclear transfer technique used on amphibians and even mammals was
successful only if the donor cell was taken directly from an early embryo.

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Using cells from an embryo was not too difficult since cells had not yet differentiated and become
specialized cells for different parts of the body, such as bone cells or brain cells.
However, attempts to clone animals from older cells, which had differentiated, consistently ended in
failure, with glaring chromosomal defects.
The inability of the scientists to clone from older cells, both from advanced embryos and adult cells proved
that adult cells cannot adapt themselves to the rapid reproductive rhythm of an enucleated egg of the
recipient.
In 1997, scientists led by Dr Wilmot at the Roslin Institute at Edinburgh succeeded, for the first time, in cloning
a sheep, named Dolly, from the older cell of an adult sheep. According to these scientists, the key to
success in cloning with the help of older cells lay in coordinating the status of the donor cell and the
recipient egg.
While cloning Dolly, it was ensured that when the adult cell was taken from the udder of the ewe, it was
in the exact stage of its lifecycle as the egg in which it was transplanted.
The older cell of the donor was chemically forced into a state of hibernation, known as quiescence-i.e., it
was alive but had stopped multiplying (Quiescence occurs naturally in some cells but Dr Wilmot and
his team had induced it in the donor cell by starving it of nutrients).
This allowed for the adult cell to be at the start of the cell cycle and to have the normal amount of DNA.
After fusion, the fertilized egg was planted into the reproductive tract of the surrogate mother and in
due course of time, Dolly was born.
The technology, however, is not yet perfect. Out of 277 fused pairs of cells where the donor cell was from
adult tissue, only one –Dolly – survived.
In April 1998, Dolly gave birth to a lamb by sexual reproduction, proving that despite her unusual origins,
Dolly was able to breed normally and produce a healthy offspring.

Artificial Insemination and Embryo Transfer Technology

Artificial insemination is the artificial introduction of semen into the reproductive tract of a female animal. It
is used extensively in breeding animals, such as sheep and cattle. Semen collected from a male animal
with desirable hereditary characters can be frozen and transported long distances to fertilise female
animals.
The method is also used for human females who wish to conceive where normal conception is not possible.
The embryo transplantation procedure involves the surgical removal of a fertilized egg from a female and
transferring it into the womb of another (the recipient mother).
The technique may be modified to increase its flexibility. For instance, embryos are sometimes frozen and put
into short term storage before transplantation. Eggs have also been artificially fertilized in a laboratory (in
vitro fertilization) and then placed in the womb of the mother.
Additionally, embryos can be split at an early stage of development using micro surgery; each portion of the
embryo can then be transplanted into recipient mothers, which will later give birth to identical twins. This
procedure is called artificial twinning.

Stem Cell Technology

What is Stem Cell ?

A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that divides mitotically, giving rise, usually by a succession of stages, to
mature functional cells. A stem cell in the bone marrow, for instance, gives rise to the entire range of
immune system of blood cells. Stem cells are cells found in most, if not all, multi-cellular organisms.

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The term “stem cell” was proposed for scientific use by the Russian histologist Alexander Machismo in 1908.
Research in the stem cell field grew out of the findings by Canadian scientists Ernest A. McCulloch and
James E. Till in the 1960s, the two broad types of mammalian stem cells were:
embryonic stem cells that are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and
adult stem cells that are found in adult tissues.
In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the specialized embryonic tissues. In adult
organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing specialised
cells, but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin or intestinal
tissues.
Today, highly plastic adult stem cells from a variety of sources, including umbilical cord blood and bone
marrow, are routinely used in medical therapies. Embryonic cell lines and antilogous embryonic stem cells
generated through therapeutic cloning have also been proposed as promising candidates for future
therapies.
The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possess two properties:
self – renewal or the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the
undifferentiated state, and
potency or the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types.

Types of Stem Cells

Totipotent In other words, omnipotent stem cells can differentiate into any kind of cell type. Such cells can
construct a complete, viable, organism. They are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell.
Pluripotent stem cells come of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e., cells derived from
any of the three germ layers.
Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of
cells.
Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells.
Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own; but they have the property of self- renewal.

Properties of Stem cells

Properties of stem cells can be illustrated in vitro, using methods such as clonogenic assays, where single cells
are characterized by their ability to differentiate and self-renew. As well, stem cells can be isolated based
on a distinctive set of cell surface markers.
However, in vitro culture conditions can alter the behavior of cells, making it unclear whether the cells will
behave in a similar manner in vivo. Considerable debate exists whether some proposed adult cell
populations are truly stem cells.
Embryonic stem cell lines (ES cell lines) are cultures of cells derive from inner cell mass of a blastocyst. ES cells
are pluripotent and they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body when
given sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific cell type. They do not contribute to the extra-
embryonic membranes or the placenta.
Nearly all research to date has taken place using mouse embryonic stem cells (Mes) or human embryonic
stem cells (Hes). Both have the essential stem cell characteristics. In 2006 scientists found a new source
of stem cells: the fluid surrounding developing babies in the womb.
Scientists have created a stem cell line from a human embryo that had stopped developing naturally and so
was considered dead. Yet another technique is that of taking a single cell from an early stage embryo and

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using it to seed a line of stem cells. Under the new technique, the rest of the embryo develops into a
healthy human.
In June 2007, researchers grew human embryonic stem cells using a non-controversial method that did not
harm the embryos. They said they had grown several lines, or batches, of the cells using a single cell taken
from an embryo, which they then froze unharmed.
These were the first human embryonic cell lines in existence that didn’t result from the destruction of an
embryo. These cells taken from days-old embryo, might provide a way to regenerate all sorts of
tissues, blood and perhaps even organs.
And studying them might help them learn how to reprogramme ordinary cells. The approach might bypass
objections to human embryonic stem cell research.
The term adult stem cell refers to any cell which is found in a developed organism that has the properties of a
stem cell. Also known as somatic stem cells and germ line (giving rise to gametes stem cells), they can be
found in children as well as adults.
A new way Researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine were reported in July 2010 to have
found that growing muscle stem cells on a specially developed synthetic matrix, that mimics the elasticity
of real muscle allows them to maintain their self-renewing properties.
Adult stem cells already exist in the body, and are important in regenerating tissues like blood, muscles
and neurons in the brain. But scientists have struggled to produce them in quantities needed for
therapies because the cells differentiate and lose their ‘stemness’ as soon as they’re placed in a tissue
culture dish.
This new method of growing the cells creates a way to study the behavior of many types of adult stem
cells in culture and it may revolutionize the ability of scientists to produce these cells for future
therapies, say the researchers.
Self –renewal, or the ability to become both another stem cell and a differentiating daughter cell, is a defining
trait of stem cells.
This ability is necessary for a small number of cells to, for example, fully reconstitute the pantheon of
blood cell types necessary to regenerate a patient’s immune system after chemotherapy or two
successfully contribute to the long- term generation of new, healthy muscle tissue.
Until now, however, all attempts to grow these and some other adult stem cells, like blood stem cells, in
culture have resulted in the cells differentiating into more specialised – but less therapeutically useful-
progenitor cells.
This differentiation constitutes a major obstacle in treating muscle – wasting diseases, for using cord blood
or for treating blood cancers.
Now, the scientists have developed an entirely new culture system. They turned to a material called hydrogen,
which is made up of a latticework of polyethylene glycol polymers filled with water. Decreasing the per
cent age of polymer molecules in the mix makes the resulting matrix more elastic and wobbly; increasing
it makes it more dense and rigid.
Hydrogen is often used as a scaffolding to grow cells in two – and three – dimensional arrays useful in tissue
engineering. But because it can swell over time, it was not possible to accurately calibrate the amount of
proteins and other components needed to maintain the cells in this type of experiment.
Gilbert and Havenstrite tinkered with the system until they came up with a version that maintains a
constant volume, making it possible to test the effects of gels of different elasticity that all contained
the same amount of protein.
They then patterned the gel into hundreds of tiny wells and added one freshly isolated muscle stem cell
per well.
After letting the cells grow for one week, the researchers found that the softer, or more pliant, gels
mimicking the elasticity of muscle tissue had many more cells than the less- elastic gels.

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Closer investigation using an algorithm they developed for automated cell tracking showed that it wasn’t
because the cells were dividing more quickly, but because not as many were dying during the culture
period.
Clearly, the cells grown on the more-elastic surfaces had better survival and self- renewing properties than
those grown on standard tissue culture dishes. Though the experiments were conducted with muscle
stem cells, they will hold true for other types of adult stem cells as well.
Pluripotent adult stem cells are rare and generally small in number but can be found in a number of tissues
including umbilical cord blood. In mice, pluripotent stem cells are directly generated from adult fibroblast
cultures. Unfortunately, many mice do not live long with stem cell organs.
Most adult stem cells are lineage – restricted (multipotent) and are generally referred to by their tissue origin.
Adult stem cell treatments have been successfully used for many years to treat leukemia and related
bone/blood cancers through bone marrow transplants. Adult stem cells are also used in veterinary
medicine to treat tendon and ligament injuries in horses.
Multipotent stem cells are also found in amniotic fluid. These stem cells are very active, expand extensively
without feeders and are not tumorogenic.
Amniotic stem cells are multipotent and can differentiate in cells of adipogenic, osteogenic, myogenic,,
endothelial, hepatic and also neuronal lines.

Use of stem cells

Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the potential to dramatically change the treatment of
human disease. A number of adult stem cell therapies already exist, particularly bone marrow transplants
that are used to treat leukemia.
Technologies derived from stem cell research are expected in the future to treat a wider variety of diseases
including cancer, Parkinson’s disease, spinal cord injuries, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis,
and muscle damage, amongst a number of other impairments and conditions.
Treating heart patients by directly injecting adult stem cells into their hearts, rather than supplying adult
stem cells through an artery using a catheter, is an innovative effort that increases the heart’s blood-
pumping capacity within a short time.
It results in growth of new blood vessels just three to six months after the stem cells are injected. Clinical
trials to demonstrate this have been conducted at the University Of Pittsburgh Medical Center.
The procedure involves injection of stem cells in ‘weakened’ muscles of the heart as regeneration is
possible only in these muscles.
In 2005, the Delhi – based All India Institutes of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) marked a global first in pioneering
stem cell medicine by the injection method. Several cardiac patients were given the stem cell injections.
The doctors injected stem cells from a bone in a baby’s leg into her heart.
Doctors at AIIMS found that in case of 35 patients who were treated with stem cell injection, after 6
months, 56 per cent of the dead heart muscle had revived. After 18 months, the figure was 64 per
cent.
The stem cell injection therapy proved equally effective in other ailments, such as diabetes, muscular
dystrophy and cerebral palsy also. Scientists have now successfully created insulin from stem cells
taken from a child’s umbilical cord.
This medical breakthrough, which shows that stem cells taken from the umbilical cord of newborns can
be engineered to produce insulin, offers promise to cure type 1 diabetes in the future.
In 2007, the researchers from the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, first grew large numbers
of the stem cells and then directed them to resemble the insulin – producing cells of the pancreas that are
damaged in diabetes.

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Controversies

The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as controversial as embryonic stem cells, because
the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. Additionally, because in
some instances adult stem cells can be obtained from the intended recipient, (an autograft) the risk of
rejection is essentially non-existent in these situations.
Human embryonic stem cell research is controversial because, with the present state of technology, starting
a stem cell line requires the destruction of a human embryo and or therapeutic cloning.
However, recently, it has been shown in principle that adult stem cell lines can be manipulated to generate
embryonic like stem cell lines using a single cell biopsy similar to that used in pre-implantation genetic
diagnosis that may allow stem cell creation without embryonic destruction.
Opponents of the research argue that embryonic stem cell technologies are a slippery slope to reproductive
cloning and can fundamentally devalue human life. Those in the pro- life movement argue that a human
embryo is a human life that is entitled to protection.
Supporters of embryonic stem cell research argue that such research should be pursued because the resultant
treatments could have significant medical potential. It is also noted that excess embryos created for in
vitro fertilisation could be donated with consent and used for the research. The ensuing debate has
prompted authorities around the world to seek regulatory frameworks.

Stem cell Transplantation for Blood Disorders

Stem cell transplantation was first used in the treatment of blood disorders and it was a breakthrough.
Conventionally known as bone marrow transplantation, the stem cells responsible for production of the
blood cells reside in the bone marrow (which is a special tissue inside the cavity of the bones).
The blood cells originate from the bone marrow from a parent cell or the “stem cell”. A more comprehensive
terminology for bone marrow transplantation is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation or blood stem
cell transplantation. The word haematopoiesis means blood cell production, which includes red cells,
white cells and platelets.
The sources are bone marrow; from the blood circulation, also known as peripheral blood stem cells and
umbilical cord blood. The donor is given general anesthesia and bone marrow is aspirated from
multiple sites in the hip bone and collected in a bag.
To collect stem cells from peripheral blood, the donor is given a special injection called growth factors to
stimulate production of the stem cells in increased numbers. These will be circulating in the blood
stream.
The donor is connected to a machine called the cell separator machine, which can separate the stem cells
from the donor’s blood and return the rest of the blood to the donor.
The blood stem cell is given simply as an intravenous infusion like blood transfusion. The stem cells will
automatically find their way home, in the bone marrow. It will replace the patient’s diseased marrow
to give healthy blood cells.
Best donors would be siblings of the patient or a twin or extended family members. Unrelated donors may
also be used.
In the developed countries, there is a national bone marrow donor registry that enrolls voluntary donors who
are willing to donate their bone marrow. The bone marrow registry maintains their data base with their
HLA typing. Their fitness to donate marrow is also assessed.

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The bone marrow registry is linked to other international registries. If a patient needs blood stem cell
transplantation and if the patient has no suitable family donor, a search is made through the national
registry on the electronic data base. Three main groups of diseases may be treated by this method:
malignant diseases like leukemia or cancer of the blood cells;
diseases where blood production itself is defective like plastic anemia; and
genetic diseases like Thalassemia and immune deficiency conditions.
As the patient will be left with no immunity till the new blood stem cells take over he/she is highly susceptible
to infections in the meantime. The patient has to be nursed in a very clean environment, preferably in a
room that can deliver filtered air so that all the micro organisms are filtered.
The patient will also require blood product support and antibiotic support. It is this need for a very aggressive
supportive care makes blood stem cell transplantation expensive. Till some years ago blood stem cell
transplantation was limited to patients up to the fourth decade.
With advances in techniques now blood stem cell transplantation can be given even to elderly patients. In
some situations the patient’s own stem cells are collected, stored and transplanted after a high dose
chemotherapy treatment.
Umbilical cord blood- is a recently discovered source of stem cells which holds out much hope for patients
who lack a family donor. Umbilical cord blood is rich in blood – forming stem cells. Umbilical cord is the
connecting link between the mother and the fetus.
Once the baby is born the umbilical cord is severed and disposed off. The discovery that the umbilical cord
blood is a rich source of blood stem cells has led to the formation of cord blood banks around the
world and the cord blood stem cells are stored for lifesaving purposes.
According to the researchers, umbilical cord matrix cells could provide the scientific and medical research
community with a non- controversial and easily attainable source of stem cells for developing
treatments for various diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, stroke, spinal cord injuries and cancers.
Wharton’s jelly is the gelatinous connective tissue only found in the umbilical cord. The jelly gives the cord
resiliency and pliability, and protects the blood vessels in the umbilical cord from compression.
As an embryo forms, some very primitive cells migrate between the regions where the umbilical cord
forms compression.
Several private and public cord blood banks have come up in many countries and they are networked. Cord
blood stem cells are easily available. The degree of matching required between the patent and the donor
can be less stringent compared to conventional bone marrow transplantation.

Application of Biotechnology

Biotechnology has a broad range of application in many areas of life.

Medicine

Modern biotechnology, in the sense of producing useful substances in bioreactors, was first used in medicine
for growing cultures of moulds in order to produce antibiotics. Today, a number of antibiotics are in use
for curing different ailments.
They include Ciprofloxacin (Broad spectrum group), Amoxicillin and Ampicillin (Pencilillin group),
Erythromycin (Penicillin alternative group), Metonidazole (anti-protozoan group) and tetracyclines
(Board spectrum group).
Hormones for treating people can now be produced by microorganisms that have been genetically modified.
Artificial generation is an especially useful technique in cases where the hormone to be made is a protein
and can therefore be made directly from a single gene.

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Factor VIII, necessary for hemophiliacs to help clot blood, is expensive to manufacture industrially, but the
genetically engineered sheep (whose milk has the protein) could mass- produce it easily and reduce the
cost of such treatment.
A new family of drugs is being targeted at those vital proteins in a cell which bind to specific sites of a gene
and regulate their activity called Transcription factor based drugs; these drugs act as transcription factor
protein which are essential for converting the genetic information coded in genes into an RNA.
As the life cycles of many bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens are dependent on the activity of transcription
factor proteins, novel structure based drugs against these proteins can inhibit the growth of the infectious
organism.
Biotech companies have also set their sights on drugs which could selectively interact with genes. This new
frontier of drug design employs small stretches of complementary DNA and RNA called oligonucleotides
which can bind to the target stretch of nuclearotides, which could be mRNA or DNA and turn genes off at
will.
As the mRNA spells out the series of amino acids that string together to make a protein, this molecule is
said to make some ‘sense’. Oligonucleotides which inhibit RNA form producing the protein by binding
to it are hence called ‘antisense’ sequences.
If an oligonucleotide binds to DNA, a triple helix is formed which again inactivates the gene. This triple
helix technique easily shuts down viruses whose genetic structure is well known.
Actually for using oligonucleotides as therapeutic drugs, a slight modification is made in their chemical
structure so that they become resistant to cellular nucleases which can degrade them.
For this, a critical oxygen atom in each nucleotide building block is replaced with sulphur atom. This special
class of oligonucleotides, called S-Oligos or phosphorothioates is used as a drug for inactivating genes.
They can be easily synthesized by automated techniques.
Agricultural productivity and diversity can greatly benefit from biotechnology. The production of genetically
engineered crop plants is the best known application of biotechnology in agriculture. An important
application is the propagation of new plants through tissue culture.
Such transgenic plants first appeared on a commercial basis in 1996. With the help of the tissue culture
technique, virtually unlimited plants can be propagated from a single plant possessing the desired
characteristics.
The advantage is the propagation of true progenies ensuring uniform growth and productivity behavior
for each species in given agro climatic environment through successive generations.
The chromosomal variations arising through tissue culture cycle can be effective in bringing about genetic
improvements in plants.

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Some other applications in the field of agriculture are as follows.

Hybrid Seeds are the products of the union of two different genotypes and capable of performing their
functions more efficiently than their parents under different agronomic conditions. This is usually done by
biotechnological methods.
Development of artificial or synthetic seeds consisting of tissue culture embryos encapsulated in protective
coatings is an emerging area for the production of unlimited quantities of quality seeds.
Photosynthesis Improvers are a series of new naturally occurring chemicals which have the potential for
advancing plant productivity. Scientists have established that even I part per million (ppm) dosage can
increase photosynthesis in plants by 100% or more and increase the yields of corps such as cereals, pulses
and vegetables.
Instead of increasing the use of chemical fertilizers, it is being increasingly realised that the same function
could be achieved by biofertilisers.
Microorganisms such as rhizobium, azobacter, clostridium and blue algae as nitrogen fixers, bacillus subtiles
and micrortigal fugi as phosphate solubizersz; azolla as organic matter contributor and nitrogen fixer and
throbacilles as sulphate producer hold great promise to improve nitrogen fixation ability in plants.
It has been found that inoculation with rhizobial cultures in different pulse corps increases the yield
significantly. Bio Insecticides and Bio-pesticides intensive and recurrent use of some of the chemical
pesticides leads to toxicity in the environment and pesticide resistance in target pests.
Biotechnology offers several means of overcoming the deleterious side-effects by allowing farmers to
adopt alternative strategies towards pest control.
These include the use of biological control agents, attractants and growth affecting agents. Besides being
environmental – friendly, bio – pesticides are non-carcinogenic and have a high degree of insect
specificity.

Food Biotechnology

Biotechnology meets the expectations of consumers of reliable supplies of high quality foods by producing
high performing, reliable strains of microorganisms such as yeast for brewing and baking. Bread, cheese,
wine, beer, yogurt, and vinegar are all made by culturing microorganisms and are really the oldest
products of biotechnology.
However, updated methods are now used to make these traditional goods. Microorganisms have many other
uses in the food industry. In some cases, these microorganisms can be eaten such as the yeast extract
used to bake bread.
Others are used to make vitamins such as B12.. Genetically improved lactic acid bacteria are used as starter
cultures to make cheese. The two amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) in the artificial sweetener
aspartame are made by bacterial fermentation.

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Some genetically engineered and naturally occurring foods have specific health benefits. They have recently
been termed nutraceuticlas, an indication of their role as a cross between nutritional supplements and
pharmaceuticals. They include antioxidants, thought to reduce the risk of cancer, and specific oils or acids
that reduce cholesterol levels and the risk of heart disease.
Biotechnologists are also developing tests that will allow the detection of food- contaminating microorganisms
and the toxins they produce, which may be present only in minute quantities. Biotechnology also has
applications in the detection of mutagens (substances that cause genetic mutations) in individual food
products.
Today, most foodstuffs in the US contain genetically modified (GM) ingredients. Large scale cultivation of GM
plants has also been approved in several other countries such as Japan, Canada and some European
nations. Food items derived from GM plants are increasingly on the rise.
Monsanto, the US multinational, sells GM corn, soya and maze that produce a natural biopesticide as they
are genetically tailored to carry the toxin gene of a bacterium, Bacillus thruingiensis.
Called the toxin gene, this gene confers the GM plant resistance against a variety of insect pests. Some
GM crops which have been approved for use in food items in select countries include corn, maize,
soya, tomato, potato and papaya.

Fuel and Fodder

The tissue culture technique for mass multiplication offers means of not only rapid and mass multiplication of
existing stocks of germplasm for woody and biomass energy production but also for rapid forestation of
degraded forests and for regeneration of green cover.
Biomass is the utilizable source of carbon for biotechnological processes. Highest proportions of biomass are
produced in forests followed by grasslands and agriculture. Biotechnology could play an important role in
three ways in the productivity of biomass:
by increasing the amount of biomass available,
by improving its conversion into versatile fuels and reducing the pressure on existing sources of energy,
by energy saving processes and improved recovery of fossil fuels.
Two main products of biomass conversion will be:
gaseous methane and liquid ethanol;
other products like solid fuels, hydrogen and low energy gases will also be available.
Environment

There are many applications of biotechnology that can be broadly categorised as environmental. One
important new area is the detection of microbiological contaminants. Tests similar to those used to
detect contaminants in food are being developed in the wider environment.
These tests can identify any chemical residues resulting from the use of pesticides or insecticides in the
production of foodstuffs. Other environmental applications of biotechnology include bioremediation or
the “eco-friendly” clean up of pollution such as oil slicks.

Development of Biosensors

Another promising new area of biotechnology is the development of biosensors. These combine a biological
component (such as an enzyme) with various electronic components to trigger a circuit when a particular
type of chemical is detected.

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Biosensors are capable of detecting extremely low levels of proteins, hormones, pollutants, gases, and
other molecules. Police and doctors are using diagnostic kits based on biosensors to detect small
amounts of drugs in humans.
Advanced systems are being developed in which biosensors are coupled to alarm systems in industrial
plants to warn workers of dangers before critical exposure levels of toxins are reached.
Biosensors are also helping geologists in the mining industry to detect small quantities of valuable minerals in
samples of ores from deep underground.
After the minerals have been extracted, microorganisms are used in biological leaching, which removes
and recovers metals (such as copper, zinc, and silver) and radionuclide’s (uranium) groom low grade
ores and wastewaters.
Microorganisms are also being developed that can be used in metal smelting and refining, metal plating
and finishing, nuclear fuel reprocessing, and recovering useful materials from landfills.

Animal Husbandry

Embryo transplantation used with cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep, aims to increase the number of offspring
form a quality female. In this procedure, highly rated female is given hormone treatment to cause her to
produce more eggs than normal. The female is then mated with an equally prized bull.
The fertilized eggs are then transferred to other healthy but generally less valuable females. The technique
allows a superior male to have several offspring every year. Embryo transplantation is generally successful,
but its application is currently testified, because it is an expensive and extremely technical procedure.
Cloning embryos to artificially produce genetic duplicates of an animal has also become possible. Although
theoretically possible, human cloning in technically very difficult, since human beings are the most
advanced of all living beings.
The prospect of human cloning has also raised not only a plethora of scientific, but moral, ethical and
philosophical question. The UN health agency has gone as far as condemning human cloning as “ethically
unacceptable”. Critics say that a deliberate and artificial attempt would be made through cloning to
enhance desirable traits and create superior human beings (eugenics).
Highlighting the positive impact of the breakthrough technology, scientists say that cloning could be applied
to human being for treating diseases by creating cells and organs to replace diseased parts. Further, it
would become easier to study genetic diseases. Production of drugs on a mass scale would become
possible.

Biocatalysts

Enzymes are the biocatalysts which are used to increase or decrease the rate of any biochemical reaction.
Over 25 enzymes are being produced biotechnologically.
High fructose corn syrup is produced by enzymatic digestion of corn starch, sweeter than sugar sucrose and is
used in beverage industry to flavor soft drinks and in the commercial bakery industry to flavor – sweeten
biscuits and cakes.

Biotech Research in India

Biotechnology is one of the emerging technologies which have immense potential for a developing country
like India. In this field, the technological gap between advanced nations and India could be narrowed down
considerably by the turn of this century and Indian could easily be a leader in certain areas of application.

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National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2015-2020

The National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2015-2020 was presented by the Union Minister for
Science and Technology and Earth Sciences in New Delhi on December 30th, 2015. The objectives are to:
Provide impetus to utilization of the knowledge and tools to the advantage of humanity;
Launch a major well-directed mission backed with significant investment for generation of new biotech
products;
Empower India’s human resources scientifically and technologically;
Create a strong infrastructure for R&D and commercialization; and
Establish India as a world class bio- manufacturing hub.
The main elements of the strategy are to:
Build a skilled workforce and leadership;
Revitalize the knowledge environment at par with the growing bio-economy;
Enhance research opportunities in basic, disciplinary and inter – disciplinary sciences;
Encourage use- inspired discovery research;
Focus on biotechnology tools for inclusive development;
Ensure a transparent, efficient and globally best regulatory system and communication;
Create biotechnology cooperation, fostering global and national alliances;
Strengthen institutional capacity with redesigned governance models; and
Create a matrix of measurement of processes as well as outcome
The key elements would be implemented with the collaboration of other ministries, departments, state
governments and international agencies, directed towards the achievement of the following:
Making India ready to meet the challenge of achieving US$100billion by 2025;
Launching four major missions – healthcare, food and nutrition, clean energy and education;
Creating a technology development and translation network across the country with global partnership;
Strategic and focused investment in building human capital by creating a life Sciences and Biotechnology
Education Council.
Organizations

Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

In 1982, Government of India set up the National Biotechnology Board which was replaced by a separate
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in the Ministry of Science and Technology in 1986.
This was in recognition of the need for a focal point in the administration and structure of the government
for planning, promotion and coordination of biotechnological programme.
National Institute of Immunology (NII), New Delhi
The NII’s primary responsibility is to help create the scientific base for innovations of relevance for the
development of the nation.
Four broad programmes cover its current thrust areas: infection and immunity, molecular design, gene
regulation, and reproduction and development.
National Centre for Cell Sciences (NCCS), Pune
The NCCS continues to undertake research and development at the cutting edge of cell sciences, teaching,
training in addition to providing service as a national repository for cell lines and hybridomas.
NCCS has developed technologies for preservation and revival of bone marrow stem cells which led to a
successful transplantation in a neuroblastoma patient.
Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD), Hyderabad
The CDFD provides service of DNA fingerprinting, diagnostics, bio-informatics and automated genome
analysis and undertakes research and development in the area of genetics, molecular and cellular
biology, molecular pathogenesis and bioinformatics.

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The centre has screened more than 4,000 newborn children under ‘New Born Screening Programme’ for
common inborn errors of metabolism and found a few cases each of congenital hypothyroidism,
tyrosinemia, porphyries and of the carrier state of sickle cell anemia, etc.
National Brain Research Centre (NBRC), Gurgaon
NBRC has undertaken basis research to understanding brain function in diseases and normal conditions
spanning different levels of organisation, ranging from molecular to cellular to system cognitive and
theoretical neuroscience.
National Centre for Plant Genome Research (NCPGR), New Delhi
The NCPGR is engaged in core research area of plant genomics covering structural, functional and
application components of genomics.
It has been working on nutritional genomics. It has been working on nutritional genomics of potato,
structural and functional genomics of chickpea, biochemical and molecular basis of differentiation and
transformation in Cicer Aretinum and on regulation of gene expression in light signaling pathways in
Aradiopsis thaliana.
Institute of Bioresearches and Sustainable Development (IBSD), Imphal
The basic objective of the IBSD is to develop and utilize the rich bioresearches of the North-Eastern region
of the country through the application of modern tools of biology and biotechnology.
The Indo-Burma ‘hotspot’-one of the hottest hotspot of biodiversities is located in this region.
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi
The ICGEB has focused on basic research in human diseases and agriculture specially to look at the
problems of the Indian subcontinent.
The creation of a state of the art facility at ICGEB is a major boost to the vaccine development. It will be a
National Facility to be used by the entire scientific community in the country as and when needed.
Bharat Immunological and Biological Corporation Limited (BIBCOL), Bulandshahr (Uttar Pradesh)
The BIBCOL, a public sector undertaking, has the most modern manufacturing unit based on good
manufacturing practice requirements as specified by WHO and US Federal standards.
The company is formulating oral polio vaccine (OPV) from imported bulk since January 1996.

Biotechnology Information System

India was one of the first countries in the world to initiate a bioinformatics Programme during 1987-88. India
has evolved a National Bioinformatics Network (NBN) for sustainable utilization of biological data
available through online or off-line methods.
The network is made up of distributed information centers (DICs) and distributed information subentries
(DISCs) in specialized areas of biotechnology. The programme evolved from the Biotechnology
Information System (BTIS) launched during the Seventh Plan.
The misinformation centers are equipped with state of the art communication and computational
infrastructure. It is envisaged to connect them through a high- speed virtual private network for optimizing
their functioning.
The centers are active in resource generation in bioinformatics through development of software and
databases in frontier areas of biotechnology. They are also engaged in innovative bioinformatics research
and developmental activities.
8. HEALTH AND MEDICINE

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Health is influenced by a host of factors- genetic, environmental, social, economic, and psychological. The
genetic makeup of an individual is unique. Certain diseases, such as sickle cell anemia, hemophilia, and
mental retardation, are genetic disorders, and are generally irreversible.
Health is closely dependent on environment. The internal environment refers to the body parts – the tissues,
organs, organ system; the external environment consists of everything one is exposed to after conception,
and may be physical, biological, or psycho-social.
Health is a way of life and is influenced by personal hygiene, habits and behavior. Any disruption in the day-
to-day activities like care of body, clothing, posture, diet, sleep, and even attitude towards life can impair
health.
The socio-economic status of a person has an impact on his or her health. The trend of disease type in
developing countries points to certain diseases as diseases of poverty-malnutrition, water-borne and
other infectious diseases, as well as those inevitable to over population.
Health concerns the individual, the family and community, the nation, and even the world as a whole. It is in
this context that the “Health for All By 2000” pledge was formulated by the WHO.

Disease-Causing Agents

Any substance or a force which is found in excess in the body or is deficient or absent in the body, causes a
disease and it is termed as the disease agent. The disease agents are basically of five types.
Biological agents (pathogens): These include viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, helminthes, etc. (most
pathogens are parasites, and the diseases they cause are incidental to their search for food or shelter
inside their host).
Nutrient agents: These include minerals, vitamins, fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Chemical agents: These include urea, uric acid, hormones, enzymes, pollutions, spores, pollen, etc.
Mechanical agents: These include chronic friction and other mechanical forces.

Types of Diseases

Congenital Diseases

Congenital diseases are the anatomical or physiological abnormalities present at birth. Congenital disease or
deformity may be caused by a single gene or chromosomal aberration, or due to environmental factors or
by their combinations.
Examples: sickle-cell anaemia, albinism, colour blindness, phenyiketonuria, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner’s
syndrome, and Down’s syndrome.

Acquired Diseases- Acquired diseases are acquired after birth and are classified into five sub-categories:

Infectious diseases- are the diseases which are caused due to the invasion of the body by disease causing
organism (pathogen that become established, multiply, and give rise to the symptoms of a disease). These
are diseases caused by virus, bacteria, protozoan fungi, etc.
Infectious diseases which readily spread from one person to another are termed as communicable
diseases. The diseases which do not spread from person to person are termed as non-communicable
diseases.
An outbreak of an infectious disease spreading widely among humans, animals or plants at the same time
in any region is known as epidemic.

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The study of epidemics, which includes the causes, patterns of contagion and methods of containment of
disease, is known as epidemiology. An epidemic that sweeps across many countries is termed as
pandemic.
Organic or degenerative diseases- Diseases caused due to degeneration of tissues and malfunctioning of
organs, such as heart, liver, etc., as happens in old age.
Deficiency diseases- Diseases caused by the deficiency of nutrients like proteins, minerals and vitamins.
Allergies Diseases- caused due to the hypersensitivity of the body due to foreign substances like pollen grains,
dust, silk, egg, nylon, etc. common examples are hay fever and asthma.
Cancer- Cancer is a disease affecting the growth rate of affected tissues; an abnormal, unwanted and
uncontrolled tumour like the growth of undifferentiated tissues in any part of the body.
Mental illness- Mental illness covers a wide variety of disorders, for example, schizophrenia, senile dementia
and depression.

Infectious Diseases

Mode of Spreading

One of the most frequent ways is by droplet infection that is to say, by minute drops carrying the germs which
are coughed or sneezed into the air by someone already suffering from the disease. Such droplets can be
projected into the air upto 3m or more and when breathed in by someone within range, infection may
result.
Another mode of spread is perhaps infected food, water and the dirty hands of those who prepare food.
Cholera, dysentery, food – poisoning and typhoid are spread in this way.
Spread by direct contact is found in the venereal disease (usually, but not always, spread by sexual intercourse
with someone who already has the disease); lice, fleas, and other parasites, including the scabies mite, are
spread by contact with the infected individual, or sometimes with his clothes or bed linen.
Spread may be through an intermediary host whether it is lice, fleas, or mosquitoes carrying infection, or the
various means adopted by worms.
Lastly, the infection may result from bacteria already within the body, for example, the bacillus coli lives
harmlessly in the large intestine, but if it gets into the bladder or the ureters, it can cause cystitis or pyelitis.

Viral Diseases

Measles- Measles is spread by direct contact or droplet infection. It is caused by an RNA virus. The incubation
period is 10-11 days. The first sign is the appearance of symptoms like a several cold. The eyes become
red, and exposure to light is unpleasant, the nose runs, the throat becomes inflamed, and a dry, harsh
cough develops.
There may be headache and the temperature rises to 39oc or more. Especially typical is the development
of so- called Koplik’s spots, which are small, bluish white, raised spots seen on the inside of the cheek
at the back of the mouth. The rash begins four days after the initial infection.
It shows on the forehead and behind the ears, spreading within a day downwards over the whole body; in
another two days it starts to disappear, but often leaves behind a sort of brownish staining which may
last for one to two weeks.
Complications include bronchopneumonia and infection of the ear, which can now be treated with
antibiotics. (These drugs have no effect on the measles virus, but only on the secondarily invading
bacteria which have invaded the lungs and ear during the illness.)

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The illness can be attenuated for lessened by injection of antibodies (gamma globulin) from an immune
adult. Effective vaccination (MMR) is now available.
Rubella or German Measles is spread by direct contact or droplet infection. Incubation period is 14-19 days.
A mild fever, similar to measles except that the rash is usually the first sign that anything is wrong, and
the, temperature is rarely above 38oc.
The eyes may be pink, and there are enlarged glands at the back of the neck. The rash disappears
completely in thirty-six hours. There are no complications.
If a woman gets the disease in the early months of pregnancy, malformations in the child may appear at
birth. There is no special treatment except the general rules for fever.
Chickenpox is spread by direct contact, droplets, or by infected objects. Incubation period is 14-15 days, but
may be more variable. In children, chickenpox is a milk fever which begins with the appearance of tiny
blisters on the chest and back.
These later spread outwards to the legs, arms and face, and cause itching. Treatment is the general one
for fevers.
Calamine lotion or dusting powder is usually used for chickenpox, young adults any be much more
drastically affected-a temperature of 40o c is not uncommon, and then there may be severe headache.
Mumps Direct contact spreads mumps. Incubation period is 17-18 days. Headache, backache, reddened taste
buds, followed by swelling in the salivary glands in front of the ears makes the face look full. This causes
pain later on, and it may be difficult to open the mouth.
Temperature is not usually high (about 380 c). Although uncomfortable, mumps is rarely dangerous, but
orchitis- swelling of the testicles-is sometimes a complication.
Fluid diet should be given if eating is painful, with mouth – washes, and rest in bed.
Hepatitis is spread through human waste and carried by tainted shellfish and contaminated water, or through
infected hypodermic syringes. Symptoms generally surface a month after infection.
Hepatitis A or infective hepatitis, which is much the commonest cause of jaundice in young adults, is a
viral infection of the liver. The main symptoms are fever, followed by jaundice which is first noticed in
the whites of the eyes as yellow staining, then on the skin.
The urine becomes coloured also, and this is most easily noticed if, on shaking in a bottle, the froth
shows coloration. If the froth remains white, no jaundice is present.
The yellowness is caused by bile, as the liver’s ability to filter blood is hampered. There is no specific
treatment but full recovery is the rule.
Hepatitis B, liver inflammation caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is transmitted, in blood or
blood products or in other body fluids and can be spread from mother to baby during, or soon after,
birth.
The main ways of getting infected with HBV are: from mother to baby at the birth (perinatal); from
child- to- child; unsafe injections and transfusions; and unprotected sexual contact.
There is a significant death rate in the acute stage and 10 per cent of those who recover become
carriers and may develop complications, including cirrhosis and cancer of the liver. The hepatitis
B vaccine has an outstanding record of safety and effectiveness.
Hepatitis C, formerly called hepatitis non-A, non – B, is a liver disease caused by a small single-stranded
RNA virus, known as the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The virus can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis
infection, ranging in severity from a mild illness lasting a few weeks to a serious, lifelong illness.
The hepatitis C virus is a blood borne virus and the most common modes of infection are through
unsafe injection practices; inadequate sterilization of medical equipment in some health – care
settings; and unscreened blood and blood products.
The disease occurs worldwide and is spread by the intravenous drug use, tattooing and needle-stick
injuries. Only a minority of infected people develop the symptoms and the clinical course is usually
mild with jaundice in only 10 per cent.

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Unfortunately the infection persists in about 80 per cent of cases and 20-30 per cent develop cirrhosis
of the liver or liver cancer.
Those who are acutely symptomatic may exhibit fever, fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain, dark urine, grey – coloured faces, joint pain and jaundice (yellowing of skin and
the whites of the eyes).
Antiviral medicines can cure hepatitis C infection, but access to diagnosis and treatment is low.
Antiviral treatment is successful in 50-90 per cent of persons treated, and and has also been shown
to reduce the development of liver cancer and cirrhosis. There is currently no vaccine for hepatitis
C.
Hepatitis, delta is a liver inflammation caused by a very small virus, hepatitis delta virus (HDV), a defective
RNA virus that can reproduce only in the presence of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This super infection
occurs in about 5 per cent of cases and considerably worsens the outlook.
HDV infection has caused serious epidemics and is endemic in the Mediterranean area. HDV is
transmitted percutaneously or sexually through contact with infected blood or blood products.
Blood is potentially infectious during all phases of active hepatitis D infection.
As hepatitis D is a viral disease, antibiotics are of no value in the treatment of the infection. There is
no value in the treatment of the infection.
There is no hyper- immune D globulin available for pre or post exposure prophylaxis. Disease
conditions may occasionally improve with administration of a-interferon.
Hepatitis E is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV), a non-enveloped, positive sense, single-
stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus. The hepatitis E virus is transmitted mainly through
contaminated drinking water.
The ingestion of raw or uncooked shellfish has also been identified as the source of sporadic cases in
endemic areas. Although humans are considered the natural host for the hepatitis E virus,
antibodies to the hepatitis E virus or closely related viruses have been detected in primates and
several other animal species.
It is usually a self-limited infection and resolves within 4-6 weeks. Occasionally, a culminant form of
hepatitis develops (acute liver failure), which can lead to death.
Typical signs and symptoms of hepatitis include: jaundice (yellow discoloration of the skin and sclera
of the eyes, dark urine and pale stools); anorexia (loss of appetite); an enlarged, tender liver;
abdominal pain and tenderness; nausea and vomiting; fever.
Hepatitis E is found worldwide and different genotypes of the hepatitis E virus determine differences
in epidemiology. For example, genotype 1 is usually seen in developing countries and causes
community level outbreaks while genotype 3 is usually seen in the developed countries and does
not cause outbreaks.
Viral Pneumonia is known by doctors as “pneumonitis”, and is believed to be closely related to influenza.
There is no specific treatment so far.
Influenza- While serious epidemics of influenza take the form of a very dramatic and often fatal disease- for
example, the epidemic of “Spanish flu” which followed the First World War, the milder type more usually
seen is difficult to distinguish from the common cold.
However, a sudden onset of fever, aching in the muscles of the back and legs, and redness of the eyes,
would suggest influenza, and especially typically typical is the depression and weakness which follow
influenza but not a cold. Spread by droplets. Incubation period is 1-2 days.
The two main classes of antiviral drugs used against influenza are neuramindase inhibitors, such as
zanamivir and oseltamivir, or inhibitors of the viral M2 protein, such as amantadine and rimantadine.
These drugs can reduce the severity of symptoms if taken soon after infection and can also be taken to
decrease the risk of infection. However, virus strains have emerged that show drug resistance to both
classes of drug.

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Influenza is a serious disease, and pregnant women, small children, elderly people with poor health and
anyone with a chronic condition, like asthma or heart disease, are at higher risk for severe infection
and death.
Vaccinating pregnant women have the added benefit of protecting their newborns (there is currently no
vaccine for babies under six months).
Vaccination offers immunity to the three most prevalent strains circulating in any given season. It is the
best way to reduce one’s chances of severe flu and of spreading it to others.
Colds can be caused by any one of thirty different viruses known as rhinoviruses as well as by others which
cause influenza, or infect glands (adenoviruses).
This is why a single cold does not confer immunity on the sufferer. It is probable that you will not catch a
cold from the same virus, at least for the rest of the year.
Incubation period is 2 to 5 days. Symptoms are headache, cough, nasal discharge and mild fever.
Poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis, as it used to be known, is caused by an entero virus. Polio mainly targets
children below five years of age. The polio virus is generally believed to spread from the nose, throat and
intestines – that is, through sneezing, coughing, etc.
The viruses that cause polio are called type I, II and III. Polio mainly spreads in areas of poor sanitation.
The virus can survive in sewage for as long as three months. Contaminated food and water are major
modes of transmission.
Entering the body through the mouth, the virus multiplies in the intestines. All the people infected by the
virus do not get polio. Some may show mild symptoms like fever, disappear after a day. These
symptoms may recur and lead to severe polio.
In about one out of every 200 cases, the virus passes to the spinal cord and affects the nerve cells that
activate the muscles to get affected, progresses to respiratory failure, and finally death. In children
below three it can prove fatal, but this is rare.
There is no drug to kill the virus or control the spread of polio but there are two vaccines- the Oral Polio
Vaccine (OPV), a live vaccine developed in 1961 by Dr Albert Sabin and taken by mouth, and the
ingestible killed or inactive polio vaccine introduced in 1955 by Dr Jonas Salk.
OPV is seen as the best answer for mass immunization. Rarely, the infection is widespread in the nerve
tissue causing paralysis of muscles of swallowing and respiration as well as those of the trunk and
limbs.
Spread by intestinal discharge through flies, fleas, contaminated food and water, incubation period is 7-
14 days. Early symptoms are headache, stomach upset, high fever, loose bowels, sore throat. Rigidity
of neck muscles; paralysis, if it occurs, will become apparent after three days or so.
Smallpox, caused by Variola virus (DNA virus), is spread directly by saliva droplets or indirectly through
infected objects. Incubation period is 12 days. Symptoms are high fever, headache, backache, skin rashes
on third day, passing through bright red spots, papules, vesicles and pustules, and scabs which fall of
leaving pitted pock marks. Vaccination prevents the disease.
The smallpox vaccine is the only known way to prevent smallpox in an exposed person. If given within 4
days of viral exposure, the vaccine can prevent or significantly lessen the severity of smallpox
symptoms.
Vaccination 4-7 days after exposure may offer some protection from the disease and may lessen its
severity. There is no drug specifically for treating smallpox.
Sometimes antibiotics are given for infections that may occur in people who have smallpox. Taking
antibodies for a disease similar to smallpox (vaccinia immune globulin) may help shorten the duration
of the disease. The WHO has now declared the world free of this disease.
Typhus used to be known as “Jail fever”, because it was frequent in prisons. Spread by infected body lice, it is
due to Rickettsia prowazeki, which displays both doctorial and viral characteristics.

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It comes on suddenly with a rise in temperature to about 390c, but within four days it may be as high at
420c. There may, or may not, be a rash at this time, and in the second week, when the temperature
is at its highest, there is delirium, weakness, and a feeble pulse.
The typical typhus rash appears about the fifth day as reddish blotches on the chest, abdomen, and wrists.
Control of the insect vector can control spread.
Rabies (Hydrophobia) is caused by Rhabdo virus, and spread by the bite of infected animals, usually dogs,
cats, or wolves, who are driven mad by the disease; in Trinidad, however, it has been spread by campier
bats.
Incubation period is usually 3-8 weeks. Symptoms are headache, vomiting, insomnia, hoarse voice, difficult
in swallowing.
Spasmodic throat contractions at the very sight of water has led this disease to be called ‘hydrophobia’,
soon convulsions and delirium arise, which within four to five days prove fatal.
World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendations for post – exposure treatment divide rabies
exposure into three categories: category I- and least serious – when the victim has been touching or
feeding infected animals, but shows no skin lesion.
Category II, when the victim has received minor scratches without bleeding or has been licked by an
infected animal on broken skin; and category III, when the victim has received one or more bites,
scratches or licks on broken skin or has had other contact with infected mucus.
Exposure to bats, whatever the nature of the contact, falls under category III, and the victim is treated
accordingly. Anti- rabies vaccine is recommended for category II and III, while anti rabies
immunoglobin – a liquid or freeze – dried preparation containing rabies antibodies extracted from
plasma – should be given for category III contact.
Japanese Encephalitis- is a disease caused by an arbovirus, and transmitted from animals(generally pigs and
birds) to humans through the Culex mosquitoes (C.vishnui group) which usually breed in the clear waters
of rice fields and other irrigated lands and ponds.
It causes brain inflammation; symptoms are headache, stiff neck, fever, vomiting, tremors, muscle,
twitching, and coma. The fatality rate of the disease is high (10 per cent to 40 per cent). Children who
survive often have to cope with paralysis and cognitive deficiencies.
The disease originally occurred in South-East Asia, but has now spread to India. No antiviral treatment
exists for patients with JE. Treatment is directed towards relieving symptoms and stabilizing the
patient. However, JE may be prevented through safe and effective vaccines.
Four main types of JE vaccines are currently in use: inactivated mouse brain-based vaccine, inactivated
cell- based vaccine, live attenuated vaccine, and live chimeric vaccine.
Traditionally, the most widely used vaccine was a purified inactivated product made from either
Nakayama or Beijing strains propagated in mouse brain tissue. It is still produced and used in several
countries.
Over the past years, the live attenuated SA14-14-2 vaccine manufactured in China has become the most
widely used vaccine in endemic countries, and it was prequalified by WHO in October 2013.
Yellow fever- Yellow fever is a viral hemorrhagic fever transmitted to people by infected mosquitoes.
Symptoms range from mild to severe; many of those with severe illness are likely to die of the disease.
The ‘yellow’ in the name is a reference to the jaundice that affects some patients, causing yellow eyes and
yellow skin.
The virus is endemic in tropical regions of Africa and USA. It is not known why yellow fever has not spread
to Asia. There is no specific treatment of yellow fever. Dehydration and fever can be treated with oral
rehydration salts and paracetamol.
Any superimposed bacterial infection should be treated with an appropriate antibiotic. Vaccination is the
single most important measure for preventing yellow fever. The yellow fever 17D vaccine is safe and
highly effective.

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In order to prevent yellow fever outbreaks, WHO recommends administering yellow fever vaccine in
endemic countries as part of routine infant immunization at the age of nine months; preventing
outbreaks in high-risk areas through mass vaccination campaigns and control of Aedes aegypti in
urban centers.
Sandfly Fever, Dengue or Breakbone Fever, and Trench Fever are all somewhat similar conditions in that they
resemble influenza and are rarely fatal.
They are all due to viruses, spread in the first case by sandflies in tropical climates; in the second by Aedes
mosquitoes in tropical climates; and in the third by lice in temperate climates.
Fever, headache, pain in joints, skin rash and pain behind the eyes mark the dengue fever. It is treated
with Amantadine and Rimantidine drugs.
Herpes Simplex is spread by contact, saliva, stools, and contaminated objects. Symptoms are a mild vesicular
eruption on skin, mucous membranes.
Herpes Zoster (shingles) is spread by droplets, incubation period of 7-14 days. Fever, severe pain in the skin
or mucous membrane, vesicles on the skin along the route of the nerve on the neck and trunk are the
symptoms.

AIDS

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency virus (HIV). HIV
has been given this name because its long term effect is to attack the immune system of the body, making
it weak and defence less.
The virus was identified by Dr Francois Barre- Sinoussi working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Later she
proved that it was the cause of AIDS.
After about 5 to 10 years of contracting the HIV infection, the virus weakens the immune system of the
patients so much more than tuberculosis, pneumonia, persistent diarrhea, fever and skin infections.
This condition is called AIDS.
The virus destroys the body’s ability to fight disease-causing agents, leaving the victim susceptible to
opportunistic diseases; diseases that rarely affect people with normally functioning immune systems.
Examples of such diseases are pneumonia, the leading cause of death among AIDS victims; an unusual
type of tuberculosis; and Kaposi’s sarcoma, ordinarily a rarely seen type of cancer. The virus may also
invade and damage the brain. So far as is known, AIDS is always fatal.
The virus has been known by several names, but the name most widely used is human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), also called LAV retrovirus. It is postulated by a majority of researchers that HIV originated in
Africa from a wide range of sub-human primates within the last 50 to 100 years.
The HIV is a retrovirus, genetically highly variable in antigen city because it lacks the remediation intrinsic
to DNA replication. When HIV gets into a person’s blood it attaches itself to a special type of white
blood cells called helper T-Lymphocytes.
These Helper T-cells are crucial in defending the body against many infections. During all this, the persons
have no symptoms at all, but could pass the virus on to someone else through having sex, or by sharing
needles or syringes.
The HIV actually goes inside the white blood cells and lies their quietly. After about 5 to 10 years, the HIV
virus tricks the cell to start making the viral proteins. These eventually release thousands of new
viruses in the blood, infecting new white cells. This cycle goes on and on, and at last the immune
system of the body is no longer capable of fighting the infections.
There are several stages of HIV disease. The first HIV symptoms may include swollen glands in the throat,
armpit, or groin. Other early HIV symptoms include slight fever, headaches, fatigue, and muscle aches.
These symptoms may last for only a few weeks.

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Then there are usually no HIV symptoms for many years. That is why it can be hard to know if one has HIV.
AIDS symptoms appear in the most advanced stage of HIV disease. In addition to a badly damaged immune
system, a person with AIDS may also have:
thrush-a thick, whitish coating of the tongue or month that is caused by a yeast infection and sometimes
accompanied by a sore throat;
severe or recurring vaginal yeast infections;
chronic pelvic inflammatory disease;
severe and frequent infections; periods of extreme and unexplained tiredness that may be combined with
headaches, lightheadedness, and / or dizziness;
quick loss of weight that is not due to increased physical exercise or dieting;
bruising more easily than normal;
long periods of frequent diarrhea;
frequent fevers and /or night sweats;
selling or hardening of glands located in the throat, armpit, or groin;
periods of persistent, deep, dry coughing; increasing shortness of breath; the appearance of discolored or
purplish growths on the skin or inside the mouth;
unexplained bleeding from growths on the skin, from the mouth, nose, or from any opening in the body;
frequent or unusual skin rashes; severe numbness or pain in the hands or feet, the loss of muscle control
and reflex, paralysis, or loss of muscle control and relax, paralysis, or loss of muscular strength; and
confusion, change, or decreased mental abilities.
The most common Diagnosis for HIV is through testing the blood or saliva for antibodies to the virus. But these
antibodies take time – upto 12 weeks – to be developed by the body. A test checks for HIV antigen, a
protein produced by the virus immediately after infection, can confirm a diagnosis within days of infection.
If a diagnosis is made early, people may be prompted to take extra precautions to prevent transmission of the
virus to others, besides starting treatment early; increasing evidence is there to show that early treatment
may be of benefit.
The stage at which the disease is in the affected person can be determined by other tests. These include:
A CD4 count is done. CD4 cells are a type of white blood cell that’s specifically targeted and destroyed by
HIV. A healthy person’s CD4 count can vary from 500 to more than 1,000. HIV infection progresses to
AIDS when CD4 count dips below 200.
The viral load is measured. This test measures the amount of virus in the blood. Studies have shown that
people with HIV have higher viral load. The goal of treatment is to get the viral load so low that tests
can’t even detect the virus anymore. HIV is still there, but there’s not enough of it to cause symptoms-
as long as the medication is taken.
Drug resistance is tested. This blood test determines whether the strains of HIV a person has will be
resistant to certain anti – HIV medications. If the person’s body has shown resistance to medications,
co receptor tropism assay checks to see if a specific type of HIV medication is appropriate for the
affected person.
The main laboratory tests to detect the virus are the ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) test,
Western Blot test which is highly specific but requires trained and experienced workers to interpret,
and the virus isolation method which is effective but expensive.
Other tests are particles agglutination test (PAT), immunoflouescent assay (IFA), and
radioimmuneprecipitationassay (RIPA).
The Hiva Test is the first indigenously developed HIV detection kit; it was designed by the International
Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology at New Delhi. Both kits are immune assays based
on the specific binding ability of antibody molecules able to detect the presence of antibodies against
HIV – 1 as well as HIV-2.

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As for treatment, there is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS, but there are medications that can dramatically slow
disease progression. In 1987, a drug called AZT became the first approved treatment for HIV disease.
The full form of AZT is azidothymidine, also called zidovudine, and it is used to delay development of AIDS in
patents infected with HIV. AZT belongs to a group of drugs known as nucleoside reverse transcriptase
inhibitors (NRTIs).
Many other drugs have now been approved to treat people living with HIV/AIDS, and more are under
development. Despite initial successes, monotherapies proved ineffective due to the virus’ ability to
develop quick resistances to single drug therapies.
When HIV reproduces, it can make copies of itself that are imperfect-and these mutations may not respond
to the single drug. In 1995, the combination treatment known as the ‘AIDS Cocktail was introduced to
patients infected with HIV/AIDS.
This type of therapy has often been referred to as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). However, it
may also be called combination antiretroviral therapy (CART), or simply antiretroviral therapy (ART).
Patients receiving combination therapy have reported decreased viral loads, increase CD4 counts, and
increased T-cell counts. The life expectancies of HIV patients have become much closer to general
mortality rates since the introduction of antiretroviral therapy. The current classes of drugs included in
antiretroviral therapies include the following.
The HIV virus requires reverse transcriptase (RT) in order to replicate. By offering faulty versions of the
building blocks for replication to the viruses, the drug therapy works to block a very important step in
the reproduction process of HIV. They act as faulty building blocks in production of viral DNA.
Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcription Inhibitors (NNRTIs) effectively disable a key protein that HIV
requires to replicate. Unlike the nukes (which work on the genetic material), non-nukes act directly on
the enzyme itself to prevent it from functioning correctly.
Protease inhibitors (PI) disable the protein known as protease, another key building block required by HIV
to replicate. The enzyme that acts to cut up these long strands is called protease. Protease inhibitors
work by blocking this enzyme. Prevent those long strands of genetic material from being cut up into
functional pieces.
Entry/Fusion Inhibitors block the virus’ ability to enter the body’s CD4 cells. HIV needs a way to attach and
bond to CD4 cells, through special structures on cells called receptor sites. Receptor sites are found on
both HIV and CD4 cells. Fusion inhibitors can target those sites on either HIV or CD4 cells and prevent
HIV from ‘docking’ into the healthy cells.
Fixed – dose combinations are not a separate class of HIV medications but combinations of the above classes
and a great advancement in HIV medicine. They include antiretroviral which are combinations of two or
more medications from one or more different classes.
HIV medicines like many other medicines have side effects; they may cause anemia, diarrhea, dizziness,
fatigue, headaches, nausea, pain and nerve problems, and rash. While many of these side effects are
treatable, some can be long-term.
Some of the most common long-term side effects of HIV treatment include lipodystrophy, a problem in
the way the body produces, uses, and stores fat. These changes can include losing fat in the face and
extremities, and gaining fat in the abdomen and back of the neck.
Insulin resistance could develop; this is a condition that can lead to abnormalities in the patient’s blood
sugar levels and, possibly, diabetes. Lipid abnormalities result in increase in cholesterol or
triglycerides.
Decrease in bone density can be a significant issue, especially for older adults with HIV. This leads to an
increase risk of injury and fractures.
While HIV-1 is common worldwide, HIV-2 is also spreading, though it is mainly to be found in Western Africa.
In India, both HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections exist. Transmission of HIV through blood and blood products, and
seminal and vaginal fluids, during the following:

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Unprotected sex (without a condom), especially anal, with an infected person;

Receiving infected blood in transfusions (through this is becoming rare with disposable kits and strict
checking of blood donated), blood products, organ transplants, through contaminated needles,
syringes (especially in case of intravenous drug users) or other skin- piercing instruments (as in
tattooing);
From an infected mother to a baby before, during or after birth via the placenta and through breast milk;
Through artificial insemination with infected semen.
In India, the sources of HIV transmission is heterosexual contact, infected needles- used by intravenous drug
takers and the unsterilized syringes in the hands of careless physicians.
HIV is not transmitted by hugging, kissing, shaking hands; sharing cups and vessels; coughing and sneezing;
mosquito or insect bites; or through food and water.

Bacterial Diseases

Bacterial diseases differ from virus infections in a number of respects: their incubation period tends to be
shorter; having the disease once does not often confer lifelong protection; and unlike virus diseases, most
bacterial diseases respond to one of the antibiotics or sulphonamides.
There has been a disturbing sign in bacterial resistance to drugs with incidence of resistance to one of the
wonder drugs of the twentieth century, penicillin. Bacterial resistance to penicillin was nil in 1993. It grew
to one per cent in1998; and was 7-8 per cent in 2002.
Pneumococcal infections pneumonia, meningitis and sepsis-caused by streptococcus pneumonia and
Homophiles influenza are becoming difficult to treat as a result- for instance, there is over 85 per cent
resistance to seatrain, used for all kinds of upper respiratory infections.
The mortality rate due to severe pneumonia has become 3-5 per cent and that due to meningitis is at 35-50
per – cent. What increases bacterial resistance especially in developing countries is treating on the basis
of age rather than on laboratory testing.
Bacteria immune to antibiotics are created when ordinary bacteria mix with chemicals in the sewage system
and the bacteria are then sent into the food supply. The process takes place as follows:
Antibiotics, antibacterial soaps and disinfectants get into the sewage system from our homes and hospital.
In sewage treatment plants, where growth of bacteria is encouraged to digest sewage, some bacteria
develop resistance to antibacterial drugs or chemicals found in the sewage.
Anti-bacterial chemicals are even dumped into waterways. The sewage ‘sludge’ containing drug-resistant
bacteria is then used as fertilizer.
Some farm products contaminated with bacteria go back to consumers.
Sore – Throat is caused by streptococcus; infection spreads by droplet and direct contact; incubation period is
3-5 days. Fever, cough and sore throat are the symptoms.
Diptheria is caused by irregular rod-shaped cyanbacterium (Bacterium diphtheria) and spreads by direct
contact, droplet and food. Incubation period is about 3 days.
Slight temperature rise, patches of grayish membrane over the tonsils. Immunization vaccine (DPT) exists
now.
Diphtheria may lead to paralysis of the throat, with difficulty in speaking or swallowing, and paralysis of
the eyes or limbs, due to neuritis caused by the influence of the toxin on the nerves.
Whooping cough- is caused by small short rod bacteria (Bardetella pertussis) and spread by droplet; begins
in child as an ordinary cold with cough and slight fever, and this stage lasts for a week or ten days.
Then the “paroxysmal stage” begins as a series of coughs following in rapid succession, during which time
the patent is unable to breathe.

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The “whoop” is caused by the noisy in drawing of breath when the fit stops. The face may become blue
and congested.
Bronchitis is usually present, and bronchopneumonia may result as a complication, so inoculation of all
children is most important. DPT vaccine is now available.
Typhoid- is caused by salmonella typhi. It is spread by contaminated water, uncooked food like milk and salads,
flies and human carriers. Incubation period is 10-14 days. It begins with headache, raised temperature,
and general feeling of unwellness.
This stage lasts about a week and then the rash appears in the form of rose-red spots on the front of the
chest and abdomen and on the back.
In the second week, there is a great weakness, sometimes diarrhea, flatulence, and mental dullness,
together with dry and cracked lips and tongue.
The third week is the week, in hopeful cases, or gradual decrease in temperature and other symptoms,
and the fourth week is the week of convalescence.
Complications are perforation of the intestine which needs surgical treatment, delirium, and bronchitis.
The main thing is to inoculate contacts with T.A.B. vaccine (which provides immunity for 3 years).
Treatment is with chloramphenicol or chloromycetin or ampicillin.
Diarrhoea and Vomiting- a group of infections known as “D and V” diarrhea and vomiting, may be caused by
salmonella, staphylococcus, or other bacteria. Salmonella infections are the most serious of the group;
they affect the small intestine and cause vomiting, severe abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
These symptoms occur about one day after eating infected food and usually clear up within about two
weeks, but occasionally result in death.
Salmonella bacteria are most likely to be found in meat, vegetables, and ducks’ eggs, but staphylococci
are liable to grow in milk products, such as ice-cream and cream buns. Food poisoning from
staphylococci is seldom severe.
It is spread by infected food or unhygienically prepared food. Bacilli are normally present in the intestine,
such as bacillus coli, can cause infections if absorbed in large amounts or if of a different strain from
those in the patient’s intestine.
Dysentery may be caused either by a bacterium or an amoeba; the first type is known as bacillary dysentery.
Infection is spread in much the same way as in typhoid. Incubation period is 1-4 days.
There is high fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, at first consisting of faucal matter, then blood and
mucus. Various bacilli cause dysentery.
The common tropical types are the short rod shiga and Flexner groups, or the milder Sonne group. In all
these infections sulphaguanidine, ampicillin or tetracycline bring rapid relief.
Cholera is caused by vibrio cholerae and spread by flies, stools, infected food and water, and carriers.
Incubation period is 1-2 days. Symptoms of severe diarrhea are: rice water stools, vomiting, muscular
cramps and stoppage or urine.
Boiling water and milk, early inoculation and keeping away flies are preventive measures. ORS should be
given to overcome dehydration. Antibiotics such as tetracycline kill the bacteria of cholera.
A Japanese research team has created the vaccine by inserting part of the cholera bacterium, Vibrio
cholerae, into the Kitaake rice plant.
The transgenic rice was then fed to mice in the form of powder. Subsequent tests showed the mice had
developed immunity to the cholera strain, which is typically spread through contaminated food and
water.
Rich-based mucosal vaccines offer a highly practical and cost-effective strategy for orally vaccinating large
population against mucosal infections, including those that result from an act of bioterrorism.
Preliminary tests on mice show “two-tier” immunity, provoking normal resistance from the body as well
as producing antibodies in the “mucosal” surface of the nose, mouth and urinary tract.

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The infectious disease of cholera causes acute diarrhea that can lead to dehydration and shock, which, if
not treated with oral rehydration salts, can be fatal.
Botulism is caused by the bacillus botulinus which produces toxins in food. Incubation is 18 hours to 2 days.
It attacks the nervous system rather than the intestine, resulting in fits, double vision, paralysis beginning
in the face and spreading downwards, and difficulty in swallowing.
Tinned fruits or vegetables at times contain the toxin even when the germ has been killed. An antitoxin is
now available, which, if used in time, can cure the disease.
Tetanus or ‘Lockjaw’ is caused by Clostridium tetani found in rich soil. It enters at a wound, affects the nervous
system, and causes muscular spasms, fits and difficulty in opening the mouth. Incubation period is 2 to 40
days. Active immunization with tetanus toxoid (TT) is available.
Tuberculosis is caused by irregular rod bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The germ can attack different
parts of the body. The tubercle bacillus is particularly hardy, so that when coughed or spat out on the
ground it continues to be infectious for a long time.
Infection is caused by drinking infected milk; droplet infection through having germs coughed in the face;
breathing in infected dust.
In children, lung tuberculosis is not common, but tuberculosis of the bones and glands is, as is also
infection in the abdomen, the kidney or spine. Also common is tuberculosis meningitis.
These are often of the bovine type from infected milk. Ordinarily, tuberculosis in children is less serious
than adult infections; but tuberculosis meningitis used to be almost invariably fatal until streptomycin
was discovered.
Adult tuberculosis usually occurs in the lungs or the pleura- the thin membrane surrounding the lungs.
Lung infection begins gradually in someone who has previously felt unwell. There may be cough, and
later blood stained sputum, generally fever in the evenings and loss of weight.
Tuberculosis can also affect lymphnodes, the skin, the bones and other organs. In some cases the bacilli
spread from the lungs to the bloodstream, setting up millions of tiny tubercles throughout the body
military tuberculosis.
Childhood vaccination with Bacillus Chalmette-Guerin (BCG) is the prevention. Tuberculosis is treated
with a combination of antibiotics that should be continued for six months in order to prevent the
development of drug-resistant strains of the bacillus.
The recommended treatment is divided into two phases. In the first phase a combination of at least three
of the following drugs-isoniazid, rifampicin pyrazinamide, and ethambutol hydrochloride-is taken for
two months. This is followed by a combination of isoniazid and rifampicin, which is continued for four
months.
Septicaemia -It is commonly known as “blood poisoning”. It occurs generally by spread from some septic area
such as a wound (or even a small prick), after childbirth, or any place where certain germs have got
admission to the body.
The most usual germ is the streptococcus, although pneumococcus which ordinarily causes pneumonia.
Fever comes on suddenly and rises rapidly with headaches, sweating, and shivering.
The patient is obviously very ill, and later there is wasting and delirium. The white blood cells increase in
number.
Septicemia sometimes occurs without any apparent local infection in those who are weak and debilitated.
It is treated with antibiotics; sometimes blood transfusion is necessary.
Pneumonia is caused by Diplococcus pneumonane and spread by droplet infection. Incubation period varies.
It causes chills, pain in the chest, rusty sputum, fast breathing, abdominal pain, jaundice.
Treatment depends on the nature of the pneumonia as it can be caused by bacteria, virus, fungi or
microscopic parasites. Antibiotics are often effective.

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In April 2008, India decided to vaccinate children against pneumococcal disease – the leading cause of
illnesses like pneumonia, meningitis, sinusitis, blood and ear infection in children. It recommended
the use of the pneumococcal conjugate Vaccine (PCV) in the routine immunization (RI) programme.
Pneumonia causes 20 per cent of all child deaths in India. Pneumococcal and HIV together contribute to
50 per cent of pneumonia cases. Investing in vaccines against pneumococcus would save lives and
money.
Savings would be relished by averting nearly half a million deaths and 1.2 million hospitalisations globally.
It would also result in savings of 8.3 million adjusted life years.
Anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis. It is spread by infected cattle and horses, which get the disease from
eating grass containing spores.
In human beings, the form the disease takes depends on where the germs aligns; sometimes it comes
from infected shaving – brushes, when it causes a large sore on the face.
Sometimes it develops in those who inhale the dust from infected hides or wool (hence the name “wool-
sorters disease”, which is a form of bronchitis with blood-stained sputum).
Lastly it may arise through eating infected meat, when the result is intestinal anthrax. A high temperature,
skin symptoms are the first instance, lung symptoms are the second and food poisoning symptoms
are the third. Penicillin or tetracycline is now increasingly effective.
Leprosy is caused by Myobacterium leprae. Its incubation period is 2 to 5 years. Prolonged and close contact
with an infected person is the main mode of infection.
Leprosy is a serious disease not because of disfiguring, light-colored skin patches and lumps, but because
it destroys peripheral nerves.
Leprosy may disappear spontaneously, or it may progress until the face is lion – like and the hands and
feet wasted and ulcerated. Rifampicin, streptomycin and sulphones are effective drugs.
Plague is caused by short rod Yersinia pestis. Spread by bite of rat flea, but, once people become infected,
spread may occur from one to the other by droplet infections.
After an incubation period of two to ten days, fever develops, rather like severe influenza, and in a day or
two the lymphnodes in the groin begin to swell, followed perhaps by swelling of the nodes elsewhere
and black spots on the skin (bubonic plague).
Pneumonic plague affects the lungs and is spread by droplet infection, and blood – poisoning from
infection of the blood – stream.
Both the latter types are almost invariably fatal, and even the glandular type (bulbonic plague) has a
mortality of about 80 per cent. The vaccine has given place to streptomycin and sulpha drugs which
are also used on contacts.
Gonorrhoea is the result of an infection by the gonococcus (Neisseria gonorrhea) spread by sexual intercourse.
Ordinarily comes on after an incubation period of three to seven days.
However, babies can get an infection of the eyes, known as ophthalmia, from their mother if she is
infected. In adults, there is a thick, creamy discharge from the sexual organs and sometimes pain on
passing urine.
In infants, ophthalmic is prevented by the use of silver nitrate eye-drops at birth. Gonorrhea is fairly easily
cured by the use of sulpha drugs or penicillin.
Syphilis is a venereal disease caused by a spirochete (Treponema pallidum). It is occasionally possible to get
syphilis by other than sexual means; kissing can spread the disease. Children, too, can be born with syphilis
(the so-called congenital syphilis).
Incubation period is 10-90 days. Adult syphilis begins with a sore, known as a hard chancre, at the point
where the spirochete of syphilis has entered; this may be on the lips, through kissing; on the sexual
organs, through intercourse.
In a short time, the chancre disappears and all may seem to be well, but this primary stage with sore
throat, a rash, headache, and enlargement of glands.

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This, if left alone, also clears up, but is followed by the tertiary stage, in which a chronic infection develops
in some part of the body. Thus there may be chronic syphilis of the skin, the bones, the heart, liver, or
nervous system. It is treated with penicillin.
Yaws is a disfiguring, debilitating infection caused by a spirochaete of the genus treponema identical to that
causing syphilis. It is a contagious disease transmitted by direct (person – to – person) contact with the
infectious yaws lesion, but it is not sexually transmitted.
Early signs of this disease manifest in the form of skin lesions which, on healing, show little scarring. The
disease can be progressive if untreated, with the development of deep skin ulcers and tissue
destruction; bone and cartilage are affected leading to deformity.
Yaws is amenable to eradication as it does not have any extra- human reservoir of infection. The disease
can be cured and prevented by a single injection of long acting (benzathine benzyl) penicillin or
tetracycline.

Protozoal Diseases

Some of the major diseases caused by protozoans are described here.

Malaria is caused by plasmodium and is carried by the female anopheles mosquito whose bite spreads the
disease. Plasmodium falciparum is a protozoan parasite, a species of Plasmodium that cause malaria. It is
transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes.
It is the most dangerous among the 4 species of infections. It has the highest rate of complications and
mortality.

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It accounts for 80 per cent of all human malarial infections and 90 per cent of the deaths. It is more
prevalent in sub- Saharan Africa than anywhere else in the world.
Plasmodium Vivax is the most frequent and widely distributed cause of benign but recurring (tertian),
malaria. It is one of four species of parasite that commonly cause malarial infection. It is less virulent
than Plasmodium falciparum (the deadliest of the four).
It is passed on by the female Anopheles mosquito, since it is the only sex of the species that bites.
Annually, more than 500 million people suffer from acute malaria. The parasites penetrate the blood
cells, multiply there and finally burst into the blood – stream after the development phase in the liver.
When this happens, the temperature rises and then the parasites return to the cells to carry out once
more the same procedure. Depending on the type, the attacks of fever may be at intervals of three or
four days, severe or mild.
Malaria is not infectious from one person to another directly. Quinine is the time honoured remedy, but
many other drugs are now available-mepacrine, primaquine, chloraquine and some sulpha drugs.
Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping sickness) is caused by Trypanosoma brucei. Spread by the bite of the tsetse fly.
Reaches lymph nodes and finally infects brain. There are three stages of the disease.
First, the stage of fever with enlarged glands and a rapid pulse, which may continue off and on for three
years;
Secondly, the stage of trembling hands, legs, and tongue, vacant expression, and slow and stumbling
speech;
Thirdly, and lastly, the stage of low temperature, apathy, wasting of the muscles, and possibly death.
Treatment is with pentamidine, suramin or melasrsoprol-which give good results in early cases.
Amoebic Dysentery also known as Ameobiasis, it is caused by the Entamoeba histolytics, an amoeba whose
cysts are fond in food and water, or spread by infected fingers or flies. It infects the large intestine.
There is mild fever and diarrhea which contains blood. The disease may become chronic, and can cause
abscesses, usually in the liver but sometimes in the lungs.
Amoebiasis is treated with chloroquine or nitroimidazoles.
Visceral leishmaniasis, kala-azar, or dum- dum fever, is an amoebic disease probably spread by the bite of
sandflies. The amoebia reaches the reticuloendothelial cells. The disease is also known as tropical
splenomegaly since infection results in enlargement of the spleen and liver, low, irregular fever, and death
within a year or so. A milder from, affecting the skin, is known as Delhi boil.
Diarrhoea ‘Giardiasis’ is caused by Giardia intestinalis. It infests the bile tract, duodenum. Spread by ingestion
of cysts in water / food contaminated by stools. It results in malabsorption of fat, persistent looseness of
bowels, greasy stools, fever, anemia and allergic manifestations. Antibiotics are given to treat giardiasis.

Diseases Caused by Fungi

Athlete’s Foot or Tinea pedis is caused by Trichophyton in conditions where skin is warm and moist for long
periods. Results in itching and burning sensation, crack in the infected area generally at the base of the
fifth or between fourth and fifth toes; reddening and scaling; loose dead skin clings to the toes.
Dhobie Itch or Tinea cruris is caused by different fungi. Spread by direct contact, infected objects. Appears
like ringworm infection with itchy rashes, usually located in the grown and inner surfaces of the thighs.
Treatment followed is same as in Athletes Foot.
Madhura Foot is caused by Madurella mycetomi. Skin injury allows the fungus in. It creates chronic granulating
infection of the lower extremities leading to deep sores, bone damage and crippling deformities.
Ringworn (tinea) is caused by Microsporum, trichophyton and epidermophyton species. Spread by direct
contact from unwashed cats and dogs or infected objects. Results in slightly raised reddish circular

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swellings on the skin; may attack the groin or the scalp; could cause partial but temporary baldness in
children.

Diseases Caused by Parasitic Worms

Many types of worms infect human beings (and animals). Some of these diseases are considered here.

Dracunculiasis or Guineaworm (GW) disease has been a major problem in West Africa, India and Pakistan.
Guineaworm (Dracunculu medinenis) infection is contracted by drinking water infested with Cyclops, a
minute crustacean predator that forms part of the plankton of inland water.
The Cyclops swallow larvae released into water by the female guineaworm. After two weeks, the larvae
become infective. When humans drink the water, gastric juices dissolve the Cyclops, freeing the larvae,
which then grow and mate within the human body.
A year after a person has swallowed the Cyclops, the mature female worms (about 1 m long) force their
way through soft tissue of the body, and settle under the skin causing severe pain and blistering on
the skin before finally breaking through the surface, usually on the ankle or foot, to release larvae.
The blisters on the skin often break when the foot is immersed in water, and, as they do so, the emerging
worms gradually release hundreds of thousands of larvae. They then swim off to be swallowed by the
Cyclops, renewing the cycle of transmission.
There is no drug treatment for the disease. The worms up to one meter long can be extracted. But healing
of wounds they cause offers no immunity from further infection.
Despite these problems, the disease has been overcome because of successful public health education
programmes, including basic advice on the filtration of drinking water.
Tapeworm infects the small intestine. It breeds in the human intestine, the eggs pass out in the faeces, and
are then swallowed by animals (especially pigs) eating contaminated material. In the animal, the eggs
hatch out into larvae which penetrate the muscle, forming cysts – and humans are infected in turn by
eating its meat.
Thus Taniasolium gets into the flesh of pigs, which, if imperfectly cooked, causes infestation of the
intestine in man. It can reach a length of about 3 m.
Taenia saginata which reaches a length of about 6 m is spread in imperfectly cooked beef, and in Baltic
countries Dibothrioocphalus latus gets into the human intestine from caviar or undercooked fish. It
reaches the awesome length of 9 m.
The large tapeworms, Taeniasolium and saginala produce varying symptoms or none at all. Usually, they
are not discovered until some segments of the worm are excreted, but there may by mild indigestion,
excessive hunger, and occasionally anemia.
It is necessary to make sure that the head of the worm is removed; otherwise it will continue to grow.
Tapeworms can be eliminated with antihelminthic drugs.
Roundworm (Ascariasis) is caused by Ascaris lumbricoides, and infests the small intestine which the eggs reach
from the contaminated fingers of someone else who handles food or from eating raw vegetables
containing its cysts.
They give rise to no symptoms, and are noticed only when discharged in the faeces or occasionally vomited
out.
If the larvae reach the lungs pneumonia may occur, may cause protein and vitamin A deficiencies resulting
in protein calorie malnutrition and night blindness. Piperazine is an effective treatment.
Threadworm are like small 0.5-1 cm long pieces of white thread. They are very common in children, and live
mainly in the caecum- i.e., the part of the large intestine near the appendix. The males, which are the
smaller ones, remain there, but the females pass down towards the rectum at night-time and lay their
eggs in the area around the anus.

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Infection is by contaminated hands handling food – especially uncooked food – and water. Thread worms
are not serious, and cause few symptoms other than itching around the anus and between the legs,
but heavily infected children may show symptoms of anaemia.
Thread worms can be removed with drugs such as mebendazale, piperazine or pyrantel, but all the family
members must be treated.
Enterobiasis (Pinworm)- Caused by enterobius vermicularis, which infest the caecum and vermiform
appendix. Spread by ingesting eggs of the parasite in contaminated food or drink. Results in inflammation
of the vermiform appendix, eczematous conditions round the anus and bed wetting problems.
Hookworm Disease or Ankylostomiasis, is found in many parts of the world, especially in miners who work
barefoot on damp ground. The tiny worm enters the body usually through the feet, passes through the
blood- stream to the lungs.
Eats through into one of the bronchial tubes, climbs the windpipe and down the esophagus into the
stomach to end up in the duodenum.
It causes anaemia dermatitis, duodenal ulcer, edema of ankle and feet. Many antihelminthic drugs are
available to remove hookworms.
Filiarisis and Elephantiasis- Some type of parasitic worm are spread by insects. Thus in Filiarisis, mosquitoes
injects by their bites the infantile forms of a tiny worm which enters the lymphatic channels; there the
blockade they cause leads to the swelling of the legs and the lower part of the body, known as
elephantiasis.
It can be treated with antihelminthic drugs. An old idea of Frank Hawking, a British parasitologist, of mixing
salt with diethyl carbamazine citrate (DEC) has yielded a major mass treatment of this disease.
DEC has no harmful side-effects, and it is cheap and effective in small doses. It cuts down the chain of
transmission of the disease.
Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis) -There are two main types, one infecting the bladder (schistomomum
haematobium), the other infecting the rectum (schistomomum mansomi). The parasite’s life history
begins when a person bathes in infected water, and the small swimming forms known as carcariae pierce
and enter his skin-or they may enter the body through infected drinking water.
From the skin, they pass to the portal vein below the liver, remain there six weeks until they become adult
and then swim against the blood – stream down to the pelvis, where the female lays eggs which have
a sharp spine.
The eggs penetrate into bladder or rectum- depending on the type of fluke – and pass out in the faeces or
urine. Infection results in raised temperature, dermatitis at the site of entry of cercariae.
In the urinary type, blood in the urine; in the intestinal type, blood is found in the faeces, and there are
symptoms resembling dysentery. Treatment in both cases is with antimony tartrate.

Non-Infectious or Degenerative Diseases

Malfunctioning of some organ or organ system in the body causes degenerative diseases. Some of the major
ones are discussed here.

Red Blood Cell Diseases- There are two main groups of RBC diseases, leading to anaemia or polycythaemia.
Anaemia is a shortage of red blood cells. It could be due to hemorrhage or loss of blood. Iron deficiency is
usually the cause of the disorder in women.
Haemolytic anaemia occurs when for any reason there is more RBC than usual being destroyed in the
body. Aplastic anaemia is due to a virtual failure of the bone marrow in producing RBC.
Pernicious anaemia occurs when the ‘intrinsic factor’ is not produced by the stomach resulting in non-
absorption in the small intestine of vitamin B12..This hampers production of RBC. Long term
pernicious anaemia can lead to neurological disability.

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Occasional injections of B12 or hydroxicobalamin is a treatment. Polycythaemia is a case of too many red
cells per cubic milliliter without any increase in the total number of RBC in the body. This occurs in
dehydration.
It also happens in case of people living for long at high altitudes. In some cases, too many RBCs are
produced and the blood becomes so thick that the heart cannot easily pump it.

White Blood Cell Diseases- An abnormal production of white blood cells is associated with Leukaemia.
Immature or blast cells are produced at an increase rate and tend to infiltrate various areas of the body,
for example, bone marrow, lymphnodes and spleen.
Because of their abnormality, they are unable to deal effectively with infection and anaemia, sepsis and
fever can result. The cause of this type of cancer is open to some speculation but there is an increased
incidence in those with Down’s Syndrome and other chromosomal abnormalities.
Chronic lymphatic leukaemia, which tends to affect older people, may have no clinical signs or symptoms.
In fact, it may require no treatment and be compatible with a normal life span.
On the other hand, acute myeloid leukaemia which tends to affect younger adults is a very serious disease
with an acute onset and which if not treated can prove to be rapidly fatal.
In Agronulocytosis, the number of those white cells responsible for destroying bacteria falls greatly, thus
leaving a person open to infection. The usual cause is abnormal sensitivity to certain drugs.
Hodgkin’s disease and Lymphosarcome also witness abnormal cells in the reticulo endothelial system
growing in a disorganized manner causing enlargement of lymphnodes, spleen an d sometimes the
liver.

Heart and Blood Vessels- When the cardiac output of blood is too little for the requirement of the body, a
state of circulatory failure has arisen, and when this is due primarily to the heart itself being at fault, it is
more properly called heart failure. Heart failure is not a disease, but the common result of a large number
of diseases.
The signs and symptoms produced are caused by two sorts of process: (a) tissues of the body have too
little blood flow and are undersupplied; (b) blood accumulates and stagnates in tissues, causing
congestion since the failing heart cannot move forward the amount of blood presented to it in the
great veins.
In left heart failure, the lungs are congested because they are the territory from which the left heart is
failing to move blood. The patient has great difficulty with his breathing, and in advanced cases may
not be able to breathe when he lies down, because the lungs become so congested and waterlogged.
In right heart failure, the main veins are congested and the other parts of the body become swollen with
excess tissue fluid, mainly in the lower parts such as the legs and ankles.
Congenital heart disease implies a defective development of the heart in embryonic stage. It could be
because the pregnant women contracted German measles or was administered certain drugs like
thalidomide. But in many cases, no known cause may exist.
Congenital artery disease (CAD), sometimes called ischaemic heart disease (IHD), is the most common
form of heart disease. The condition affects the blood vessels that nourish the heart itself. CAD
narrows the coronary arteries and so reduces the blood supply to the heart.
CAD strikes more men than women and older people more than younger ones. In addition, the disease
may run in a person’s family. The most important risk factor is the amount in blood of a fatty substance
called cholesterol. High blood pressure is another risk factor.
Nearly all coronary artery disease results from arteriosclerosis a hardening, thickening, and loss of
elasticity of the artery walls. In most cases, the inner layer of the artery wall becomes damaged,

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causing a form of arteriosclerosis called atherosclerosis: deposits of fats and calcium build up on the
inner walls, hampering the blood flow through the artery.
The fat and calcium deposits are called plaques. Plaques can completely block an artery and stop the blood
flow. In addition, they can narrow an artery and so reduce blood flow enough to form a thrombus
(blood clot). Plaques often crack, releasing substances that also can lead to blood clots.
If a blood clot blocks a coronary artery, it causes a heart attack. A blood clot that occurs in an artery in the
brain causes a stroke. Pain is caused in ischaemic, or blood-starved muscle, and pain is one of the chief
symptoms when heart muscle becomes ischemic. This pain is often felt below the collar bones or in
the chest is called angina pectoris.
Heart Attacks will vary in their severity according to the amount of heart muscle deprived of blood; and
this in turn will depend on where in the coronary artery the obstruction occurs. Most usually, it is the
left ventricular muscle which is cut off from supplies and dies, either in part of in all of its thickness.
When the coronary artery becomes completely blocked, preventing the flow of blood, this is coronary
thrombosis. A heart attack is usually accompanied by severe pain. Very occasionally the event occurs
apparently without pain of with so little that is this ignored.
Sudden heart attacks may produce severe gripping pain in the centre of the chest, sometimes spreading
to the neck, shoulder or arm; fast weak pulse; breathlessness; pallor and blueness; sweating; or
sudden painless breathlessness with slight cough and very with buddy breathing.
When veins become swollen they also often become tortuous (wriggly), and particularly on the surface of
the leg look very unsightly. They are varicose veins. They are, however, a sign of a sluggish circulation,
and are often due to disease in small valves within the veins which normally prevent the blood from
pooling backwards, down towards the feet.

Diseases Affecting Joints-: Rheumatoid arthritis- In this condition there is non-infective inflammation of
connective tissues throughout the body. In the joints, the normally smooth, lubricated synovial membrane
lining the joint cavity becomes scarred, leading to distortion, especially of smaller joints like those of the
hand.
It causes fatigue, numbness, tingling in the extremities. It can lead to crippling deformities. Osteoarthritis
is another completely different condition closely related to the normal processes of ageing.
Therefore it occurs in older people and tends to be in larger, weight-bearing joints of the spine, hips and
knees rather than in the hand, although the end joint of the fingers is commonly affected. Hard wear
and tear, especially that caused by overweight, or injury may be the beginning of it. Physiotherapy
including heat is helpful.
Osteoporosis is a condition of increased susceptibility to fracture due to fragile bone. Osteoporosis
weakens the bone, and increases the risk of bone fracture. Bone mass (bone density) decreases after
age 35 years, and decreases more rapidly in women after menopause which is accompanied by low
estrogen levels.
Key risk factors for osteoporosis include genetic factors, lack of exercise, lack of calcium and vitamin D,
personal history of fracture as an adult, cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, low body
weight, and family history of osteoporosis. Hyperthyroidism can be a condition for encouraging
osteoporosis.
Patients with osteoporosis have no symptoms until bone fractures occur. Diagnosis can be suggested by
x-rays and confirmed by using tests to measure bone density. Treatments for osteoporosis, in addition
to prescription osteoporosis medications, include stopping use of alcohol and cigarettes, and assuring
adequate exercise, calcium, and vitamin D.

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Gout is a metabolic disease. It is accompanied by attacks of arthritis. People with gout have high levels of
uric acid in their blood, and uric acid crystals become lodged in a joint. The big toe joining is often
attacked.

Disorders of the Brain and Nervous System:

Dementia is a word for a group of symptoms caused by disorders that affect the brain. It is not a specific
disease. People with dementia may not be able to think well enough to do normal activities, such as getting
dressed or eating.
They may lose their ability to solve problems or control their emotions. Their personalities may change.
They may become agitated or see things that are not there. People with dementia have serious
problems with two or more brain functions, such as memory and language.
Many different diseases can cause dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease and stroke. Drugs are available
to treat some of these diseases. While these drugs cannot cure dementia or repair brain damage, they
may improve symptoms or slow down the disease.
Dementia with Lewy bodies- lewy body disease is one of the most common causes of dementia in the
elderly. Lewy body disease happens when abnormal structures, called Lewy bodies, build up in areas
of the brain.
The disease may cause a wide range of symptoms, including changes in alertness and attention,
hallucinations, problems with movement and posture, muscle stiffness, confusion, and loss of
memory.
Lewy body disease can be hard to diagnose, because Parkinson’s disease can be hard to diagnose, because
parkinosn’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease cause similar symptoms.
Scientists think that Lewy body disease usually begins between the ages of 50 and 85. The disease gets
worse over time. There is no cure. Treatment focuses on drugs to help cure symptoms.
Parkinson’s Disease or Paralysis agitans, shaking palsy is a disorder that affects nerve cells, or neurons, in a
part of the brain that controls muscle movement. In Parkinson’s, neurons that make a chemical called
dopamine die or do not work properly.
Dopamine normally sends signals that help coordinate one’s movements. No one knows what damages
these cells. Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease may include trembling of hands, arms, legs, jaw and face;
stiffness of the arms, legs and trunk; slowness of movement; and poor balance and coordination.
As symptoms get worse, people with the disease may have trouble walking, talking or doing simple tasks.
They may also have problems such as depression, sleep problems or trouble chewing, swallowing or
speaking.
Parkinson’s usually begins around age 60, but it can start earlier. It is more common in men than in women.
There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease. A variety of medicines sometimes help control the symptoms
dramatically.
Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disorder named for German physician Alois Alzheimer, who first described it in
1906. It is the most common form of dementia, a general term for the loss of memory and other
intellectual abilities serious enough to interfere with daily life.
The condition entered the medical literature in 1907, when Dr Alzheimer published his observation about
Auguste D. In 1910, Email Kraepelin, a psychiatrist noted for his work in naming and classifying brain
disorders, proposed that the disease be named after Alzhemier.
Two abnormal structures called plaques and tangles are prime suspects in damaging and killing nerve cells.
Plaques build up between nerve cells. They contain deposits of a protein fragment called beta-
amyloid.

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Tangles are twisted fibers of another protein called tau. Tangles form inside the dying cells. Though most
people develop some plaques and tangles as they age, those with alzheimer’s tend to develop far
more.
The plaques and tangles tend to form in a predictable pattern, beginning in areas important in learning
and memory and then spreading to other regions. Scientists are not absolutely sure what role plaques
and tangles play in Alzheimer’s disease.
Most experts believe they somehow block communication among nerve cells and disrupt activities that
cells need to survive. It has no current cure. But treatments for symptoms, combined with the right
services and support, can make life better for the patients.
A stroke occurs if the blood supply to a certain area of the brain is cut off, resulting in the death of nerve cells.
Stroke victims may lose the ability to perform functions controlled by the damaged area of the brain, such
as speaking or moving a limb.
Stroke victims may eventually recover some lost functions. But if respiration or some other vital function
is affected, a stroke can be fatal.
The cause of multiple sclerosis, a disease of the nervous system, is not known. Multiple sclerosis causes axons
in various areas of the central nervous system to lose their myelin sheaths. As a result, these axons cannot
conduct nerve impulses properly.
Another disorder of the nervous system is epilepsy. Victims of epilepsy suffer seizures that can cause muscle
convulsions and a change in, or loss of, consciousness. An epileptic seizure occurs if most of the neurons
in one area of the brain produce bursts of impulses at the same time.

Genetic Disorders

In Down’s syndrome (Mongolism), an extra chromosome is present, and causes mental retardation as well as
physical defects. A factor which appears with consistency in research of the etiology is that the probability
of a Down’s syndrome birth increases with the maternal age of 35, and in older paternal age.
A child who has phenylketonuria (PKU) lacks an enzyme needed to convert a certain amino acid,
phenylalanine, into a useful form; it accumulates in the blood and damages developing brain tissues. A
diet low in phenylalanine can prevent brain damage in PKU victims.
Huntington’s disease strikes most victims during middle age. It causes various areas of the cerebrum to wither
away. Involuntary, Jerky movements are the main early symptoms but the disease eventually leads to
incurable mental disintegration.
Some children inherit a defect that causes them to have extra fingers or toes, harelip, and cleft palate; others
are colour blind because of an inherited defect in part of the eye. Neither of these defects is especially
serious, but some inherited diseases have severe consequences.
In haemophilia, for example, the blood does not clot normally. It is a sex – linked recessive trait passing
from an affected male through a female, who is unaffected or very slightly affected, to a grandson.
Muscular dystrophy causes the muscles to waste away. Another inherited defect produces a type of skin
cancer, and still another results in cancer of the retina of the eye. Most forms of cancer are not
inherited, however.
Endocrine Disabilities

Deficient secretion of insulin causes Diabetes mellitus or ordinary diabetes, a chronic disorder. Diabetes is a
metabolic disorder in which the body is unable to properly use and store glucose (a form of sugar).
Glucose backs up in the bloodstream- causing the blood glucose or “sugar” to rise too high. The pancreas
secretes insufficient insulin and the body in consequence fails to metabolise glucose in the blood and
urine.

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Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease wherein the body’s immune system cells destroy the insulin
producing beta cells of the pancreas. Type 1 (also called juvenile-onset or insulin dependent) diabetes
affects young adults.
In Type 2 (also called adult onset or non- insulin dependent) diabetes, the body does produce insulin, but
not enough to properly convert food into energy. And there is an impaired sensitivity to the actions
of insulin. Obesity also necessitates larger quantities of insulin.
This form of diabetes usually occurs in people who are over 40, overweight, and have a family history of
diabetes. This form of diabetes commonly arises from lifestyle changes. However more and more
children are now getting affected by type 2 as well.
The apparent overlap of the features of type 1 and type 2 diabetes leads to double diabetes. Double
diabetes may be present at the onset of diabetes itself-making too difficult to diagnose what kind of
diabetes someone has.
The appearance of double diabetes can be quite different, depending on the degree of a person’s insulin
resistance. The most common symptoms of diabetes are: great thirst, increased hunger and tendency
to urinate very often.
Additional symptoms may also be present: weight loss (in type 1) wounds that don’t heal and / or extreme
unexplained fatigue. Is some cases, there are no symptoms- this happens at times with type-2
diabetes.
In this case, people can live for months, even years without knowing they have the disease. This form of
diabetes comes on so gradually that symptoms may not even be recognized.
There is definitely a genetic risk factor associated with type 1 diabetes. In fact, research has identified a
total of 18 genes related to type 1 diabetes and more are expected to be discovered.
In fact, 85 to 90 per cent of people with a family history of type 1 diabetes never develop the disease, and
in most cases, a child needs to inherit risk factors from both the parents.
Some scientists believe that exposure as a child to Conxsackieviruses, a family of intestinal tract viruses
known as enterovirus infections, may trigger the disease. Type 1 diabetes is less frequently found in
people who were breastfed as a child. Introducing solid foods at later ages also appears to reduce the
likelihood that a child will develop type k1 diabetes.
The genetic connection in diabetes type 2 is stronger than in type 1 diabetes. In addition, type 2 diabetes
is also more dependent on environmental triggers. People of African- American, Hispanic or Asian
heritage seem prone to Type – 2.
People who develop diabetes while pregnant are more likely to develop full-blown diabetes later in life. It
is reported that diabetes is more prevalent among Indians. It has also been reported from the UK,
South Africa, Singapore, Fiji and Trinidad that Indians living in these areas are more prone to the
disease than the indigenous people of these countries.
Diabetes has many serious complications, especially bleeding within the eyes from retinopathy, kidney
degeneration and obstruction to large blood vessels. Type 1 diabetes is always treated with insulin.
The treatment of diabetes was revolutionized by the discovery of the hormone insulin by Banting and
Best in 1921.
Type 2 may be treated by weight reduction, diet, or the use of drugs which prompt the pancreas to
produce more insulin. Novonorm, a new anti-diabetic drug, has been developed which will offer
people suffering from Type 2 diabetes the freedom to choose their meal timings.
If a patient were to miss a meal, his blood sugar level could become dangerously low. Novonorm, on the
other hand, helps to control the disease by only acting on sugar levels when a patient has a meal. The
concept of the new medication is “one meal, one dose-no meal, no dose”.
The new drug lowers blood glucose levels through Prandial Glucose Regulation, which refers to the
process of regulating blood glucose levels at the time of eating. This allows people with diabetes to
take their medication only when they need it.

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Hyperpituitarism, including gigantism and acromegaly, results from over – activity of the anterior pituitary,
and is usually due to a tumour or overgrowth of the gland.
The hormone vasopressin, produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior part of pituitary, is
concerned with the excretion of urine by the kidney (antidiuretic hormone). Deficiency of the hormone
results in diabetes insipidus.
In diabetes insipidus, the patient produces enormous quantities of dilute urine. He consequently has a
prodigious thirst.
Diabetes insipidus can also occur if the kidneys are abnormally insensitive to the anti diuretic hormone.
The condition should not be confused with ordinary diabetes mellitus.
The thyroid gland in the neck secretes an iodine containing hormone called thyroxine. Excess of it causes
hyperthyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, or Graves’ disease. Lack of it produces cretinism in the growing child or
myxoedema in the adult.
Too much thyroxine as in thyrotoxicosis leads to over – activity, warm sweatiness in an over excitable
patient whose pulse is rapid and who is eating ravenously to try to replace the wasted energy. In spite
of this appetite he is very thin, and he often has bulging eyes for a reason not understood.
A cretin is a child usually born with insufficient thyroid. He is destined to grow poorly, and to mental sub
normality of a permanent and distressing kind. If the condition is diagnosed soon after birth treatment
with throxine can avert most of the trouble.
In myxoedema, thyroxine is deficient in an adult. They become slow in all their bodily processes, the hair
thins and their flesh is puffy with a dry, wrinkled skin.
Goitre simply means enlargement of the gland. It may be accompanied by over – activity or under activity,
or with little functional change, one variety occurs in areas short of iodine in the soil and drinking
water.
There are many different steroid hormones in the adrenal cortical secretion, which look after such diverse
matters as sodium and potassium balance, sexual function, the reaction of the body to stress, and the
regulation of sugar levels.
Addison’s diseases results from adrenal cortical insufficiency, and is often due to destruction of the gland
by tuberculosis. There is weariness, malaise, pigmentation of skin.

Deficiency Diseases

If certain nutrients are missing in our diet, diseases develop due to the specific deficiencies.

Protein – Calorie Deficiency -is a collection of different kinds of childhood malnutrition. Some are due
predominantly to deficiency of protein and are collectively called Kwashiorkor- a West African word
meaning “red – haired boy”.
Others are mainly due to a severe deficiency of overall foodstuffs and are called Marasmus. In
Kwashiorkor, the child is typically listless, apathetic, whining, with a reddish discoloration of the hair,
a peeling, scaly skin, and with much extra fluid in his tissues causing oedema.
In marasmus, the child is ravenously hungry. He is extremely thin and “starved”. There is muscle
degeneration, thinning of limbs and abdominal wall; the ribs become prominent.
Children below the age of one year are prone to this disease if breast feeding is replaced by a diet that is
low in protein and calories.
Vitamin Deficiencies also give rise to specific disorders. Beri-beri is a group of diseases usually found in areas
where a diet of polished rice results in a poor intake of vitamin B, (thiamine). In one form there is oedema;
in another, the peripheral nerves are affected leading to tingling and numbness.
A similar condition is occasionally seen in alcoholics and diabetics. Pellagra is found among maize – eating
populations and is due to a deficiency of several vitamins including niacin.

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There is dermatitis on exposed skin, and soreness of the mouth and tongue, with gastro-enteritis. Scurvy
is due to vitamin C deficiency. In children, bone growth is affected. At all ages, there is bleeding into
the skin (bruising), impaired wound healing, mental depression, and anaemia.
Rickets, another disease of early childhood, is caused by deficiently of vitamin D. Bones are not properly
calcified, and their softness leads to deformities of the legs and many other bones.
Vitamin D can either be eaten in the diet or produced by the skin under the influence of sunlight. Therefore
rickets commonly occurs when both the diet and the sunlight are inadequate.
Mineral Deficiencies may also cause disorders, even though very small amounts of these minerals are required
by the body. Anaemia is caused by iron deficiency.
Hypokalemia is due to deficiency of potassium (which may be lost in severe vomiting or diarrhea) and
causes rise in heart-beat, kidney damage, weakness and paralysis of muscles.
Hyponatremia is due to loss of sodium (may be due to dehydration and marked by low blood pressure,
loss of body weight).
Iodine Deficiency Disorders- The human body requires 100 to 150 micrograms of iodine daily. Ninety per cent
of this requirement is normally taken care of by the food and water intake by a healthy individual. Iodine
content is drawn from the soil by the food grown in it and water that flows through it.
Iodine being a water-soluble element is generally present in the superficial layers of the soil. Due to various
reasons like erosion of soil, large amount of this precious element is carried away by rivers into the
sea. With the passage of time the iodine content of the soil is getting depleted.
The thyroid gland uses iodine to synthesise thyroxine which helps in growth and development. Iodine
deficiency results in less of throxine and thus reduced blood circulating levels. Earlier, goiter was seen
as the only indication of lack of iodine.
But now a number of disorders are related to iodine, such as spontaneous abortions, birth of cretin
children, neonatal hypothyroidism, deafmutism, squint, neuromotor defects, and as much as 10 per
cent drop in the intelligent quotient in children.
Iodine deficiency is one of the major widespread and easily preventable nutritional deficiencies prevailing
in the developing world.

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Allergies

An allergy is an unusual reaction to a particular substance (allergen) which may be a food, pollen, an insect
bite, a metal, a medicine, hair, house dust, etc. Hay fever is a common form of allergy whose symptoms
include a running nose, breathing difficulty, a rash and oedema.
In Asthma, there is breathlessness due to bronchial constriction and an obstructive secretion. There are two
major causes of asthma:
an infection of the tubes leading to the lungs or of the lungs themselves; or
an allergic reaction, the stimuli of which include pollen, house dust, drugs, bacteria and animal hair.
Inhaling certain chemicals may suppress the symptoms of asthma in many patients.

Cancer

In cancer (which is also called malignancy), there is an abnormal growth of cells. There can be uncontrolled
cell growth as a result of damages or mutations to DNA, and therefore, damage to the genes involved in
cell division.
The cell division involves four key types of gene: oncogenes tell cells when to divide, tumour suppressor genes
tell cells when not to divide, suicide genes tell the cell to kill itself if something goes wrong, and DNA repair
genes instruct a cell to repair damaged DNA.
Cancer occurs when a cell’s gene mutations make the cell unable to correct DNA damage and unable to kill
itself. Cancer also occurs as a result of mutations that inhibit the functions of oncogene and tumour
suppressor genes, leading to uncontrollable cell growth.
Cancers are classified according to the tissues in which they originate:
carcinomas arise from the cells of the skin, the linings of internal organs, and the glandular organs;
sarcomas are associated with muscles, bones, cartilages, and connective tissues;
lymphomas are cancers that begin in the lymph nodes and immune system tissues;
leukemias are cancers that begin in the bone marrow and often accumulate in the bloodstream; and
adenomas are cancers that arise in the thyroid, the pituitary gland, the adrenal gland, and other glandular
tissues.
How and Why A genetic predisposition inherited from the family members can result in cancer. The existence
of certain genetic mutations or a fault in a gene at birth makes one statistically more likely to develop
cancer later in life.
A class of substances held to be directly responsible for causing damage to DNA, promoting or aiding cancer
is carcinogens. When the body is exposed to carcinogens, free radicals are formed that try to steal
electrons from other molecules in the body; and these free radicals damage cells and interfere with their
ability to function normally.
Tobacco, asbestos, arsenic, radiation such as gamma and x-rays, the ultra-violet rays of the sun, and
compounds in car exhaust fumes are all examples of carcinogens.
Many viruses have also been understood to cause cancer, some examples being the human papillomaviurs (a
cause of cervical cancer), hepatitis B and C (causes of liver cancer), and Epstein Barr virus (a cause of some
childhood cancers).
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and anything else that suppresses or weakens the immune system
inhibits the body’s ability to fight infections and increases the chance of developing cancer.
Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called
tumours except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell
division in the blood stream.

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Tumours that grow can interfere with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems and they can release
hormones that change body functions. (Tumors that stay in one spot and have limited growth are generally
considered to be benign.).
The dangerous, or malignant, tumours form when a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body
using the blood or lymph systems, destroying health tissue in a process called invasion or when that
cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to feed itself in a process called
angiogenesis.
When a tumour is successful in spreading to other parts of a body and grows, invading and destroying
other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasised. This process itself is called metastasis, a serious
condition that is very difficult to treat.
It was reported by scientists of Nature Communications in October 2012 that an important clue as to why
cancer spreads had something to do with the adhesion (stickiness properties of cancerous cells).
Certain molecular interaction between cells and the extracellular matrix causes them to become unstuck
at the original tumour site; they become dislodged, move on and then reattach themselves at a new
site.
This was considered an important finding as cancer deaths are mainly due to metastatic tumours, those
that grow from cells that have travelled from their original site to another part of the body. Primary
tumours cause only 10 per cent of cancer deaths.
So finding a way to stop cancer cells from sticking to new sites could interfere with metastatic disease,
and halt the growth of secondary tumours. The symptoms indicating cancer are quite varied and
depend on the site of the cancer or where it has spread, and the size of the tumour.
In some cancers, a lump (as on the breast) can be an indicator of cancer in those locations. Melanoma (skin
cancer) is indicated by a change in size or colour of a wart or mole on the skin. White patches inside the
mouth or white spots on the tongue are possible clues to oral cancer.
However, other cancers have less physically apparent symptoms. Some brain tumours tend to present
symptoms early in the disease as they affect important cognitive functions.
Pancreas cancers are usually too small to cause symptoms until they cause pain by pushing against nearby
nerves or interfere with liver function to cause a yellowing of the skin and eyes called jaundice. Symptoms
also can be created as a tumour grows and pushes against organs and blood vessels.
For example, colon cancers lead to symptoms such as constipation, diarrhea, and changes in stool size. Bladder
or prostate cancers cause changes in bladder function such as more frequent or infrequent urination.
As cancer cells use the body’s energy and interfere with normal hormone function, symptoms such as fever,
fatigue, excessive sweating, anemia, and unexplained weight loss can be perceived.
Persistent coughs and hoarseness are other symptoms. However, these symptoms are common in several
other maladies as well, and that is why cancer is often not diagnosed in the early stages. When cancer
metastasises, additional symptoms can appear or be felt in the newly affected area.
Symptoms of metastasis depend on the location which the cancer spreads to the brain; patients may
experience vertigo, headaches, or seizures. If it has spread to the lungs, there may be excessive coughing
and shortness of breath. Enlargement of the liver might take place, causing jaundice. Bones can become
painful and brittle.

Treatment for Cancer

If cancer is detected early, there is a high possibility of successful treatment and survival. Besides observing
symptoms, doctors use imaging techniques such as x-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, PET scans, and ultrasound
scans regularly in order to detect the location of a tumour and what organs may be affected by it.

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Endoscopy is a procedure that uses a thin tube with a camera and light at one end, to look for abnormalities
inside the body, and is a tool of diagnosis.
Biopsy, which involves the extraction of cancer cells and looking at them under a microscope, is the only
absolute way to diagnose cancer. Other types of molecular diagnostic tests are also put to use. The body’s
sugars, fats, proteins, and DNA can be analysed at the molecular level.
The treatment of cancer is dependent on the type of cancer, the stage of the cancer, the age, health status,
and additional personal characteristics of the patient. Patients often receive a combination of therapies
and palliative care.
Treatment comprises of surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, hormone therapy, or gene
therapy. If cancer does not spread, it is possible to completely cure a patient by surgically removing the
cancer from the body.
Radiotherapy or radiation treatment destroys cancer by focusing high energy gamma rays on the cancer cells.
These rays are emitted from metals such as radium or high-energy x-rays that are created in a special
machine. The rays cause damage to the molecules that make up the cancer cells and lead them to kill
themselves.
Chemotherapy, which is generally used when the cancer has spread, makes use of chemicals that interfere
with the cell division process, damaging proteins or DNA, so that cancer cells will kill themselves.
These treatments target any rapidly dividing cells (not necessarily just cancer cells); however, normal cells
usually can recover from any chemical – induced damage while cancer cells cannot. In chemotherapy
the medicines travel throughout the entire body.
It is a necessary treatment for some forms of leukemia and lymphoma. The treatment is made in cycles so
the body has time to heal between doses. However, the patient still experiences side effects such as
hair loss, nauseas, fatigue, and vomiting.
Immunotherapy aims at getting the body’s immune system to fight the tumour. Local immunotherapy injects
a treatment into an affected area, for example, to cause inflammation that shrinks the tumour.
Systemic immunotherapy treats the whole body by administering an agent such as the protein interferon
alpha that can shrink tumours.
Hormone therapy is directed towards changing hormone production in the body so that cancer cells stop
growing or are killed completely. Breast cancer hormone therapies often focus on reducing estrogen
levels.
Gene therapy aims at replacing damaged genes with ones that work so as to address a root cause of cancer,
namely, damage to DNA. This is a very new field and has not yet resulted in much success so far.
Recent life style concerns

Tobacco and its Effect on Health

India banned smoking in public places with effect from October 2, 2008. The WHO has issued several warnings
against tobacco use. The WHO reported that tobacco smoking killed 100 million people around the world
in the 21st century. Several countries have imposed strict bans on smoking.
Tobacco smoke contains the psychoactive alkaloids nicotine and hormone, which combined give rise to
addictive stimulant and euphoria properties. The effect of nicotine in first time or irregular users is an
increase in alertness and memory, and mild euphoria.
Nicotine disturbs metabolism and suppresses appetite. This is because nicotine, like many stimulants,
temporarily increases blood sugar levels.
Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in tobacco, is addictive. Cigarette use has also been shown to
cause multiple types of cancer, heart disease, respiratory disease, circulatory disease, birth defects
(which include mental and physical disability) and emphysema.

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On average, each cigarette smoke shortens lifespan by 11 minutes. Nicotine stimulates the portion of the
brain that is connected with a pleasurable feeling. The neurotransmitter, dopamine, controls the
desire to consume drugs.
Nicotine has been shown to increase dopamine levels in the pleasurable portion of the brain. This feeling
is quickly realized, within 10 seconds of the inhalation of nicotine and dissipates soon after the
cessation of smoking.
This causes cravings and the subsequent use of nicotine to calm the craving. This repetitive process;
craving, satisfaction, craving; associated with symptoms of withdrawal is indicative of addiction.
Nicotine users can experience withdrawal symptoms within hours of their last cigarette. This negative
experience causes many people to return to smoking soon after vowing to quit. These symptoms are
rapid, and are relatively stung for the few days.
They may last for weeks and some smokers who quit may experience these withdrawal symptoms for
months. Those who decide to quit smoking may experience the following symptoms of withdrawal:
cravings, irritability, sleep disturbances, increased appetite, and attention deficits.
In addition to the physical aspect of withdrawal, many nicotine users experience psychological symptoms
as well. These may include desiring certain smoking rituals, smells, tastes and sights.
Tobacco smoke contains over 4,000 chemicals, many of which make smoking harmful. The following are some
facts bases on research of effects of tobacco smoke:
Tobacco smoke also contributes to a number of cancers.
The mixture of nicotine and carbon monoxide in each cigarette you smoke temporarily increases your heart
rate and blood pressure, straining your heart and blood vessels.
This can cause heart attacks and stroke. It slows your blood flow, cutting off oxygen to your feet and hands.
Some smokers end up having their limbs amputated.
Tar coasts your lungs like soot in chimney and causes cancer. A 20-a-day smoker breathes in up to a full
cup (210 g) of tar in a year.
Changing to low-tar cigarettes does not help because smokers usually take deeper puffs and hold the
smoke in for longer, dragging the tar deeper into their lungs.
Carbon monoxide robs your muscles, brain and body tissue of oxygen, making your whole body especially
work harder. Over time, your airways swell up and let less air into your lungs.
Smoking causes disease and is a slow way to die. The strain put on your body by smoking often causes
years of suffering. Emphysema is an illness that slowly rots your lungs. People with emphysema often
get bronchitis again and again, and suffer lung and heart failure.
Lung cancer from smoking is caused by the tar in tobacco smoke. Men who smoke are ten times more
likely to die from lung cancer than non-smokers.
Smoking causes around one in five deaths from heart disease. In younger people, three out of four deaths
for heart disease are due to smoking.
Smoking during pregnancy has been linked to an array of neonatal and infant health issues. 10 per cent of
all infant deaths, 14 per cent preterm deliveries and 20-30 per cent of low birth weight babies are to
be directly related to smoking during pregnancy.
Additionally, seemingly healthy babies born to women who smoked during pregnancy were found to have
narrow airways and decreased lung function.
Passive smoking (also known as environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), involuntary smoking or second hand
smoke) occurs when the exhaled and ambient smoke from one person’s cigarette is inhaled by other
people.
Non – smokers exposed to second hand smoke are at greater risk for many of the health problems
associated with direct smoking.
Passive smoking is especially risky for children and babies and can cause low birth weight babies, sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS), and bronchitis, pneumonia, and middle ear infections.

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Smoke contains several carcinogenic pyrolysis products that bind to DNA and cause genetic mutations.
Particularly potent carcinogens are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are toxicitied to
mutagenic epoxies.
The first PAH to be identified as a carcinogen in tobacco smoke was benzopyrene, which has been shown
to toxicate into an epoxide that irreversibly attaches to a cell’s nuclear DNA, which may either kill the
cell or cause a genetic mutation.
If the mutation inhibits programmed cell death, the cell can survive to become a cancer cell. Similarly,
acrolein, which is abundant in tobacco smoke, also irreversibly binds to DNA, causes mutations and
thus also cancer. However, it needs no activation to become carcinogenic.
The carcinogenetic of tobacco smoke is not explained by nicotine per se, which is not carcinogenic or
mutagenic. However, it inhibits apoptosis, therefore accelerating existing cancers. Also, NNK, a
nicotine derivative converted from nicotine, can be carcinogenic.
To reduce cancer risk but to deliver nicotine, there are tobacco products such as the e-cigarette where the
tobacco is not paralysed, but the nicotine is vaporized with solvent such as glycerol. However, such
products have not become popular.

Health Policies and Programmes in India

The Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare plays a vital role in the national efforts to help citizens lead
a healthy and happy life.
The ministry is responsible for implementing programmes of national importance like family welfare, primary
health care services, prevention and control of diseases, etc., which form the main plank of our
development efforts. Broadly, health planning and programmes so far have worked to:
control and eradicate communicable diseases,
provide preventive and curative health care system in the community development block and to augment
the prevention of non-communicable diseases,
provide programmes to educate medical and paramedical personnel,
involve community level workers, that is, teachers, postmasters, anganwadi workers, gram sevek and
sevika in the delivery of health, and
extend budgetary resources to voluntary organisation/ institutions under grant in aid schemes.

National Health Policy

A National Health Policy (NHP), setting out a new framework for achieving health goals, was announced in
2002. Its Objectives are:
To achieve an acceptable standard of good health amongst the general population of the country;
To increase access to the decentralised public health system by establishing new infrastructure in deficient
areas and by upgrading the infrastructure in the existing institutions;
To ensure a more equitable access to health services across the social and geographical expanse of the
country;
To increase the aggregate public health investment through a substantially increased contribution by the
Central government;
To strengthen the capacity of the public health administration at the state level to render effective service
delivery.
To enhance the contribution of the private sector in providing health services for the population group
that can afford to pay for services;
To rationalize use of drugs within the allopathic system; and

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To increase access to tried and tested systems of traditional medicine.

Specific Goals -As per NHP – 2002, some goals were set along with the years by which they were to be
achieved. These were as follows:
2003- Enactment of legislation for regulating minimum standard in clinical establishments / medical
institutions.
2005 -Eradicate poliomyelitis and yaws.
Eliminate leprosy.
Establish and integrated system of surveillance, National Health Accounts and Health Statistics.
Increase state sector health spending from 5.5 per cent to 7 per cent of the budget.
1 per cent of the total health budget for medical research.
Decentralization of implementation of public health programmes.
2007 -Achieve zero level growth of HIV/ AIDS.
2010 – eliminate Kala Azar.
Reduce mortality by 50 per cent on account of TB, malaria and other vector and water bone diseases.
Reduce IMR to 30/1000 and MMR to 100/ lakh.
Increase utilization of Public health facilities from current lever of <20 to >75 per cent.
Increase health expenditure by government as a per cent of GDP from the existing 0.9 per cent to 2.0 per
cent.
2 per cent of the total health budget for medical research.
Increase share of Central grants to constitute at least 25 per cent of total health spending.
Future increase of state sector health spending to 8 per cent.
2015 Eliminate lymphatic filarisasis.

National Health Mission

The Twelfth plan indicates that a universal health cover programme, National Health Mission, would be
launched. According to the Twelfth plan document, the core principles of the NHM would be as follows.
The NHM shall extend all over the country, both in urban and rural areas and promote universal access to
a continuum of cashless, health services from primary to tertiary care.
Separate strategies shall be followed for the urban areas, using opportunities such as easier access to
secondary and tertiary facilities, and better transport and telecommunication services.
There is greater scope for contacting arrangements with the private sector in urban areas, to fill gaps in
strengthened public facilities.
Area specific NHM plans shall address the challenges unique to their areas such as overcrowding, poor
sanitation, pollution, traffic injuries, higher rates of crime and risky personal behavior in urban areas.
The IPHS standards of care and service to be offered at each level of health care facility. All government and
publicly financed private health care facilities would be expected to achieve and maintain these standards.
To enable access to quality diagnostic facilities, pooling of resources available with different agencies, their
up-gradation wherever needed, outsourcing and in sourcing strategies would be adopted.
A continuum of care across health facilities helps manage health problems more effectively at the lowest level.
A key element of the new NHM is that it would provide considerable flexibility to states and districts to plan
for measures to promote health and address the health problems that they face. The priority would be
as follows .
Availability of essential medicines in public sector health facilities free of cost is critical to achieve
affordable health care for the bulk of the population.
Maternal and child health care will continue to be a major focus, especially given the inadequate progress
in reducing IMR and MMR.

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Home – based newborn care, drawing on validated models, such as that of Gadchiroli in Maharashtra, and
focused efforts to encourage breastfeeding and safe infant and child feeding practices will be
promoted.
The goal of ensuring universal coverage of routine immunization through campaigns in districts
throughout the country is now within reach and will be achieved by the end of the Twelfth Plan.
Effective implementation of the Mother and child Tracking system and Mother and child protection card
jointly issued by the MoHFW and the MoWCD would be used in capturing immunization data better.
Electricity supply will be ensured, especially at places where could chains are maintained.
The National Centre for Disease Control (formerly National Institute of Communicable Diseases) shall function
as the apex public health institute for providing surveillance, prevention and control of all diseases of
public health importance.
The National Rural Health Mission and the National Urban Health Mission will be sub – sectors of the NHM.
The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was launched by the prime minister in April 2005.
The NRHM, as stated in the Preamble, has as its goal improving “the availability of and access to quality
health care by people, especially for those residing in rural areas- the poor, women and children”.
The thrust of the mission was on establishing a fully fictional. Community – owned, decentralized health
delivery system. The NRHM attempts a major shift in the governance of public health by giving
leadership to the Panchayti Raj institutions in all matters related to health at the district and sub-
district levels.
The NRHM is operational throughout the country, with special focus on 18 states, which include 5
empowered action group (EAG) states (Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Odisha, and Rajasthan), 8 north – eastern states, Himachal Pradesh, and
Jammu Kashmir.
The NRHM aims to provide an overarching umbrella to the existing programmes of health and family
welfare including the Reproductive Child Health (RCH-II) project and Malaria, Blindness, Iodine
Deficiency, Filaria, Kaka Azar, T.B., Leprosy and Integrated Disease Sureillance programmes.
By strengthening the public health delivery system at all levels. Flexible, decentralized planning is the pivot
on which the mission rotates. In the Twelfth Plan period, NRHM will be strengthened as a sub-mission
under the umbrella of the NHM.
The focus on covering rural areas and rural population will continue along with up scaling of NRHM to include
non-communicable disease and expanding health coverage to urban areas. The main objectives of NRHM
are:
reduction in child and maternal mortality;
provision of universal access to public services like food and nutrition, sanitation and hygiene and also
access to public health care services with emphasis on services addressing women and children health
and universal immunization;
prevention and control of communicable and non-communicable diseases, including locally endemic
diseases;
provision of access to integrated complete primary health care;
population stabilization, gender and demographic balance;
regeneration of local health traditions and mainstream Ayush; and
promotion of healthy life styles.
The union cabinet in its decision of May 2013 approved the launch of National Urban Health Mission (NUHM)
also as a sub-mission of an over-arching NHM.
NUHM aims to improve the health status of the urban population in general, particularly the poor and other
disadvantaged sections by facilitating equitable access to quality health care, through a revamped primary
public health care system, targeted outreach services and involvement of the community and urban local
bodies. Under the NUHM scheme, the proposals approved are:

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one urban primary health centre (U-PHC) for every fifty to sixty thousand population;
one urban community health centre (U-CHC) for five to six U-PHCs in big cities;
on auxiliary nursing midwife (ANM) for 10,000 population; and
one accredited social health activist (ASHA), who is a community link worker, for 200 to 500 households.
Centre-state funding pattern will be 75.25 except for north eastern states and other special category states
of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand for which the funding pattern will be 90:10.
The scheme will focus on primary health care needs of the urban poor.
This mission will be implemented in 779 cities and town with more than 50,000 population and cover about
7.75 crore people. The interventions under the sub-mission will result in reduction in IMR, reduction in
MMR, universal access to reproductive health related interventions.
The existing institutional mechanism and management systems created and functioning under NRHM will be
strengthened to meet the needs of NUHM. City wise implementation plans will be prepared based on
baseline survey and felt need. Urban local bodies will be fully involved in implementation of the scheme.

Immunisation Programme

The Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) is a vaccination programme launched by the Government of
India in 1985. It became a part of Child survival and Safe Motherhood Programme in 1992.
Despite being operational for over 30 years, UIP was able to fully immunize only 65 per cent of children in the
first year of their life and the increase in coverage has stagnated in the 5 years before 2014 to an average
of 1 per cent every year.
It was to strengthen the programme and achieve full immunization coverage for all children at a rapid pace
that the Government of India launched Mission Indradhanush in December 2014 .The aim is cover all those
children who are partially vaccinated or unvaccinated.
The mission will ensure that all children under the age of two years and pregnant women are fully immunized
with all available vaccines by 2020. Mission Indradhanush will provide protection against seven life-
threatening diseases (diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, measles and hepatitis B)
as under the UIP.
In addition, it was stated that vaccination against Japanese Encephalitis and Haemophilus influenza type B will
be provide in selected districts of the country. Vaccination against tetanus will be provided to pregnant
women.
In April 2016, phase 3 of the programme started. Immunisation would be against nine vaccine-preventable
diseases. Besides the original seven, expecting mothers would also be immunised for tetanus.
As part of the World Health Organisation’s ‘Polio Endgame Strategy’, administration of inactivated poliovirus
vaccine, which has now been introduced as part of the national immunization programme, was also
launched. The injectable vaccine, which kills polio viruses, will be used alongside the oral polio vaccine.

Programmes to control Communicable Diseases and Polio

The National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) was initiated during the tenth plan with
the convention and control of vector borne diseases like malaria, filariasis, kala-azar, Japanese encephalitis
(JE), dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and chikungunya. Most of these diseases are epidemic prone and
have seasonal fluctuations.
Malaria has become a serious problem in the North Eastern states mainly due to topography and climatic
conditions being congenial for perennial malaria transmission; prevalence of highly efficient malaria
vectors particularly Anopheles minimums, Anopheles fluviatilis and Anopheles dirus.

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There has also been an alarming rise in cerebral malaria caused by the parasite P. falciparum. Earlier
limited to some north-eastern states and tribal areas, the disease is now visible in some northern
states such as Rajasthan and the metropolitan cities too.
A major factor leading to a growth in mosquito population is the environmental pollution consequent to
uncontrolled industrialisation. A mobile population spreads the disease. The same parasite is also
responsible for 40 per cent of malaria cases.
The mosquito species A. culifcaies is the major malaria spreading agent in the sub-continent. Canal
irrigation in areas like Rajasthan has encouraged another major malaria-spreading mosquito, the A.
stephensi.
The areas vulnerable to malaria are largely tribal, difficult, remote, forested and forest fringe inaccessible
areas with operational difficulties.
Under the Enhanced Malaria Control Project (EMCP) with World Bank assistance, 100 districts in eight states-
Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Rajasthan
are being provided 100 per cent support including operational expenses since 1997. Effective treatment
of malaria under the National Drug Policy 2010 aims at:
Providing complete cure (clinical and parasitological) of malaria cases.
Prevention of progression of uncomplicated malaria into severe malaria and thereby reduce malaria
mortality.
Prevention of relapses by administration of radical treatment.
Interruption of transmission of malaria by use of gametocytocidal drugs.
Preventing development of drug resistance by rational treatment of malaria cases.
Filariasis -about 250 districts in 20 states/ union territories in India, that include all the southern states that
excluding most north- eastern states, are endemic for filariasis. One of the worst- hit states is Tamil Nadu.
The National Filaria Control Programme (NFCP) was launched in 1955 for the control of bancroftian
filariasis with the objectives of undertaking delimitation surveys in known endemic areas, large scale
control measures in selected areas, and training of personnel required to man the programme.
A national task force for lymphatic filariasis elimination has been constituted under the chairmanship of
Director – General of Health Services, Government of India.
The disease is targeted for Global Elimination by 2020 through annual mass Drug Administration (MDA) of
single dose of anti filarial drug (diethylcarbamazine citrate).
Training in filariology is imparted at three regional centers-Calicut, Varanasi and Rajahmundry – under the
National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD), Delhi.
Kala-azar- kala-azar is endemic in Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, besides a few districts of Uttar Pradesh,
in India. However, about 80 per cent of the total cases are reported from Bihar.
A centrally-sponsored kala – azar Control Programme has been operative since 1990-91 for control of
disease in endemic areas.
The programme has been successful in reducing both morbidity and mortality due to kala-azar.
Japanese Encephalitis- After the occurrence of JE epidemic in different states in 1977-78, the government
reached an agreement with the Government of Japan for the manufacture of JE vaccines. In 2006, the
government launched a JE vaccination programme for children between 1 and 15 year of age using single
dose of live attenuated SA-14-14-2 vaccine.
Dengue and Chinkungunya -Dengue is prevalent in different parts of India but the outbreak of the disease is
reported mainly in urban areas. However, in the recent past, dengue is reported from rural areas as well.
During 2006, chikungunya fever re-emerged in the country in epidemic proportions after a quiescence of
about three decades.
The government has taken various steps to tackle dengue and chikungunya which include implementation
of strategic action plan for prevention and control of chikungunya by the state governments.

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Guineaworm -In India, the National Guineaworm Eradication Programme (NGEP) had commenced in 1983.
The International Certification Team (ICT) from International Commission for Certification of
Dracunculiasis Eradication (ICCDE), WHO, visited India in 1999 to assess the status of GW diseases in the
country.
On the basis of ICT report, India was declared as a country free of guinea worm diseases. No case has been
reported so far. Eradication of GW disease from India is a major national achievement of recent times.
HIV/AIDS AIDS was first detected in India in 1986. Available surveillance data clearly indicates that HIV, which
was initially reported mainly among commercial sex workers in Chennai and Mumbai and among injecting
drug users in the north-eastern state of Manipur.
It has now spread rapidly and is now prevalent in almost all parts of the country. Against a target to halt
and reverse the HIV/ AIDS epidemic in India, there has been a reduction of new HIV infections in the
country by 57 per cent. Still, an estimated 20.9 lakh people were living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) in 2011.
In 1992, a comprehensive AIDS control programme, phase I (NACP-1), was initiated with the assistance of
World Bank for a period of 5 years (1992-1997), but was extended up to March 1999.
Phase II of the programme (NACP – II) with the assistance of World Bank and two bilateral agencies,
namely, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Department for
International Development (DFID) of the UK were imitated with effect from April 1999 for a period of
5 years (1999-2004).
NACP Phase III was launched in 2007 with the goal of health and reverse the epidemic in the country over
the next 5 years by integrating programmes for prevention, care, support and treatment.
The targeted interventions focus on marginalized and vulnerable groups, like commercial sex workers,
truck drivers, migrant labor, street children, intravenous drug users, homosexuals.
The programme includes targeted interventions focused on high risk groups and bridge populations, link
workers scheme, integrated counseling and testing services, community care, support and treatment
centers, information, education, and communication (IEC) and condom promotion.
On World AIDS Day 2007 India flagged off its largest national camping to date, in the reform of a seven –
coach train called the ‘Red Ribbon Express’.
Following the success of the campaign, the ‘Red Ribbon Express’ took off again in December 2009, and
now includes counseling and training service, HIV testing, treatment of sexually transmitted diseases
(STDS) as well as HIV/AIDS education and awareness.
The key priorities of NACP-IV, according to the Twelfth Plan document, were as follows:
Preventing new infections by sustaining the reach of current interventions and effectively addressing
emerging epidemics.
Preventing patient – to – child transmission.
Focusing on IEC strategies for behavior change, demand – generation of HIV services among those at risk
and awareness among general population.
Providing comprehensive care, support and treatment to people with infection.
Reducing stigma and discrimination through greater involvement of HIV affected persons.
Ensuring effective use of strategic information at all levels.
Building capacities of NGO and civil society partners, especially in states of emerging epidemics.
Integrating HIV services with the health system in a phased manner.
Mainstreaming HIV/AIDS activities with all key central and state level ministries departments and
leveraging resources of the respective departments.
Leveraging social protection and insurance mechanisms.
Tuberculosis India accounts for nearly 21 per cent of global tuberculosis cases, says the Twelfth Plan
document. Approximately, two persons die from TB in India every three minutes, i.e., more than 1,000
people every day.

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Though the National Tuberculosis Control Programme (NTCP) was launched in 1962 with the objective of
detecting and curing the TB-affected people, the NTCP was reviewed by an expert committee in 1992,
and the Government of India evolved a revised strategy.
The Revised National TB control programme (RNTCP) was lunched India in 1997 and was implemented
with assistance from the World Bank, DANIDA and DFID. By 2006, the entire country was covered
under RNTCP.
The RNTCP comprises DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short- Course) and chemotherapy strategy
with five components: identifying the sick, infectious TB patients; counseling and observing the
patients under medication for two months.
The correct combination and dosage of anti-TB medicines known as short-course chemotherapy is used
for the right length of time. The drugs provide a knockout punch to kill the TB docile; monitoring and
analysing the progress under the treatment to make sure TB patients.
Sputum is microscopically examined after two months and again at the end of the treatment to ensure
that a patient is free of the TB bacilli, and a recording and reporting system is needed to rigorously
monitor and evaluate the progress made in treating and curing each TB patient.
In recent times, multi-drug resistance to TB is being increasingly recognized. The problem is mainly
complicated by the patients not adhering to the full course of the drug regimen.
Tuberculosis can usually be cured in a relatively inexpensive way by drugs like Rifampicin, Ionized,
Ethambutol and pyrazinamide. These drugs often cure the patient of obvious symptoms such as blood
emitting cough and chest pain in about two months.
However, these drugs have to be taken for at least another 4 to 6 months to kill all the infective microbes
in the body. The average tuberculosis patient leaves off the drugs as soon as the symptomatic relief
occurs.
As a result, some of the most resilient of the bacteria, which are still in the body, spring back into action
soon enough. Now, multiple-drug-resistant (MDR) strains develop and “second-ling drugs” (Ofloxicin,
Cyclosporine) are required.
These are more expensive, less effective, and possibly toxic compared to the first – line drugs.
Furthermore, poor patients are handicapped by not being able to afford the nourishing food required
along with the drugs.
Leprosy India ranks first among the countries seriously affected by leprosy-about 55 per cent of the global
recorded cases are contributed by India. About 15-20 per cent of the patients are children.
The Indian states most affected by leprosy are Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.
The National Leprosy Control Programme (NLCP) was launched in 1955. In 1983, NLCP was redesignated
as National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP) also as 100 per cent centrally- sponsored scheme.
The International Federation of Leprosy Elimination (ILEP) is actively involved as a partner in the NLEP.
Leprosy as a public health problem was eliminated in India i.e., the number for cases was reduced to
less than 1 in 10,000 populations at national level in December 2005.
By March 2009, the prevalence rate (PR) of leprosy declined to 9.72 per 10,000 populations. Only Bihar,
Chhattisgarh and Dadra and Nagar Haveli had PR above 1 per 10,000 population.
Yaws -Yaws has been endemic in India since long. According to a report released by the union health ministry
on September 19, 2006, Yaws has been eliminated from India.
Polio The aim in India was to have zero cases of polio by 1997, and eradication of the wild polio virus itself by
2000. However, the deadline could not be met.
A major thrust for polio prevention is the WHO inspired programme that employs the pulse immunisation
technique in large numbers for a susceptible population that receives OPV in one or two day. It has
proved highly successful in other countries like Brazil and China.

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Pulse polio immunization programme was launched in the country in 1995. Under the programme, every
child under the age of five years (except during the first year when 0-3 years aged children were
covered) is given oral polio drops during national immunization days/sub national immunization day
every year on fixed days.
India has managed to contain the more deadly type 1 polio, which spreads faster and causes paralysis
more often than type 3, which is easier to contain , more than 80 per cent cases reported had been
caused by type 3 polio. Type 2 polio was eradicated from India in 1999. In March 2014, WHO certified
that India is free of polio.

Controlling Other Diseases

Non – communicable diseases have also sought to be controlled through state programmes. Among the NCDs,
cardiovascular diseases (CVD) account for 24 per cent of mortality followed by reparatory disease, and
malignant cancers.
During the Eleventh Five Year Plan National Programme for the Prevention and Control of cancer, Diabetes,
Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS) was initiated in 100 SELECTED DISTRICTS IN 21 states.
Iodine Deficiency- The National Goiter Control Programme (NGCP) was launched in 1962 with 100 per cent
assistance from the Central government. In January 1998, the Indian government imposed a nationwide
ban on the sale, possession or consumption of non-iodized edible salt.
The ban prohibited any person from selling, offering or keeping in his/her premises common salt for direct
human consumption unless it was iodized.
Again in May 2006, the Government of India banned the sale non-iodated salt in the entire country for
direct human consumption under prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954.
Mental Health -The Government of India decided to launch the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP)
during the Seventh Plan period to ensure availability and accessibility of minimum mental health care for
all.
Mental illness has been included as one of the disabilities under the “Person with Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act of 1995”, which came into force on
February 7, 1996.
The tertiary care institutions, which are well known in the public sector, are – National Institute of Mental
Health and Neuron Science, Bangalore, Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi and Institute of Human
Behavior and Allied Science, Delhi.
The Government and India has constituted Central Mental Health Authority (CMHA) to oversee the
implementation of the Mental Health Act 1987. The Act provides safeguards for protecting patients
suffering from mental illness form stigmatization and discrimination. It provides for creation of State
Mental Health Authority (SHMA) also to carry out the said functions.
The National Human Rights Commission also monitors the conditions in the mental hospitals along with
the government of India and the states are currently acting on the recommendation of the joint
studies conducted to ensure quality in delivery of mental care.
Despite enhanced allocations for the National Mental Health Programme, it has lagged behind
professionals at district and sub-district levels. Training of non-physician mental health professional
and implementation of community based mental health programmes are needed to reduce the rising
burden of mental health disorders.
Blindness- A comprehensively conceived national programme for prevention of visual impairment and control
of blindness, called as the National Programme for Control of Blindness (NPCB), was launched by
Government of India in 1976. The objectives of the NPCB are:
To reduce the backlog of blindness through identification and treatment of blind;

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To develop eye care facilities in every district;

To develop human resources for providing eye care services:
To improve quality of service delivery; and
To secure participation of voluntary organisations in eye care.
Cataract is curable. Most of the cataract operations are performed by voluntary and non-governmental
organizations. Heavy backlog of cataract cases can be addressed by:
optimizing the use of the existing ophthalmic manpower and the hospital facilities,
inducting management strategies, and
encouraging new, innovative approaches, and
establishing many base eye hospitals especially at eh sub-divisional levels.
Visual impairment due to refractive errors amongst children has assumed special prominence. This is being
combated by intensifying eye screening of the children by NPCB’s mobile units and various voluntary
organizational functioning centrally and through its state and district branches.
A considerable number of people lose their eyesight due to accidents which can be prevented. Eye injuries
through crackers and fireworks occur during the festivals.
In welding industries, stone breaking units, etc., the protective gadgets that are suggested by the
industries are ignored, the shop floor level instructions are not displayed, many employers do not
provide the eye shields, etc.
Even when these are supplied, they are not used by the workers for various reasons. Trade unions and
workers should be educated about the importance of such protective gadgets and their proper use.
Sustained education of the workers, industrialists, school children, unorganized sector units and suitable
statutory measures to ensure the use of the safety methods should be undertaken.
This calls for involving all mass media channels, electronic and others, and optimizing the use of existing
education network.
National Tobacco Control Programme (NTCP): Tobacco has been identified as the foremost cause of death
and disease that is entirely preventable. Globally tobacco use is responsible for death of nearly 6 million
people. As per WHO, if current trends continue, by 2030 tobacco use will kill more than 8 million people
worldwide each year.
Nearly 8-9 lakh people are estimated to die every year in India due to diseases related to tobacco use and
as per the report of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), nearly 50 per cent of cancers in males
and 25 per cent cancers in female in India are directly attributed to tobacco use.
In order to protect the youth and masses from the adverse effect of tobacco usage, second hand smoke
(SHS) and to discourage the consumption of tobacco the Government of India enacted the
comprehensive tobacco control.
Its name was “Cigarettes and other Tobacco Products (Prohibition of Advertisement and Regulation of
Trade and Commerce, Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 2003”.
The specific provisions of the Anti tobacco law include: prohibition of smoking in a public place;
prohibition of sale of cigarette and other tobacco products to a person below the age of eighteen
years; prohibition of sale of tobacco products near the educational institutions; and mandatory
depiction of statutory warnings (including pictorial warnings) on tobacco packs.

Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy

In recent times Indian system of medicine (ISM) has been getting more prominence as these, unlike especially
antibiotics do not produce drastic side effects. The ISM includes Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and drugless
therapy such as Yoga and Naturopathy.

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Homoeopathy, though of German origin, is quite popular in India. Several institutions have been established
to develop this system in India, and there are about four lakh practitioners of ISM today.
Recognising the contribution of these non-allopathic systems to the national health, the Government of India
created, in 1995, a new Department of India Systems of medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) under the
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
In November 2003, the ISM&H was renamed as Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani,
Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH). Later it was elevated to the status of Ministry of AYUSH. Sowa Rigpa is
the latest addition to the existing family of AYUSH systems.
Research and Education To initiate, aid, guide, develop and coordinate scientific research in various aspects
of the ISM&H, four apex research councils have been established. These are Central Council for:
Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS);
Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM);
Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH); and
Central Council for Research in yoga and Naturopathy (CCRYN).
These councils are fully financed by the government and are engaged in conducting clinical research in health
care, drug research, survey and cultivation of medicinal plants, pharmacognosy, phyto- chemistry,
pharmacology, toxicology, drugs standardization, literary research for revival of the ancient classical
literature and family welfare research.
There are several institutions/colleges that are imparting medical education for practice in ISM&H. The Central
Council of Indian Medicine, constituted under the Indian Medicine Central Council (IMCC) Act, 1970, has
the following objectives:
prescribing minimum standards of education for courses in Indian Systems of Medicine (Ayurveda, Siddha,
and Unani);
advising central government in matters relating to recognition of medical qualifications of Indian
medicine;
regulating professional practice in Indian medicine; and
preparing and maintaining the Central Register of Indian Medicine.
The Central Council of Homoeopathy was set up under the provisions of Homoeopathy Central Council Act,
1973 to lay down minimum standards of education in homoeopathy and to recommend the Central
government in matters relating to recognition of medical qualifications granted by universities / boards
our by medical institutions for inclusion in the second schedule of the Homoeopathy central Council Act,
1973.
There are national institutions under the Department of ISM&H to promote the growth and development of
these systems:
the National Institute of Homoeopathy, Kolkata;
the National Institute of Naturopathy, Pune;
the National Institute of Post Graduate Teaching and Research in Ayurveda, Jamnagar;
Rashtirya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth, New Delhi;
the National Institute of Siddha at Chennai, and
the Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga which is functioning as an autonomous organisation under the
Department of ISM&H at New Delhi.
Pharmacopoeia Standards and Drug Testing Facilities: To formulate, control and maintain uniform standards
in preparation and marketing of drugs, four pharmacopoeia committee were set up;
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Committee (set up in 1962);
Unani Pharmacopoeia Committee (set up in 1975); and
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Committee (constituted in 1962).
In addition, the Parmacopoeia Laboratory of Indian medicine, Ghaziabad, is engaged in laying down the
standards of single drugs and compound formulations of Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddhi systems of

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medicines. The laboratory also tests medicines. The laboratory also tests medicines and has preserved
more than 2000 specimens of crude drugs.
The Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory, also at Ghaziabad, is a high technology based standard
setting-cum –drug testing laboratory for homoeopathic drugs.
Medicinal Plants Cell: The Medicinal Plants Cell has been established to look into various aspects related to
development of medicinal plants specifically used in drugs of ISM&H in consultation with other concerned
departments/organizations.
A ‘Central Scheme for Development and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants’ has been implemented to encourage
government/non – government institutions to cultivate identified species of medicinal plants.

*****

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9. NANOTECHNOLOGY

Understanding Nanotechnology

The term ‘nano’ comes from the Latin word for ‘dwarf’ and in scientific terminology refers to a nanometer
(nm). One nanometer is a millionth of a millimetre and one-billionth of a metre (10_9m). A single human
hair is around 80,000 nanometres in width.
However, compared to an atom, a nanometer is still large: an atom has a diameter of about 0.1 nm. An atom’s
nucleus is much smaller- about 0.00001 nm.
Nobel Prize winner Dr. Horst Stormer said that the nanoscale is more interesting than the atomic scale
because the nanoscale is the first point where we can assemble something - it is not until we start putting
atoms together that we can make anything useful.
Today, many agree that nanotechnology could be “the next technological revolution”. It is said to provide
groundbreaking solutions to the most serious problems that threaten our future- it promises faster
computers, improved security, longer healthier lives and a cleaner earth.
The term ‘nanotechnology’ was used in 1959 by Nobel laureate physicist, Richard Feynman, though it was
Eric Drexler who actually popularised the term. Nanotechnology is a branch of science that deals with the
minutest of particles—1-100 nanometre in size.
Nanoscience involves manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where
properties significantly differ from those at a larger scale. According to Professor Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo
Science University, “nano-technology” mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and
deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule.
In the 1980s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who
promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and
books.
Nanotechnology and nanoscience came into prominence in the early 1980s with two major developments:
the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). This
development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and carbon nanotubes a few years later.
In another development, the synthesis and properties of semi-conductor nanocrystals was studied which led
to a fast increasing number of metal oxide nanoparticles of quantum dots. In the 1990s the atomic force
microscope was invented and in 2000, the United States National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded
to coordinate Federal Nanotechnology Research and Development.
One thing that all nanotechnologies share is the tiny dimensions that they operate on. They exploit the fact
that, at this scale, materials can behave very differently from when they are in larger form. Quantum
mechanics plays a role in the study of nanoscales.
The rules of qnantum mechanics are very different from classical physics, -which means that the behaviour
of substances at the nanoscale can sometimes contradict common sense by behaving erratically.
Substances that are insulators, meaning they cannot carry an electric charge, in bulk form might become
semiconductors when reduced to the nanoscale. Melting points car change due to an increase in
surface area.

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Nanomaterials can be stronger or lighter, or conduct heat or electricity in a different way. They can ever
change colour; particles of gold can appear red, blue or gold, depending on their size.
Opaque substances become transparent (copper); inert materials become catalysts (platinum); stable
materials turn combustible (aluminum); solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold); insulators
become conductors (silicon).
Materials such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst
at nanoscales. Nanotechnologies are widely seen as having huge potential in areas as diverse as
healthcare, IT and energy storage.
Biologists, chemists, physicists and engineers are all involved in the study of substances at the nanoscale.
Scientists are experimenting with substances at the nanoscale to learn about their properties and how
one might be able to take advantage of them in various applications.
Engineers are trying to use nano-size wires to create smaller, more powerful microprocessors. Doctors are
searching for ways to use nanoparticles in medical applications. Still, we’ve got a long way to go before
nanotechnology dominates the technology and medical markets.
Some nanotechnologies have been in use for hundreds of years; for example nano-sized particles of gold and
silver have been used as coloured pigments in stained glass since the 10th century AD. Many chemicals and
chemical processes have nanoscale features.
Chemists have for decades been making polymers, large molecules made up of nano-sized components.
Computer chips have nano-sized features etched into their surface, and nanotechnologies have enabled
computers to be made smaller and faster over the last thirty years.
Scientists find nanowires and carbon nanotubes of particular interest. Nanowires are wires with a very small
diameter, sometimes as small as 1 nanometer. Scientists hope to use them to build tiny transistors for
computer chips and other electronic devices.
Nanowires have remarkable optical, electronic and magnetic properties, so it is hoped they will prove
useful in storing computer data. Carbon nanotubes may lead to new building materials, being much
stronger and lighter than steel.
Nanomaterials can be natural or manmade. Nanoparticles are produced naturally by plants, algae and
volcanic activity. They have also been created for thousands of years as products of cooking and
burning, and more recently from vehicle exhausts.
Some proteins in the body, which control things like flexing muscles and repairing and cells, are nanosized.
We can set out to make non materials in a variety of different ways. Some nanomaterials can assemble
themselves from their components.
Carbon fragments, for example, can self-assemble into nanotubes in this way. Fullerenes are non
materials. A carbon nanotube is a nano-size cylinder of carbon atoms. Though all carbon nanotubes
are made of carbon, they can be very different from one another based on how you align the individual
atoms.
With the right arrangement of atoms, you can create a carbon nanotube that is much stronger than steel,
even as it is many times lighter.
Building material out of carbon nanotubes, particularly for things like cars and airplanes, would be most
desirable: lighter vehicles would mean better fuel efficiency, and the added strength translates to
increased passenger safety.
Carbon nanotubes can also be effective semiconductors with the right arrangement of atoms.
Another approach, used in the production of computer chips, is to etch nanomaterials from larger pieces of
material. Increasingly, these two methods are converging, leading to new production techniques.
Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered nanosystems
(nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. It is especially associated with the molecular
assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles
of mechano-synthesis.

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Approaches in Nanotechnology

Broadly, there are two approaches used in nanotechnology. In the “bottom-up” approach, materials and
devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of
molecular recognition. In the “top-down” approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities
without atomic- level control.
A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include
statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size
effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size.
This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes dominant
when the nanometer size range is reached. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical,
optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems.
One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic
properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices
with fast ion transport are generally referred to as nanoionics.
These approaches utilise the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to
automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach.
The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific
conformation or arrangement is favoured due to non-covalent intermolecular forces.
The Watson-Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted
to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be
designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful
whole.
Such bottom-up approaches should be able to produce devices in parallel and much cheaper than top-down
methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly
increases.
Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms.
Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most
notably Watson-Crick basepairing and enzyme- substrate interactions.
The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer novel constructs in
addition to natural ones.

Applications

Applications of nanotechnology are limited to the use of ‘first generation’ passive nanomaterial which includes
titanium dioxide. Nanoparticles have also found some areas of application. Nanoparticles of titanium
dioxide have been added to some sunscreen lotions and cosmetics.
These tiny particles are transparent on the skin and can absorb and reflect ultra-violet rays. Older
sunscreen formulas use larger particles which is what gives most sunscreens their whitish colour.
Smaller particles are less visible, meaning that when you rub the sunscreen into your skin, it does not give
you a whitish tinge. In contrast to their use in cosmetics, where they are free to move around,
nanoparticles can also be fixed into layers on surfaces, to give them new properties.
Tiny particles of titanium dioxide for example, can be layered onto glass to make self-cleaning windows-
windows which repel water and use sunlight to break down dirt, so the ram washes it away and the
glass is left clean.

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Nanoparticles make the glass photocatalytic and hydrophilic. The photocatalytic effect means that when
UV radiation from light hits the glass nanoparticles become energized and begin break down and
loosen the organic molecules or the glass (in other words, dirt).
Hydrophilic means that when water makes contact with the glass, it spreads across the glass evenly, which
helps wash the glass clean. Engineers have discovered that adding aluminum silicate nanoparticles to
scratch- resistant. polymer coatings make the coatings more effective increasing resistance to chipping
and scratching.
Scratch-resistant coatings are common on everything from cars to eyeglass lenses. Scientists are using
nanoparticles to improve clothing. A coating of fabrics with a thin layer of zinc oxide nanoparticles can
lead to clothes that give better protection from UV radiation.
Some clothes have nanoparticles in the form of little hairs whiskers that help repel water and other
materials, making the clothing stain-resistant.
Robert Burrell, a scientist, created a process to manufacture antibacterial bandages using nanoparticles
of silver. Silver ions block microbes’ cellular respiration, thus killing them. These bandages help to heal
cuts faster.
Some other applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls of fly straighter, and even bowling balls to
become more durable and have a harder surface. Cars are being manufactured with nanomaterials so they
may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in the future.
Video game consoles and personal computers may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks
to nanotechnology. Wrinkle-resistant fabrics, deep-penetrating cosmetics, LCD and other conveniences
using nanotechnology are on the market.
Nano-membranes have been produced that are portable and easily-cleaned systems that purify, detoxify and
desalinate water meaning that third-world countries could get clean water, solving many water related
health issues.

Nanomedicine

Nanomedicine is the science and technology of using materials and devices designed at the level of molecular
or nanosclae for medical purposes of diagnosis, prevention of disease and treatment of traumatic injury,
relieving pain and for generally improving human health.
Some naturally functioning nanostructures in the human body are insulin (2nm), haemoglobin (4nm) and
many of the enzymes. For medicine, nanoscience has an incredible potential, especially when we consider
surgery.
For a body cell, surgery is devastating process and even the finest of scalpels can wreak havoc, causing injury
to a large number of the cells. Surgery works only because of the cells’ ability to regroup, bury their dead
and heal the injury.
But if we could operate at a nanoscale inside the cells – both to diagnose and deliver drugs, it will revolutionise
bio-medical sciences. Cells and tissues can be examined in unprecedented detail and the information
available can help scientists nip disease in the bud.
Nanotechnology will let us build fleets of computer controlled molecular tools, smaller than a human cell,
fitted with sensor and built with the accuracy and precision of drug molecules. These instruments will be
used to identify and kill cancer cells, deliver oxygen in diseased tissues, create artificial RBCs and map DNA
structure and repair them in cases of genetic disorder.
The nanoparticles show properties of strength, elasticity, electrical conductivity and colour that the same
materials do not have at macro or micro sizes. Nanoparticles can assist in diagnosis as contrast agents in
ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

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They can penetrate through cell walls and into the cytoplasm inside the cell nucleus and help in treatment.
They can access areas crossing barriers and stimulate the body’s innate repair mechanism so their
importance in medicine increases.
As the colour of a nanoparticle depends on its size, different proteins in a cell can be detected. Cancer, for
instance, is detected using the amount of specific proteins called biomarkers in the blood.

Nanodevices in medicine created by humans are mostly carbon based. Other nanostructured materials
gradually entering medical therapeutics are polymeric dendrimers and quantium dots. Artificially created
nanomaterials usually self assemble under certain micro environmental conditions (to actually construct
them manually would be too laborious).
When infected, the nanomaterials move through the body by using the natural transport pathways and the
natural mechanism of absorption of drugs by the diseased cells; so, the body’s immune system does not
recognize these materials as ‘foreign’.
Nano – pharmacology involves the linking up of fabricated nanomaterials to biologically active compounds or
molecules to be used as probes and drugs to identify and target abnormal cells-diseased, tumour, etc,
This has helped in the development of ‘smart drugs’-nano-sized therapeutic drugs that are efficient in
drug delivery and have little side effect.
Attempts have already been made of sending various nanoparticles, particularly quantum dots, into the
body to detect and treat cancer when only few cancerous cells exist.
The nanoparticles are loaded with different biological markers (acting as tags specific for particular type
of cancer) and drugs so that these could teach straight to the cancerous cells and kill them exclusively
without affecting the surrounding healthy tissue.
Nanoscientists have also designed fluorescent nanoparticles that light up while doing MRI/ CT scan. This
helps in revealing precise locations of cancerous growth in the body.

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‘Nanodrug’ and ‘Nanocoat’ are two recently developed nanotech proprietary drug delivery technologies
which can produce improved pharmaceuticals with high yield, more versatility, and cost-effectiveness
compared to conventional technologies.
Their focus is on providing relief from migraine instantly rather than in hours, improved breathing for
asthmatics throughout the day with a single miniscule dose, and taking only a hundredth part of the
normal dose of an antibiotic for the infection with little side effects.
The self- assembled peptide nano-tubes pierce through bacteria, thus killing them and clearing infections
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the body.
A new nanotechnology based drug delivery system, Nanoxel, has been made available in India for the anti-
cancer drug paclitaxel. Introduced by Dabur Pharma Ltd., the new system marks the first time that a
nanotechnology based pharmaceutical product is being commercialized outside of the USA.
The innovation is in the form of a new polymer – based nanoparticle that is water soluble, and is to be
used in an hour’s intravenous infusion.
Paclitaxel, the widely used chemotherapy agent, is currently combined with cremophor, a castor oil-based
solvent, which leads to many side – effects.
Nanoxel, whose drug-to-polymer ratio is one to half as compared with one to 80 in the case of cremophor,
is expected to have far fewer side- effects and it will allow for stronger dosages. India has two patents
for the drug delivery system and formulation. It started nano – based research in 1997.
Biomedical engineers are trying to develop nanomechanical olfactory sensors (NOSE) to detect characteristic
substances like acetone in the breath of a diabetic patient and other such substances secreted in the body
fluids under certain diseased conditions to instantly diagnose the disease with precision.
NOSE detects the substance by converting the reaction of the substance or a compound into minute but
measurable mechanical movements. Molecular nanotechnologists are also developing medical
nanorobots, which would circulate freely throughout the body when injected into the blood stream.
The nanorobots used in medicine would have a small computer, several chemical binding sites on it to
identify the abnormal cells in the body and would also carry the supply of the drug which would be
selectively released on coming in contact with the diseased or abnormal cell.
These would be used to destroy bacterial infestations, cancer cells, in treating vascular diseases such as
blocked blood vessels, physical trauma and ageing. In case of clogged blood vessels, nanorobots would
travel around blood vessels, clean them and would heal the damaged areas.
Use of them in cancers would avoid the toxic effects of current treatments like chemotherapy and
radiation therapy. Researchers have successfully used DNA origami- based nanobots capable of
carrying out logic functions to achieve targeted drug delivery in cockroaches.
Nanotweezers and surgical tools only few nanometers thick are also in developmental stage. Nanotweezers
are electrically controlled multiwalled carbon nanotubes which are used to grab single biological molecule
within the cell. Molecular nano-technology in future would allow doctors to perform surgery on an
individual human cell.
The Flipside Nanotechnology, however, has a negative side too. Over the past several years, a number of
toxicology researches have indicated that nano-particles can pose risk to life from bacteria to mammals—
if not handled properly.

Implications and Various Concerns

Nanotechnology is said to provide groundbreaking solutions to the most serious problems that threaten our
future -it promises faster computers, improved security, longer healthier lives and a cleaner earth.
However, a number of serious concerns have been raised about the effects and implications of
development of nanotechnology.

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There seems to be some possible dangers. According to the center for Responsible Nanotechnology (CRN)
new developments could result, among other things, in untraceable weapons of mass destruction,
networked cameras for use by the government, and weapons developments fast enough to destabilize
arms races.
One area of concern is the effect that industrial scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials would have on
human health and the environment, as suggested by nanotoxicology research. Some of the recently
developed nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences.
Researchers have discovered that silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odour are being released
in the wash with possible negative consequences. Silver nanoparicles, which are bacteriostatic, may then
destroy beneficial bacteria which are important for breaking down organic matter in waste treatment
plants or farms.
A study at the University of Rochester found that when rats breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in
the brain and lungs, which led to significant increase in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response.
The future applications of nanotechnologies are difficult to predict, especially as they converge with other
technologies such as information technology. The use of small sensors and powerful computers could lead
to greater personal security and safety, but the same technologies could also be used to spy on people
and raise concerns about civil liberties.
Military applications could include nano-sized sensors to speed the detection of chemical and biological
weapons. But conversely nanotechnologies could create new threats that are hard to detect and counter.
Most current and future nanotechnologies, such as computer chips and catalysts, pose no new health or safety
risks. This is because the nanomaterial is fixed or etched onto a larger object and therefore unable to stray
into the environment.
But concerns do exist about the possible impacts of manufactured nanoparticles and nanotubes that are free
to move around rather than being fixed or embedded into a bulk material. Although these represent just
a tiny fraction of all nanotechnologies, there is some evidence that their small size may increase any
potential toxicity.
Certainly, the toxicity of a material in larger form does not tell us what its toxicity will be when it is nanosized.
Concerns that free nanoparticles could be inhaled, ingested or enter the body via the skin, and then cause
damage to cells.
Nanotubes, for example, are structurally similar to asbestos fibres, which can cause respiratory problems
when inhaled in large amounts over long periods. The following measures have been suggested to check
the negative aspects:
Free nanoparticles to be treated and labeled as new chemicals.
Research into potential hazards to keep pace with new developments.
The governments should to provide funds for a new research centre to address safety concerns.

Nanotechnology in India

The department of Information Technology, Government of India has started Nanotechnology Development
Programme only recently. The first project was funded in March 2004.
Since the investment in R&D in India was meager as compared to global investments, the government’s
Department of Information Technology has initiated the programme to create infrastructure for research
in nanoelectronics and nanometrology at national level and also to fund small and medium level research
projects in specific areas such as:
nanomaterials,
nanodevices,
carbon nonotubes (CNT),

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nanosystems, etc.
In December 2005, major joint project for setting up of Nanoelectronics Centres’ at IISc, Bengaluru and IIT,
Bombay, was initiated. Given the specialized expertise available at these institutions, IISc would mainly
follow the atoms-up, materials centric approach and IIT Bombay, the shrink – down, device centric
approach though there will be some overlapping as well.
In addition to this, joint post-graduate research would also be part of this project. Another major project on
Nanometrology (science of measurements at nanoscale), an essential requirement for development of
nanotechnology in the country had begun in 2005 at National Physical Laboratory, Delhi. The project aims
at providing traceability to:
scanning probe microscopes (SPMs);
industry and all others for line width, step height, surface texture measurements; and
calibration of low voltage, low current and low electric charge. In the category of small and medium level
projects about 18 R&D projects had been initiated as of 2008 end.

Nano Mission

In 2007, a mission on nanoscience and technology was approved by the Government of India. The mission
aims at making India a world-class centre for nanotechnology. The Department of Science and technology
is the nodal agency for implementing the mission. The thrust area of the nano mission are:
capacity-building in research in nanoscience and technology;
training and creation of a large skilled manpower base;
development of products and processes for national development especially in the fields such as materials
development, drug delivery and safe drinking water, etc.
establishment of linkages between industry and research and educational institutions and promoting
public private partnership (PPPs); and
promoting foreign collaboration in nanotechnology programmes.
As a result of the effort led by the Nano Mission, India was able to be amongst the top five nations in the world
in terms of scientific publications in nano science and technology.
The mission itself has resulted in several research papers as some useful products like nano hydrogen
based eye drops, pesticide removal technology for drinking water, water filters for arsenic and fluoride
removal and nano silver based antimicrobial textile coating.
Under the mission, Indian scientists have been given access to global state-of – the –art facilities like the
photon Factory at Tsukuba, Japan and PETRA III in Hamburg, Germany. The mission has orchestrated
national dialogues in development of standards for nanotechnology and for laying down a National
Regulatory Framework Road-Map for nanotechnology (NRFR-Nanotech).
What is more, the mission has helped establish a good eco-system in the country to pursue front- ranking
basic research and also to seed and nurture application oriented R&D, focused on useful technologies
and products.
In February 2014, the central government gave its approval for the continuation of the Nano Mission in its
second phase in the 12th plan period (2012-17). The mission’s programmes will target all scientists,
institutions and industry in the country.
It will also strengthen activities in nano science and technology by promoting basic research, human
resource development, research infrastructure development, international collaborations,
orchestration of national dialogues and nano applications and technology development, according to
an official statement of the government.
The Nano Mission, in this new phase, will also make greater effort to promote application – oriented R&D
so that some useful products, processes and technologies emerge.

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It will be anchored in the Department of Science and Technology and steered by nano mission council
chaired by an eminent scientist.
The government in collaboration with some other countries has established a national centre for nonmaterial
at the International Advanced Research Center for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCT) in
Hyderabad. Several scientists and researchers in the country are presently engaged in developing this
knowledge intensive and enabling technology.

*****

10. MISCELLANEOUS

Robotics

It is the field of science and technology which deals with the design, manufacture and use of robots in various
fields. Robot is an automatically operating machine which replaces human effort.
Among other robots, humanoid robot has been a special area of interest. A humanoid robot has the overall
appearance of the human body. It has the following features:
The humanoid robot can maintain itself, i.e., it recharges its own battery by connecting to a power plug or
a battery.
It has a learning ability to develop new capabilities and adjust itself to the surrounding environment.
It avoids harmful situations and engages in safe interaction with human beings and other components in
its environment.
The humanoid robots have the following components:
Advanced software: The humanoid robots possess advanced software. This advanced software has
algorithms not only to carry routine tasks, but also to learn new tasks.
Control system: The humanoid robot has a control system which uses feedback from its own experiences.
The robot’s brain consists of a silicon ship called a central processing Unit (CPU). It is similar to the chip
that runs a computer. The robot’s CPU decides what to do and how to react to the world based on the
feedback collected by devices called sensors.
Sensors: Robots receive feedback from the sensors. These sensors mimic human senses such as video
cameras that function like eyes and microphones that act as ears. Some robots even have the sense of
touch, taste and smell. The robot’s CPU interprets signals from these sensors and adjusts its actions
accordingly.
Actuators: A humanoid robot has a body consisting of metal, plastic and similar materials. Inside these
bodies are small motors called actuators. These actuators mimic the muscles of out body and help
move the various parts of the robot’s body. The simplest robots consist of an arm with a tool attached
for a particular task.
Power supply: Most robots get their energy from electricity. A humanoid robot detects its own battery
status and attaches itself to the source of electricity to charge its battery.

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End effectors: In order to carry out the assigned tasks, robots are equipped with tools called end effectors.
The nature of end effectors depends upon the designated task of a robot.

Application of Robotics

Robots have applications in almost all the fields. Robots can carry out tasks with precision, at faster speed and
at lower cost than humans themselves can carry. Applications of robotics in some of the fields are as
follows:
Automobile industry: Robots are used in the manufacturing of automobiles such as welding, painting and
assembling of various parts.
Electronics: Robots are sued in mass-production of circuit boards and can keep tiny components on circuit
boards with great accuracy.
Military: Robots are used to conduct surgery in human beings with minimal cuts.
Environment: Robots are used to clean oil spills, dispose off nuclear waste and other hazardous waste.
Medicine: Robots are used to conduct surgery in human beings with minimal cuts.
Disaster management: Robots are designed to explore abundant mines. Abundant mines are at the risk of
explosion due to the presence of methane gas. Robots are also used in fire – fighting operations.

BIOMETRICS

The word ‘biometrics’ is made up of two words: ‘bio’ referring to ‘biological’ and ‘metric’ referring to
‘measurement’. Thus, biometrics refers to biological measurements.

What can be used as a biometric?

Most of the biometrics are unique for each individual and so are particularly suitable for identification. Some
of the biometrics used are visible from outside (called visible biometrics) and easy to see such as facial
patterns, iris scan, retinal scan and fingerprints.
Other biometrics are not visible (called invisible biometrics) from outside. For instance, voice recognition relies
on the uniqueness of each individual’s voice. It further combines the uniqueness of your lungs, larynx and
other vocal organs.
Unique electrocardiograph readings similarly verify an identity by measuring a human heart via the user’s
wrist.
Invisible biometrics even include behavioral identification. It measures your typical behavior with
internet-connected devices (computers, tablets, smart phones).
Smart software can then compare the way you usually type, use a mouse or scroll on a page with inputs
from own past activity to detect unauthorized access of computer network.

How Does a Biometric Authentication Work?

Every time an individual seeks access, the biometrics generated compare them to previously stored
information called a temple.
A template is not a whole image, but rather a code that describes certain unique features of the process in
which a biometric is initially scanned into a system to derive a template is stored in a secure environment.

What is the Difference between Biometric Authentication and Biometric Identification?

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Authentication involves matching the submitted biometric feature with the already stored template. When it
comes to identification, the aim of the biometric technology is to simply find a match within a database.
For instance, law enforcement officials scan biometrics and compare them with the biometrics associated with
wanted criminals. In other words, the difference between biometric authentication and biometric
identification can be learnt by asking the following questions:
Is a user requesting access to a secure physical or digital process?
That is authentication. Is the person using the technology trying to discover something about a scanned
individual? That is identification.

CATERPILLAR TRAIN

The ‘Caterpillar Train’ (C-Train) is a miniature form of a tram that requires only a five metre- wide road for
installation, making it a suitable mode of public transport near residential areas. Its coaches have wheels
below and on top, giving it a caterpillar-like appearance.
The train is envisaged to have lightweight cars that run on the top of or suspended below elevated rails
supported by steel poles. The weight, cost and size of the coaches, apart from the usage of land, is very
less in comparison to a metro train.
Unlike the metro, which relies on heavy pillars and corridors, a caterpillar train runs on poles joined together
to form an arch. The Haryana Government has taken the lead to set up a pilot corridor for the Caterpillar
Train, a new concept for urban mass-transit solution in Gurgaon.
It has been designed by an Indian Railway officer, Ashwani Upadhyaya. It had won a global award at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the United States.
The C-Train concept was co-invented by Ashwani Upadhyaya along with Emil Jacob, the PhD scholar at
MIT. C-Train, envisages a citywide network of lightweight, elevated train coaches running at about 100
km/h.

ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE

An electronic cigarette or e-cigarette is a handheld electronic device that vaporises a flavoured liquid which
may have a nicotine base. The user inhales the vapour. The fluid in the e-cigarette is called e-liquid.
The health risks of e-cigarettes are uncertain. While they are likely to be safer than tobacco cigarettes, the
long-term health effects are not known. These health effects also depend upon the e-liquid used in them.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

Antibiotic resistance refers to the ability of bacteria or other microbes to resist the effects of an antibiotic. In
other words, the bacteria (or other microbes) continue to survive and even multiply despite the intake of
an antibiotic.
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in some way that reduces or eliminates the effectiveness
of drugs, chemicals or other means designed to cure or prevent infections.

Why Is It Important to Tackle Antibiotic Resistance?

Antibiotic resistance is one of the most pressing public health problems, especially for a country like India,
where large population suffers from communicable diseases. Almost all the types of bacteria have become
stronger and less responsive to antibiotic treatment.

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These antibiotic-resistant bacteria can quickly spread among people and can infect people with an infectious
disease. Someone with an infection that is resistant to a certain medicine can pass that resistant infection
to another person.
In this way, a hard-to-treat illness can spread from person to person. In some cases, the illness can lead to
serious disability or even death.

What are Bacteria and Viruses?

Bacteria are single-celled organisms usually found all over the inside and outside of our bodies, except in the
blood and spinal fluid. Many bacteria are not harmful. In fact, some are actually beneficial. However,
disease causing bacteria trigger illnesses.
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria. A virus cannot survive outside the body’s cells. Thus, it lives within the
body cells. It causes various illnesses by invading the body cells.

What is an Antibiotic?

Antibiotics, also known as antimicrobial drugs, are drugs that fight infections caused by bacteria. Alexander
Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1927.
After the first use of antibiotics in the 1940s, they transformed medical care and dramatically reduced illness
and death from infectious diseases.

How Do Antibiotics Work?

Bacteria are single-celled organisms. They can perform all the basic functions of a living organism. When we
design medication against bacteria, we usually find a drug that will disrupt the life of the bacteria either
by preventing bacteria from forming cell membrane, the enzymes or preventing their reproduction.
On the other hand, viruses are small capsules made of proteins containing DNA. Virus has no life and no
metabolism on its own. There is nothing for us to stop its attack. When the virus infects its host, it injects
its DNA into the host cell and uses the metabolism of the host cells to live and reproduce.
When we have a viral infection, viruses are inside our own cells. We cannot attack our own infected cells. If
we take a drug that kills or disrupts the functioning of our own cells, it will create more health problems
or may even prove to be fatal.
Thus, in a viral infection such as viral fever, the treatment emphasizes on the cure of symptoms such as high
fever. While antibiotics should be used to treat bacterial infections, they are not effective against viral
infections like the common cold, most sore throats and flu.

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What is Antibiotic Resistance?

Excessive antibiotic use promotes the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Every time a person takes
antibiotics, sensitive bacteria are killed, but the resistant ones survive and may even multiply.
Repeated and non completion of antibiotics course as prescribed by a medical practitioner are primary causes
of the increase in drug- resistant bacteria. Thus widespread use of antibiotics promotes the spread of
antibiotic resistance.

FIXED DRUG COMBINATIONS

Fixed Drug Combinations (FDCs) are also called fixed dose combinations. The FDC includes two or more
pharmaceutical drugs combined into a single dosage. There is a single tablet instead of two or more
tablets.
For instance, a person suffering from diabetes and blood pressure is given a single tablet which has salts to
treat both the diseases.
Arguments in Favour of FDC
The FDC improves drug compliance of patients, especially those patients who are required to take multiple
drugs.
Many a times FDCs are cost effective alternate to multiple drugs.
Arguments Against FDC
Some FDCs are irrational. For instance, a single FDC may contain a salt which is required to be taken before
a meal and another salt which is required to be taken after the meal.
Indian drug market is filled with unregulated drugs. Some FDCs are not properly checked and flooded into
the market. These FDCs may contain a salt which is harmful to a person with a particular condition.

Delhi HC Quashed the Ban on FDC

The Central government imposed a ban on 344 FDC due to the concerns listed above. In December 2016, the
Delhi High Court quashed the ban on the ground that there cannot be carte blanche (without exception)
ban on FDC.
The Delhi High Court held that the power to ban can be exercised in public interest only on the ground that a
particular drug is risky or does not have any therapeutic value. Cloud seeding refers to the spray of
chemicals into clouds. Cloud seeding is a form of weather modification in order to change the amount or
type of precipitation that falls from clouds.

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Such a weather modification is undertaken by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud nuclei,
which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud. The usual intent is to increase the precipitation
(rain or snow), but it is also practiced to reduce hail and fog, especially near airports.

How Does It Work?

The most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide and dry ice (solid
carbon dioxide). Liquid propane, which expands into a gas, has also been used. These compounds can
produce ice crystals at higher temperatures. After promising research, the use of hygroscopic materials
such as table salt is becoming more popular.
Introduction of a substance such as silver iodide, which has a crystalline structure similar to that of ice, induces
nucleation. Nucleation is a process where the molecules in a liquid start to gather into tiny clusters,
arrange like crystal structure of the solid.
The formation of ice particles, due to nucleation, in super cooled clouds allows those particles to grow at the
expense of liquid droplets. The super cooled tiny clouds attract water droplets from nearby areas.
If sufficient growth takes place, the particles become heavy enough to fall as precipitation from clouds. This
process is known as ‘static’ seeding. Beginning of cloud seeding China used the technique during the 2008
Olympics to guide rain away from the venue.
Beginning in India Maharashtra has launched cloud seeding experiment in the year 2017 in response to
frequent droughts in Vidarbha with a three – year cloud seeding experiment. The state approved the plan
to seed clouds for 113 hours with a rainfall level of 1381 mm at Rs 28 crores.
However, the cloud seeding experiment has failed to yield any results so far. Government has decided to
continue with the experiment in order to learn the technique of cloud seeding.

BHARAT STAGE NORMS

Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BSES), introduced in 2000, are emission standards that have been set up
by the Central government to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine
equipment, including motor vehicles.
The different norms are brought into force in accordance with the timeline and standards set up by the Central
Pollution Control Board which comes under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC). The BSES norms are based on European regulations.
In 13 major cities, BS-IV emission standards were put in place in April 2010. BS-IV norms came into effect
nationwide from April 2017. The implementation of the BS-V standard was earlier scheduled for 2019.
This has now been skipped. BS-VI, originally proposed to come in by 2024 has been now advanced to 2020,
instead.

Why is it Important?

Cities such as Delhi are already being listed among those with the poorest air quality in the world.
With other developing countries such as China having already upgraded to the equivalent of Euro-V emission
norms a while ago, India has been lagging behind.
The experience of countries such as China and Malaysia (which is currently grappling with haze) shows that
poor air quality can be bad for business.

Why Should We Care?

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Health is Wealth. When BS-VI norms are implemented, we can look forward to breathing in cleaner air in cities.
New vehicles sold from 2020 will have to be equipped with engines compliant with the new standards.

Why Do Industries Resist the Implementation of BS-VI?

There are two major industries which face the following problems:

Oil refineries: Oil refineries will need a substantial investment to upgrade their production system. These
upgrades will allow the refineries to supply fuel which can match the BS-V and BS-VI standards. These
upgrades will require an additional investment of 40,000 to 80,000 crores.
Automobile manufacturers: The automobile manufacturers will be required to manufacture BS-VI compliant
vehicles which will require additional investment in their manufacturing plants.
Moreover BS-VI compliant diesel engines will require additional component namely diesel particulate filter
which will increase the length of the bonnet.
The length of the car determines the taxes levied on the car and thus, BS-VI compliant diesel cars will be
costlier, which may hamper the sales of the sale of these vehicles.

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