CHAPTER NO.

FOREIGN POLICY OF SELECTED COUNTRIES

1. US FOREIGN POLICY
KEY POINTS OF US FOREIGN POLICY

 A state's national interests are its primary goals and ambitions (economic, military, or
cultural). Foreign policies are implemented to ensure that these national interests are
met.
 In the past, foreign policy was primarily military-related. Now, in a globalized world,
foreign policies involve other areas as well such as trade, finance, human rights,
environmental issues, etc.
 In the U.S., the executive branch is in charge of foreign policy, and the Secretary of
State deals with the day-to-day diplomacy involved in formulating foreign
policy. Congress also oversees some areas of foreign policy.
 Two primary visions of foreign policy in the U.S. have been isolationism, and more
recently, internationalism.
 The U.S. has to deal with numerous foreign policy issues such as dependence on oil,
the AIDS epidemic, Middle East instability, terrorism, a growing trade deficit, tense
relations with Russia, drug violence with Mexico, and numerous other issues.

What is Foreign Policy?

A country's foreign policy consists of self-interest strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its
national interests and to achieve its own goals through relations with other countries. The
approaches are strategically employed to interact with other countries.
In recent times, due to the deepening level of globalization and transnational activities, states
also have to interact with non-state actors. The aforementioned interaction is evaluated and
monitored in an attempt to maximize benefits of multilateral international cooperation. Since the
national interests are paramount, foreign policies are designed by the government through high-
level decision making processes. National interest accomplishments can occur as a result of
peaceful cooperation with other nations or through exploitation.

U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

The foreign policy of the United States is the way in which it interacts with foreign nations.
Foreign policy sets standards of interaction for its organizations, corporations, and individual
citizens. Two visions of foreign policy in the U.S. are isolationism and internationalism, which
has been dominant since World War II. The main foreign policies during the Cold War were
containment, deterrence, détente, arms control, and the use of military force like in Vietnam.

U.S. foreign policy is far-reaching because the United States is the global superpower and world
leader. It operates in a world beset by famine, poverty, disease, and catastrophes both natural
(tsunamis, earthquakes) and man-made (climate change, pollution of the seas and skies, and
release of radioactive materials from nuclear plants). Parts of the world are plagued by
genocide, regional and ethnic strife, and refugees. Terrorism, conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan,
the nuclear weapons programs of Iran and North Korea, the proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and instability and challenges to autocratic rulers in the
Middle East are only the most obvious of the foreign policy issues that affect the United States.
Others issues include economic upheavals, the rise of China to world economic and political
power, relations with Russia, AIDS in Africa, dependence on oil from non-democratic states, the
importation of illegal drugs, and the annual U.S. trade deficit of around $800 billion .
To prepare for these foreign policy issues, U.S. military expenditures are enormous. The annual
defense budget is around 1.3 trillion. It has formal or informal agreements to defend 37
countries. It has more than 700 military installations abroad in approximately 130 countries . The
United States is extraordinarily active, often militarily, in international affairs. Since 1989, it has
intervened in Panama, Kuwait, Somalia, Bosnia, Haiti, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.

FOREIGN POLICY GOALS

To investigate the nature of current United States foreign policy, the logical source is the State
Department, whose job it is to define and direct it. Foreign policy goals include the following:

 Preserving the national security of the United States

 Promoting world peace and a secure global environment
 Maintaining a balance of power among nations
 Working with allies to solve international problems
 Promoting democratic values and human rights
 Furthering cooperative foreign trade and global involvement in international trade
organizations

Examining these goals closely reveals that they are based on cooperation with other nations,
although "preserving the national security of the United States" implies possible competition and
conflict.

FIVE POINTS OF US FOREIGN POLICY

1. Foreign relations to be conducted so as to give the fullest diplomatic support to the United
States armed forces.

2. Effective steps to prevent Germany and Japan, after the United Nation's victory, from again
waging an aggressive war.

3. Establishment at the earliest possible moment of a United Nations security organization to

maintain peace, by force if necessary, for generations to come.

4. Agreement on measures to expand world trade so that the United States can maintain full
employment and enter with other nations into an era of expanding production and rising
standards of living.
5. Encouragement of all conditions of international life favorable to the development by men and
women everywhere of institutions of a free and democratic way of life in accordance with their
own customs and desires.

OBAMA’S SIX BIG FOREIGN POLICY POINTS

1. Pushing hard for the nuclear deal with Iran

And it is American diplomacy, backed by pressure, that has halted the progress of Iran's nuclear
program -- and rolled back parts of that program -- for the very first time in a decade. ... We're
engaged in negotiations to see if we can peacefully achieve a goal we all share: preventing Iran
from obtaining a nuclear weapon.

The Iran nuclear deal was by far Obama's biggest foreign policy point in the speech – the only
one to which he dedicated real space. He did not actually announce anything new – he has said
before that a nuclear deal has risks but is preferable to war, that he'll veto new sanctions
because they would kill the deal, that "all options" (read: bombing) remain on the table and that,
for Iran, this could be a major first step toward happier relations with the world.

2. We're pulling out of Afghanistan

Today, all our troops are out of Iraq. More than 60,000 of our troops have already come home
from Afghanistan. With Afghan forces now in the lead for their own security, our troops have
moved to a support role. Together with our allies, we will complete our mission there by the end
of this year, and America's longest war will finally be over.

3. We're still going to fight terrorists, though

If the Afghan government signs a security agreement that we have negotiated, a small force of
Americans could remain in Afghanistan with NATO allies to carry out two narrow missions:
training and assisting Afghan forces and counterterrorism operations to pursue any remnants of
al-Qaida. For while our relationship with Afghanistan will change, one thing will not: our resolve
that terrorists do not launch attacks against our country.

4. Sunny thinking on Syria

In Syria, we'll support the opposition that rejects the agenda of terrorist networks. ... American
diplomacy, backed by the threat of force, is why Syria's chemical weapons are being eliminated.
And we will continue to work with the international community to usher in the future the Syrian
people deserve -- a future free of dictatorship, terror and fear.

5. A nod to nuclear disarmament

American diplomacy has rallied more than 50 countries to prevent nuclear materials from falling
into the wrong hands, and allowed us to reduce our own reliance on Cold War stockpiles.
Reducing the number of nuclear warheads in the world, as well as safely securing the ones that
are left, has been a big issue for Obama since he was taken under the wing of Republican Sen.
Dick Lugar, a long-time proponent of nuclear security issues. This has not been a super-sexy
issue for the Obama administration, it doesn't get a lot of attention, and this line did not attract
much applause. But its inclusion, especially in such a brief foreign policy section, was a
reminder that Obama sees this as a legacy issue, one near to his heart.

6. The Arab Spring and pivot to Asia fall by the wayside

From Tunisia to Burma, we're supporting those who are willing to do the hard work of building
democracy. ... And we will continue to focus on the Asia-Pacific, where we support our allies,
shape a future of greater security and prosperity and extend a hand to those devastated by
disaster, as we did in the Philippines.

THE MOST POPULAR FOREIGN POLICY ISSUES OF 2016

 Iranian Strike
 Syrian Refugees
 War on Terrorism
 Military Spending
 War on ISIS
 Foreign Aid
 Yemen Issue

2.. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

2.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation is a system of views on the content and
main areas in the foreign policy activities of Russia. The legal basis of this concept consists of
the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Federal laws, other legislative acts of the
Russian Federation that regulate the activity of Federal bodies of state power in foreign policy,
generally recognized principles and norms of international law, and international treaties of the
Russian Federation, as well as the Concept of National Security of the Russian Federation.

The international situation that has taken shape by the beginning of the XXI century has
required reevaluation of the overall situation around the Russian Federation, of the priorities of
Russian foreign policy and the possibilities of ensuring it with resources. Along with certain
strengthening of the international positions of the Russian Federation, negative tendencies are
in evidence as well. Certain plans related to establishing new, equitable and mutually
advantageous partnership relations of Russia with the rest of the world.

The uppermost priority of the foreign policy course of Russia is to protect the interests of the
individual and the society. Within the framework of that process, the main efforts should be
directed towards attaining the following main objectives:
  To ensure reliable security of the country, to preserve and strengthen its sovereignty and
territorial integrity, to achieve firm and prestigious positions in the world community, most
fully consistent with the interests of the Russian Federation as a great power, as one of
the most influential centers of the modem world, and which are necessary for the growth
of its political, economic, intellectual and spiritual potential;
 To influence general world processes with the aim of forming a stable, just ad
democratic world order, built on generally recognized norms of international law,
including, first of all, the goals and principles in the U.N. Charter, on equitable and
partnership relations among states;
 To create favorable external conditions for steady development of Russia, for improving
its economy, enhancing the standards of living of the population, successfully carrying
out democratic transformations, strengthening the basis of the constitutional system and
observing individual rights and freedoms;
 To form a good-neighbor belt along the perimeter of Russia's borders, to promote
elimination of the existing and prevent the emergence of potential hotbeds of tension
and conflicts in regions adjacent to the Russian Federation;
 To seek concord and coinciding interests with foreign countries and interstate
associations in the process of resolving the tasks that are determined by the national
priorities of Russia, and on this basis, to build a system of partnership and allied
relations that improve the conditions and parameters of international cooperation;
 To uphold in every possible way the rights and interests of Russian citizens and fellow
countrymen abroad; and
 To promote a positive perception of the Russian Federation in the world, to popularize
the Russian language and culture of the peoples of Russia in foreign states.

2.2. THE MODERN WORLD AND THE FOREIGN POLICY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The modem world is going through fundamental and dynamic changes that profoundly affect the
interests of the Russian Federation and its citizens. Russia is an active participant in this
process. Being a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council, possessing a substantial
potential and resources in all spheres of vital activity and maintaining intensive relations with the
leading states of the world, Russia exerts significant influence on the formation of a new world
order.

The transformation of international relations, the end of confrontation, steady elimination of the
consequences of the "Cold War," and the advancement of Russian reforms have substantially
broadened the possibilities for cooperation in the world arena. The threat of a global nuclear
conflict has been reduced to a minimum. While the military power still retains significance in
relations among states, an ever greater role is being played by economic, political, scientific and
technological, ecological, and information factors. Coming to the fore as the main components
of the national might of the Russian Federation are its intellectual, information and
communications capabilities, the well-being and education level of the population, the degree of
combining of scientific and production resources, and concentration of financial capital and
diversification of economic ties. The overwhelming majority of states are firmly set on pursuing
market methods of managing the economy and democratic values. The major breakthrough in a
number of key areas of scientific and technological progress leading to the formation of a single,
worldwide information environment, the deepening and diversification of international economic
ties add a global nature to interdependence of states. Prerequisites are being created for build a
more stable and crisis-resistant world structure.

At the same time, new challenges and threats to the national interests of Russia are emerging in
the international sphere. There is a growing trend towards the establishment of a unipolar
structure of the world with the economic and power domination of the United States. In solving
principal questions of international security, the stakes are being placed on western institutions
and forums of limited composition, and on weakening the role of the U.N. Security Council.

The strategy of unilateral actions can destabilize the international situation, provoke tensions
and the arms race, aggravate interstate contradictions, national and religious strife. The use of
power methods bypassing existing international legal mechanisms cannot remove the deep
socio-economic, inter-ethnic and other contradictions that underlie conflicts, and can only
undermine the foundations of law and order.

Russia shall seek to achieve a multi-polar system of international relations that really reflects the
diversity of the modem world with its great variety of interests. Taking into account mutual
interests is the guarantee of effectiveness and reliability of such a world order. The world order
of the XXI century must be based on mechanisms of collective resolution of key problems, on
the priority of law and broad democratization of international relations.

Russia's interests are directly related to other tendencies as well, such as:

Globalization of the world economy. Along with additional possibilities for socio-economic
progress, the expansion of human contacts, this tendency gives rise to new dangers, especially
for economically weak states, and increases the probability of large-scale financial and
economic crises. There is a growing risk of dependence of the economic system and
information environment of the Russian Federation on outside impact;

Intensification of the role of international institutions and mechanisms in world economics and
politics ("Group of 8", the IMF, the World Bank and others), caused by an objective growth of
interdependence of states, and the need to enhance management of the world financial-
economic system in contemporary conditions;

Development of regional and sub-regional integration in Europe, the Asia-Pacific region, Africa
and Latin America. Integrated associations are acquiring an ever greater importance in the
world economy, and are becoming a significant factor of regional and sub-regional security and
peacemaking;

Military-political rivalry among regional powers, growth of separatism, ethnic-national and

religious extremism. Integration processes, in particular, in the Euro-Atlantic region are quite
often pursued on a selective and limited basis. Attempts to belittle the role of a sovereign state
as the fundamental element of international relations generate a threat of arbitrary interference
in internal affairs. The problem of proliferation of the weapons of mass destruction and means of
their delivery is acquiring serious dimensions. Unregulated or potential regional and local armed
conflicts a pose threat to international peace and security. The growth of international terrorism,
transnational organized crime, as well as illegal trafficking in drugs and weapons are beginning
to exert significant influence on global ad regional stability.

The threats related to these tendencies are aggravated by the limited resource support for the
foreign policy of the Russian Federation, making it difficult to uphold its foreign economic
interests and narrowing down the framework of its information and cultural influence abroad.

Yet the Russian Federation has a real potential for ensuring itself a worthy place in the world.
Further strengthening of Russia's statehood, consolidation of civil society and the rapid
transition to stable economic growth are of decisive importance in this respect.

The Russian Federation is pursueing an independent and constructive foreign policy. It is based
on consistency and predictability, on mutually advantageous pragmatism. This policy is
maximally transparent; it takes into consideration the legitimate interests of other states and is
aimed at seeking joint decisions. Russia is a reliable partner in international relations. Its
constructive role in resolving acute international problems has been generally acknowledged.

A distinguishing feature of Russia's foreign policy is that it is a balanced one. This has been
predetermined by the geopolitical position of Russia as one of the largest Eurasian powers,
requiring an optimal combination of efforts along all vectors. Such an approach predetermines
Russia's responsibility for maintaining security in the world both on a global and regional level,
and presupposes the development and mutual complementarity of foreign policy activity both
bilaterally and multilaterally.

2.3. PRIORITIES OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION IN RESOLVING GLOBAL PROBLEMS

A successful foreign policy of the Russian Federation must be based on maintaining

observance of a reasonable balance between its objectives and possibilities for attaining these
objectives. Concentration of politico-diplomatic, military, economic, financial and other means on
resolving foreign political tasks must be commensurate with their real significance for Russia's
national interests, while the scope of participation in international affairs must be adequate to
the actual contribution to strengthening the country's positions. The diversity and complexity of
international problems, and the existence of crisis situations assume a timely evaluation of the
priorities of each of them in the foreign political activity of the Russian Federation. There is a
need for enhancing the efficiency of political, legal, foreign economic and other instruments for
protecting the state sovereignty of Russia and its national economy in conditions of
globalization.

1. Forming a new world order

Russia is interested in a stable system of international relations based on principles of justice,

mutual respect and mutually advantageous cooperation. Such a system is called upon to ensure
reliable security for each member of the world community in political, military, economic,
humanitarian and other areas.

Intensification of the consolidating role of the United Nations in the world presupposes:
  Strict observance of the fundamental principles in the U.N. Charter, including the
preservation of the status of the permanent members of the U.N. Security Council;
 A rational reform of the United Nations Organization seeking to develop a mechanism of
rapidly reacting to world developments, including the enhancement of its potential for
averting and settling crises and conflicts.

Russia attaches great importance to its participation in the Group of 8 of the most industrially
developed states. Regarding the mechanism of consultations and coordinating positions on the
most important problems of the day as one of the important means of upholding and advancing
its foreign political interests, the Russian Federation intends to build up its cooperation with
partners in this forum.

2. Strengthening international security

Russia calls supports for further decrease of the role of the power factor in international
relations, along with the simultaneous enhancement of strategic and regional stability. Toward
this end, the Russian Federation shall: unswervingly fulfill the commitments its has taken upon
itself in compliance with treaties and agreements in the spheres of limiting and reducing
armaments, and its participation in negotiating working out and concluding new accords
consistent both with its national interests and the security interests of other states;

Russia is prepared to consent for a further reduction of its nuclear potential on the basis of
bilateral agreements with the United States of America, and in a multilateral format - with the
participation of other nuclear powers on condition that strategic stability in the nuclear sphere
will not be upset. Russia reaffirms its unswerving course toward participating jointly with other
states in averting the proliferation of nuclear weapons, other weapons of mass destruction and
means of their delivery, as well as relevant materials and technologies. Russia attaches special
attention to such an aspect of consolidating strategic stability as ensuring information security;

3. International economic relations

The main priority in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in international economic
relations is to promote the development of the national economy, which, in conditions of
globalization, is unthinkable without broad integration of Russia in the system of world economic
ties. In order to achieve these objectives, it is necessary:

 To ensure favorable external conditions for forming a market-oriented economy in our

country, and the establishing a renewed foreign economic specialization of the Russian
Federation, one that would guarantee maximum economic returns on its participation in
the international division of labor;
 Russia shall seek to reduce to a minimum the risks relating to Russia's further
integration in the world economy, bearing in mind the need to ensure the country's
economic security;
 Russia shall promote the formation of a fair international trade system with a full-fledged
participation of the Russian Federation in international economic organizations that
ensure protection of the national interests of our country in those organizations.
  Russia shall assist the expansion of domestic export and rationalization of import into
the country, as well as Russian entrepreneurship abroad, uphold its interests in foreign
markets and oppose discrimination of domestic manufacturers and exporters, strict
compliance by Russian subjects of the foreign economic activity with Russian legislation
in performing such operations;
 Russia shall actively work to attract foreign investments, first of all, into the real sector
and priority spheres of Russia's economy;

Taking into account the growing threat of global disasters of a natural and man-made nature,
the Russian Federation calls for an expansion of international cooperation to ensure
environmental security, including with the use of state-of-the-art technologies, in the interests of
the entire international community.

4. Human rights and international relations

Committed to the values of a democratic society, including respect for human rights and
freedoms, Russia sees its goals as being the following:

 to seek respect for human rights and freedoms the world over on the basis of respecting
the norms of international law;
 to protect the rights and interests of Russian citizens and compatriots abroad on the
basis of international law and operative bilateral agreements.
 to develop international cooperation in the humanitarian exchange area;
 to expand participation in international conventions and agreements in the human rights
area;
 to continue bringing legislation of the Russian Federation in conformity with Russia's
international obligations.

5. Information support for foreign policy activities

An important area in the foreign policy activities of the Russian Federation is communicating to
the broad sectors of the world public objective and accurate information about its positions on
the main international problems, foreign policy initiatives and actions by the Russian Federation,
as well as on the accomplishments of Russian culture, science, and intellectual work. Coming to
the fore is the goal of forming a positive perception of Russia abroad and a friendly attitude to it.
An integral element of this work should be purposeful efforts aimed at explaining to the public at
large outside of

2.4. REGIONAL PRIORITIES

A priority area in Russia's foreign policy is ensuring conformity of multilateral and bilateral
cooperation with the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) to
national security tasks of the country. The emphasis will be made on the development of
goodneighborly relations and strategic partnership with all CIS member states. Practical
relations with each of them should be structured with due regard for reciprocal openness to
cooperation and readiness to take into account in a due manner the interests of the Russian
Federation, including in terms of guarantees of rights of Russian compatriots. Russia intends to
strengthen its traditional partnership with India, including in the international affairs, and to aid
overcome problems persisting in South Asia and strengthen stability in the region.

Russia views the signing by India and Pakistan of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
and their accession to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as an important
factor of stability in the Asia-Pacific Region. It will support the line for the creation of nuclear
weapons-free zones in Asia. The Russian Federation comes out for a stable development of
relations with Japan and for the attainment of a true goodneighborliness corresponding to the
interests of both countries. Within the framework of the existing negotiating mechanisms, Russia
will continue a search for a mutually acceptable solution of the formalization of an internationally
recognized border between the two states.

Russian foreign policy is aimed at building up the positive dynamism of relations with the states
of South East Asia.It is important to develop further relations with Iran.

Improving the overall situation in Asia, which is faced with growing geopolitical ambitions of a
number of states, a mounting arms race, and preservation of sources of tensions and conflicts,
is of fundamental importance for Russia. Of greatest concern is the situation in the Korean
Peninsula. Efforts will be focused on assuring Russia equitable participation in the solution of
the Korean problem, and on maintaining balanced relations with both Korean States.

The protracted conflict in Afghanistan creates a real threat to security of the southern CIS
borders and directly affects Russian interests. Russia, in cooperation with other states
concerned, will make consistent efforts with a view to achieving a lasting and fair political
settlement of the Afghan problem and interdicting the exportation of terrorism and extremism
from that country.

2.5. SEVEN TRENDS FOR RUSSIAN FOREIGN POLICY

Trend #1

Russian policy on its western borders will be defensive, not offensive. Contrary to the fears and
phobias of Eastern Europe, there will be no military steps against the new NATO members. Air,
sea and cyber incidents will happen again. But the threat here is escalation resulting from an
accidental collision, not a pre-planned operation. Defense spending in line with “Russian
aggression” will no doubt please NATO’s top leaders, but the chances of solving any real
problems as a result will be close to zero.

Trend #2

Any attempt by the West to penetrate the post-Soviet space militarily or economically will be
perceived in Russia as hostile and disproportionate. Whereas such intrusion was once diluted
by partnership, it is now viewed unequivocally as a zero-sum game.

Trend #3
The key doctrinal idea of Russian foreign policy will be to check the spread of anarchy, avert the
collapse of statehood, and preserve government control. This idea will run counter to the theory
of democratization as the guarantor of stable development.

Russia will build situational or even long-term alliances with other regional and global players
around this idea, which might be successfully used for the domestic audience. Russia could
assume the role of leader in the area of global conservative politics, pursuing cautious,
pragmatic change as per the specifics of each particular state.

Trend #4

Russia is becoming a more active military-political player outside its own territory. However, this
activity will be selective and targeted due to limited resources. Besides Syria, a possible point of
Russian intervention could be the implementation of treaty obligations in Central Asia, especially
in the event of a terrorist threat posed by militants not based in Afghanistan. Such an
intervention would be carried out by highly mobile units with active air support.

Trend #5

Russia will take measures to develop new regional and international institutions such as the
BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). But the functionality and workability
of these institutions remains an open question.

Russia is not about to tumble out of the world economy and become an outcast. The country’s
relatively weak economic positions will be offset by political strength. In this context, attempts to
strengthen the role of the United Nations and the country’s own place in the organization will be
another feature of Russian policy.

Trend #6

Institutions of European security and key treaties with Russia will be eroded, but Moscow is
hardly likely to seek their dismantlement.Russia is keen to maintain a dialogue with the United
States in the field of strategic stability. But this dialogue is likely to go hand in hand with the
development of strategic weapons on both sides. The Ukraine crisis has set an extremely
negative precedent for the politicization of dialogue within the framework of such fundamental
treaties as INF and START. This precedent will have a negative impact on future dialogue.

Trend #7

The economy and public expectations about economic modernization are set to become
increasingly important elements of Russian foreign policy.

The “external threat card” cannot be played repeatedly, which means that government and
business will be forced to take radical steps to improve the performance of the Russian
economy in the eyes of society.

The crisis offers an opportunity to implement reforms that would be impossible in a climate of
stability. Such changes are necessary for the new stage of Russia’s relations with foreign
partners. Even during the best of times, Russia’s economic health is oftentimes an impediment
to developing political ties. Economic reform should open up new resource niches for growth,
although the process is fraught with major risks.

The ability of the state to guarantee the rule of law and breathing room for private initiative is
one of the key conditions for successful reform.

Today, Russia and other players face processes beyond their control. Religious radicalism,
migration and disintegration of statehood are only a small part of the picture. Sooner or later,
everyone will be affected, and both Russia and the West will have to coordinate their policies
and act together. The recent crisis provides an opportunity to reset the parameters of Russia’s
relations with its partners.

3. CHINA'S FOREIGN POLICY

The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)
served as a provisional constitution after it was adopted in September 1949. The document
clearly stipulated that the basic principle of China's foreign policy was to guarantee
independence, freedom and territorial integrity of the state, support protracted world peace and
friendly cooperation among peoples of all countries in the world, and oppose imperialist policies
of aggression and war. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China revised during the
First Plenary Session of the Eighth National People's Congress has the explicit stipulations
concerning China's foreign policy: "China adheres to an independent foreign policy as well as to
the five principles of mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-
aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and
peaceful coexistence in developing diplomatic relations and economic and cultural exchanges
with other countries; China consistently opposes imperialism, hegemonism and colonialism,
works to strengthen unity with the people of other countries, supports the oppressed nations
and the developing countries in their just struggle to win and preserve national independence
and develop their national economies, and strives to safeguard world peace and promote the
cause of human progress."

Primary aims of China Foreign Policy

In its foreign policy, China seeks to achieve
 modernization,
 create a benevolent and peaceful external environment,
 and take steps that allow it to develop its domestic economy.
To that end, the critical points of Chinese foreign policy are maintaining peaceful relations with
other states and complying with the principles of fairness and justice. Beijing hopes to build
momentum for its domestic development through its external activities, including securing
resources overseas. The Chinese government contends that diplomacy should ensure the
country’s prosperity, open up new paths for the nation’s rejuvenation, and create conditions that
benefit the Chinese people.
Following the above policies over the past 50 years, China has actively engaged in foreign
activities, and in handling foreign affairs. China has made sustained efforts to developing
friendly cooperative relations with all countries and in safeguarding world peace, and has made
its contribution in these fields too.

1. Maintaining Independence and Safeguarding National Sovereignty

China had suffered imperialist aggression and oppression for over 100 years before the
founding of the People's Republic in 1949. Therefore, China regards the hard-earned right of
independence as the basic principle of foreign policy. China maintains independence, does not
allow any country to infringe upon its national sovereignty and interfere in its internal affairs. As
to international affairs, China decide on our stand and policy according to whether the matter is
right and wrong and in consideration of the basic interests of the Chinese people and the people
of the world, and shall never yield to pressure and threat from other countries. China maintains
independence, cherishes its own right and also respects for the right of independence of other
countries. China upholds that any country, big or small, rich or poor, and strong or weak, should
be equal. China maintains independence, will neither enter into alliance with any big power or
group of countries, nor establish any military bloc, join in the arms race or seek military
expansion.

2. Opposing Hegemonism and Safeguarding World Peace

The common aspiration of the Chinese people as well as the people of the world is to maintain
peace and to eliminate wars.

After the World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union desperately engaged in arm
races and regional domination in order to contend for world hegemonism. As a result, they
caused severe threat to world peace. The Chinese government has constantly opposed arm
races and regional domination, and actively stood for the complete prohibition and destruction of
nuclear weapons and great reduction of conventional weapons and military troops. China
decided in 1985 to reduce one million troops within two years and signed the Treaty on the Non-
Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1992. All these received favorable international comments.

3. Upholding the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence

The five principles of peaceful coexistence was put forward in line with the reality of a multipolar
world. Respect to sovereignty is the most fundamental principle in a new type of international
relations. Mutual non-aggression means to get rid of the threat of using arms and armed threat
in the internal relations among countries. Non-interference in each other's international affairs is
the most important principle in international relations to guarantee each country's right to take
care of its own internal affairs and prevent any other country from interfering with any means.
Equality and mutual benefit mean political equality, economic equality, cooperation, mutual
benefit and supplement to each other's needs. Peaceful coexistence calls on all countries to
seek common interests, reserve differences, respect each other, maintain friendly cooperation
and live in harmony regardless of differences in their social systems and ideologies.
4. Strengthening Solidarity of the Developing Countries, and Together Opposing
Imperialism and Colonialism.

It is a great cause of the people in the developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America
that account for three-quarters of the total population of the world, to take the road of
independence and development. China has constantly held that supporting the just demands of
the developing countries and safeguarding solidarity and cooperation among the developing
countries is its international duty. Whenever the developing countries suffer external aggression
and interference, China is ready to give its support. Many leaders of the developing countries
regard China as a "tested friend" and a "reliable friend".

5. Improving Relations with Developed Countries to Promote Common Progress

On the basis of the principle of peaceful coexistence, China has constantly stood for
establishing and developing relations with developed countries, and regarded improving the
relations with developed countries and promoting development with them as an important task
of China's foreign affairs.

The establishment of the diplomatic relations with France in 1964 broke the policy of Western
countries to isolate China. In the 1970s the world situation experienced a great change, the
United States had to readjust its policy on China, and China also readjusted its policy on the
United States. This resulted in a breakthrough of the long antagonism between China and the
United State, and the normalization of diplomatic relations between the two countries through
common efforts. Meanwhile, China established diplomatic relations and strengthened friendly
cooperative ties with other Western countries successively. This further brought about a new
situation in China's foreign affairs.

6. Removing External Interference, Promoting China's Reunification

Hong Kong and Macao have been inseparable parts of China since ancient times. China does
not recognize unequal treaties imposed by imperialist powers. Regarding the issue of Hong
Kong and Macao left over by history, China has constantly held the position of peaceful
settlement through negotiations at a proper opportunity. The international situation is
experiencing a great change, and peace and development have become the mainstream of the
time. China will continue to adhere to the independent and peaceful foreign policy and to make
greater contribution to the cause of safeguarding world peace and promoting human progress,
and to building socialism with Chinese characteristics.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINA'S FOREIGN POLICY

 China has unswervingly pursued an independent foreign policy of peace. The basic
objectives of the policy center on safeguarding national independence and state
sovereignty, and creating an international environment favorable to its reform, opening
and modernization efforts, as well as maintaining world peace and promoting common
development. The policy is based on the following main elements:
  Maintaining independence. We are principled in international affairs, determining our
own position and policies in accordance with the merits of each case and never yielding
to pressure from major powers, nor entering into alliance with any major power or power
bloc.
 Maintaining world peace. China does not participate in the arms race, nor does it seek
military expansion. China resolutely opposes hegemonism, power politics, aggression
and expansion in whatever form, as well as encroachments perpetrated by one country
on the sovereignty and territorial integrity of another, or interference in the internal affairs
of another nation under the pretext of ethnic, religious or human rights issues.
 Friendly relations and cooperation. China sincerely hopes to establish and develop
friendly ties and cooperative relationship with all countries on the basis of the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. Relations with other states are never based on
social systems or ideologies.
 Good-neighborly and friendly relations. China has vigorously advanced friendly relations
with neighboring countries, worked diligently for regional peace and stability, and
promoted regional economic cooperation. Our nation stands for fair and reasonable
settlements of border and territorial disputes through negotiations and consultations,
including the offshore territory. Disputes defying immediate solutions can be temporarily
shelved in the spirit of seeking common ground while putting aside differences. They
should never be allowed to stand in the way of the development of normal state-to-state
relations.
 Enhanced unity and cooperation with developing countries. This factor has always been
a cornerstone of our foreign policy. We attach great importance to the development of
comprehensive friendly relations and cooperation with other developing countries. We
have vigorously explored ways to engage in mutually complementary cooperation with
other developing nations in the economic, trade, scientific and technological sectors, and
have expanded consultations and cooperation with them on international issues in order
to maintain the rights and interests of all developing countries.
 China is open to both developed and developing countries and has engaged in
extensive international cooperation on the basis of equality and mutual benefit to
promote common development. China, the world's largest developing country and a
permanent member of the UN Security Council, stands ready to make unremitting efforts
to ensure world peace and development, and the establishment of a new fair and
equitable international political and economic order based on peace and stability.

ROLE WILL DEVELOPING COUNTRIES PLAY IN CHINA’S FOREIGN POLICY

Developing countries will be a cornerstone of China’s foreign policy under Xi. Developing
countries and emerging powers are China’s reliable friends and sincere partners. While not
forgetting its old friends, China must actively expand its development of new partnerships.
These relationships support China’s overseas interests and investments but are not motivated
by strategic concerns. Xi’s first trip after assuming power was to Russia, which indicates that
Beijing prioritizes emerging countries, as China is one itself. This visit also testifies to China’s
emphasis on great-power relationships.
The trip aroused speculation that China was seeking to unite with Russia against the United
States, but these accusations are baseless. Beijing prioritizes its relationship with Moscow for a
very practical reason: China shares a longer border with Russia than with any other neighboring
country. There was not a single indication that the Chinese president visited Moscow for
strategic reasons. Likewise, there have been accusations that Xi’s recent visits to Latin America
are part of a strategic plan to undermine U.S. hegemony in the region. In reality, these visits
have no strategic significance or considerations whatsoever. They represent comprehensive
global diplomacy intended to establish a new, more balanced type of development relationship
among partners. They are certainly not aimed at containing the United States.

ARE U.S.-CHINA RELATIONS LIKELY TO IMPROVE?

The core of the U.S.-China relationship has long been competition, and Washington will not
abandon competing with Beijing. China, however, has decided that the key to its future is not to
fight a war with the United States and certainly not to claim U.S. turf but instead to establish
better relations between the two countries so that China can develop itself and create the
necessary conditions for peace.

I am cautiously optimistic about the prospects of Beijing realizing this goal and the United States
and China establishing a new type of great-power relationship. There is cause for hope in that
the long-term future of this relationship will be decided by the people, and the Chinese and
American people want the same thing: to live in peace and prosperity. Given the increasing
bilateral connections between China and the United States, there will be more and more issues
of mutual interest.

However, I am cautious because there are always those on both sides that want competition
and confrontation, as their thinking remains rooted in Cold War ideology. There are also
contradictions and frictions as well as profound disagreements on values and interests between
the two countries that could potentially lead to difficulties in the bilateral relationship.

Both sides will need to make concerted efforts to avoid these potential pitfalls and establish a
more productive relationship, such as reducing political interference in U.S.-China relations and
instead letting market forces rule the relationship. The United States should abandon its
discriminative economic policy toward China, which has not changed since the Cold War, and
both countries should allow market forces to decide the fate of their economic cooperation.

In addition, the United States and China should strengthen bilateral communication and contact
at all levels, from heads of state to specific government departments and civil society actors.
This increased interaction will allow the U.S. and Chinese governments to form a consensus. It
will also establish a risk management mechanism to not only reduce points of friction but also
develop understanding between the two countries as well as a way to manage crises and
prevent tensions from escalating.

The two countries will need to respect each other’s core interests and avoid challenging each
other’s bottom lines on these issues. For China, these interests are Taiwan, the South China
Sea, Tibet, Xinjiang, and the Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands territorial dispute. This also means that
China must not challenge the United States’ position as the global leader, and the United States
must not challenge the ruling position of the Chinese Communist Party.

4.0 UNITED KINGDOM - FOREIGN POLICY

Today Britain seeks to "pursue an active and activist foreign policy, working with other
countries and strengthening the rules-based international system in support of our values....
We will use our global diplomatic network to protect and promote UK interests worldwide.
Retain and build up Britain’s international influence in specific areas in order to shape a
distinctive British foreign policy geared to the national interest."

The UK intends to continue a strong, close and frank relationship with the United States that
delivers concrete benefits for both sides, and to advance the British national interest through
an effective EU policy in priority areas, engaging constructively while protecting national
sovereignty. The UK seeks to deliver more effective and modernised international institutions,
particularly the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the European Union, the United Nations,
the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the Council of Europe. In
addition, it was working to strengthen the Commonwealth as a focus for promoting democratic
values, human rights, climate resilient development, conflict prevention and trade; while using
soft power as a tool of UK foreign policy; promote British values, including human rights; and
contribute to the welfare of developing countries and their citizens.

Britain is home to the world’s largest foreign exchange market, its biggest insurance market
and one of the two largest centres in the world for fund management and international legal
services. The UK is at the heart of the world’s largest single market, ranked the easiest place
in Europe to do business and the number one location for European headquarters.

The continuity and continuous development of British Foreign Policy, now and again distorted,
or even reversed, by dynastic interests, by careless diplomacy, by erratic statesmanship, by
ecclesiastical dissensions, by foreign rivalry, by stress of circumstance, had always reverted
to the course prescribed by nature and approved by experience. England, this "precious gem
set in the silver sea," held a post of vantage unparalleled among the nations. "True to herself"
and to her natural destinies, she endured and prospered. This fortress-isle of Britain, safely
intrenched by stormy seas, confronting the broadest face of the Continent, and, later on,
almost surrounding it with her fleets, was, and was not, a part of Europe according as she
willed.

First appearing in the dawn of history as the mysterious Ultima Thule, planted somewhere out
in the Western Ocean, she grew to observe more and more closely from her watch-tower the
strife of the Continent, and, as her expanding interests dictated, to interfere as a belligerent,
an ally, or an arbiter. Yet deeply implicated as she became in the Balance of Power in
Europe, she never lost sight of her strong position as an extra-Continental Power,—a position
which, as her navy, her commerce, and her colonies grew, expanded into that of a world-wide
maritime empire. The development, the oscillation, and the reconciliation of these two
principles of national policy long formed the story of British foreign policy.
By 2011 Britain was consciously shifting UK diplomatic weight to the East and to the South; to
the economic titans and emerging economies of Latin America, the Gulf and of Asia, where it
have not been as active in recent years as circumstances warranted. These are the markets
of the future, and as the old club of so-called developed nations gives way to a wider circle of
international decision-making, they may also come to hold the balance of influence in
international affairs. Britain must pursue a distinctive British foreign policy that is aligned with
Britain’s other national interests and geared to security and prosperity. This requires Britain to
look East as never before, to new sources of opportunity and prosperity and for solutions to
threats to our security.

Britain was not turning away from Europe or from the indispensable alliance with the United
States. America will remain our single closest ally and Britain will be an active and activist
member of the European Union. Britain will support its enlargement, the effective use of its
collective weight in the world, the strengthening of its single market, and proposals to promote
economic growth.

The Commonwealth is now a unique association of 54 independent states (the newest of

which, Rwanda, joined in 2009) consulting and co-operating in the common interests of their
peoples and in the promotion of international understanding. It comprises a diverse range of
countries from all continents of the world (apart from Antarctica). In the 60 years since the
Declaration, the relevance and value of the relationship has been reaffirmed and consolidated
repeatedly. Today it is a growing organisation of fifty-four countries, spanning every continent
and containing a quarter of the world’s governments and every major world religion. 800
million Hindus, 500 million Muslims and 400 million Christians live in the Commonwealth. It
contains India, one of the world’s most populous countries, and Nauru, one of its smallest.

KEY PRINCIPLES FOR BRITISH FOREIGN POLICY

1. Advance the Special Relationship

The heart of a Conservative-led foreign policy must be the Special Relationship, the most
important and successful partnership of modern times. It is the beating heart of the free world
and the engine that drives the global war against Islamist terrorism. Under Obama and Brown,
the Anglo–American alliance has been weakened through a combination of Washington’s
indifference and a series of strategic errors by London, including the appalling release last
year of Libyan Lockerbie bomber Abdelbaset Ali al-Megrahi. Disappointingly, the U.S.
President has never even mentioned Britain in a single major speech, both before and since
entering the White House.

2. Stand Up to the Rise of a European Super-state

The rise of a European Union super state, with a common foreign and security policy as well
as a European security and defense policy, directly threatens both British and American
interests. The Obama Administration should be sent the message that its strong support for a
 federal Europe is misplaced and that a Conservative government will fight against any efforts
by Brussels to take further powers away from London.

3. Invest in Defense and Be Prepared to Use Force Where Necessary

Under the Conservatives, Britain should be prepared to wield military might independent of
the EU and with the appropriate level of defense spending to back it up. Cameron has shown
a strong commitment to the 10,000-troop British mission in Afghanistan, rejecting the notion of
a timetable for the withdrawal of NATO troops. He should also be prepared to use force if
necessary alongside the U.S. to halt the rise of a nuclear-armed Iran, in addition to pressing
for a range of tougher European and United Nations Security Council political, economic, and
military sanctions against Tehran.

4. Support the Cause of Freedom on the World Stage

Finally, a Conservative government should pursue a foreign policy that, at its core, supports
freedom across the globe. Such a commitment includes supporting the aspirations of
opposition movements in tyrannies such as Iran, Burma, and Zimbabwe and standing up to
dictatorial regimes that suppress their own people and in some instances also act as state
sponsors of terrorism.

CHALLENGES TO UK FOREIGN POLICY

1. The Middle East

First is how to stem the chaos from the multiple interconnected challenges across the Middle
East. The next UK government will be one of the parties negotiating the final terms of a potential
nuclear deal with Iran, which, if agreed, could serve as a prelude to broader negotiations on
regional security.

But an agreement could also lead to an intensification of the conflict between Saudi Arabia and
its Sunni allies, on the one hand, and Iran and its allies in Syria, Lebanon and Yemen, on the
other, with Iraq caught somewhere in the middle. The UK, along with other permanent members
of the UN Security Council, could find itself serving as one of the guarantors of the security of
the Gulf states. Any UK government is also likely to maintain its role conducting air strikes as
part of the international coalition against IS.

Should the regional situation deteriorate further, the UK could be pushed into increasing the
numbers of migrants that it accepts on to its shores from the region (currently in the hundreds,
swelling potentially to the tens of thousands). It will also be a key contributor to the maritime
operations seeking to stem the flood of refugees across the Mediterranean.

2. Russian sanctions

Second, should economic sanctions, imposed on Russia after its actions in Ukraine, be
renewed? If the ceasefire holds in eastern Ukraine, then pressure will build for the EU to lift
 these sanctions, even if the Minsk agreement is not fully implemented and the Ukrainian
government is unable to re-establish control of its border with Russia. There are divergent views
across the EU over the value and efficacy of sanctions. Angela Merkel has taken the lead in
building a fragile consensus that has held up to now. But she will need British support if she is to
maintain a tough EU line on President Putin.

3. Climate change

Alongside these two major security considerations lie a number of other important international
challenges. Third on the list is the climate summit in Paris in December. The UK has long been
a leader in tackling climate change, and its ideas on how to prevent the growth in global use of
coal will be especially important in Paris. A deal is crucial to have the best chance of keeping
global temperature rises to within two degrees by the end of the century.

4. Trade talks

The fourth priority will be the completion of the negotiations to create a Transatlantic Trade and
Investment Partnership (TTIP) by early 2016, before the US presidential elections enter their
decisive phase. The coalition government has been one of the main champions of TTIP, seeing
it as a debt-free economic stimulus to the UK and Europe, as well as a geopolitical
counterweight to China's growing international economic power. But the agreement faces fierce
popular opposition across the EU including in the UK, where a majority of voters suspects that
US companies will use it to undermine European social and environmental standards.

5. China

In contrast, British and European voters appear indifferent to the fifth major challenge: the
growing influence of China. The UK government has welcomed Chinese investment into EU
markets - in 2014 the UK took $5.1bn (£3.3bn) out of a total of $18bn (£11.7bn), the highest in
the EU. But China's growing importance as a source of investment coincides with an
increasingly assertive Chinese approach towards its claims of sovereignty over several small
islands in the South China Sea.

While the UK would prefer to focus on China's economic potential, Japan is seeking greater
engagement from the UK as a security partner in the region. And with the United States serving
as the main guarantor of regional security, the next UK government could be forced to take
some difficult decisions on whether to risk economic opportunity on the altar of alliance
solidarity.

5. INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

There are three main determinants of foreign policy: people, history and geography :
 People- identity, values, aspirations and skills
 History- circumstances, opportunities and constraints of the past
 Geography- location, resources and neighbourhood

Principles Of India’s Foreign Policy

While keeping in view the fundamental objectives of India’s foreign policy listed above, India has
adopted and pursued certain principles to realize these objectives. Some of these principles are
given in Article 51 under the Directive Principles of Policy in the Constitution Of India. These
principles are: promotion of international peace and security; friendly relations with other
countries; respect for international law and international organizations like the UN; and finally
the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The principles of India’s foreign policy and its
objectives are closely interlinked with each other. These principles have stood the test of time
and are ingrained in the international law and India’s foreign policy practice. Some of these
principles are discussed below.

1. Panchsheel

Indian Policy makers understood the linkage between peace and development and survival of
mankind. In view of the destruction caused by two world wars, they realized that for the
progress of a nation a durable world peace was needed. Without global peace, social and
economic development is likely to be pushed to the background. Thus, the founder of India’s
foreign policy, Nehru gave utmost importance to world peace in his policy planning. For him,
India desired peaceful and friendly relations with all countries, particularly the big powers and
the neighboring nations. While signing a peace agreement with China; he advocated adherence
to five guiding principles known as Panchsheel. Panchsheel was signed on 28 April, 1954 and
since then it has become a guiding principle of India’ bilateral relations with countries also.

Panchsheel includes the following five principles of foreign policy:

 Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.

 Non-aggression against each other.
 Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
 Equality and mutual benefit.
 Peaceful co-existence.

These principles of Panchsheel were later incorporated in the Bandung Declaration, signed in
the Afro-Asian Conference held in 1955 in Indonesia. They are the core principles of Non-
alignment and still guide the conduct of India’s foreign policy.

2. Policy of Non-alignment

Non-alignment is the most important feature of India’s foreign policy. Its core element is to
maintain independence in foreign affairs by not joining any military alliance formed by the USA
and Soviet Union, which emerged as an important aspect of cold war politics after the Second
World War. Non-alignment should not be confused with neutrality or non-involvement in
international affairs or isolationism. It was a positive and dynamic concept. It postulates taking
an independent stand on international issues according to the merits of each case but at the
same time not committing to coming under the influence of any military bloc. Thus, keeping
away from the military alliances and super power bocks was a necessary condition for the
independence of foreign policy.

3. Policy of Resisting Colonialism, Imperialism, Racism

India has been victim of colonialism and racism and was as such opposed to these evils in any
form. India considers colonialism and imperialism as the threat to international peace and
security India was the first to bring the issue of Apartheid in the UN in 1946. India raised her
voice for the independence of Indonesia and organized Asian Relations Conference for this
purpose. Due to India’s consistent efforts through NAM and other international forums, 14
African countries were liberated from the yoke of colonialism in 1964. India made sincere efforts
to end the scourge of apartheid in South Africa. At India’s initiative, NAM set up the Africa Fund
(Action for Resisting Imperialism, Colonialism and Apartheid) in 1986 to help the frontline states,
which were victims of aggression of South Africa for supporting the cause of fight against
Apartheid. India made generous contribution to this fund. The end of racialism in South Africa in
1990 was a great success for Indian policy.

4. Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes

One of the core elements of India’s foreign policy is its unflinching faith in the political solution
and peaceful settlement of international disputes. This principle has been included in the
Constitution of India, under the Directive Principles of State Policy as well as in the Charter of
the UN. India has played leading role in the resolution of Korean conflict and supported
negotiated settlement of Palestine issue, Kashmir problem, border problems with neighboring
countries and other such disputes and problems. At present, India is in favour of resolution of
peaceful settlement of Iranian nuclear issue, problem of democratic upsurge in Middle East and
so on. India is always against foreign military intervention for resolving international problems.
This principle continues to be the cornerstone of India’s policy.

5. Support to UN, International Law and a Just and Equal World Order

India has deep respect for the international law and/or the principles of sovereign equality of
nations and non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations as espoused by the UN.
India has supported the cause of disarmament pursued by the UN. In 1988, India proposed a
very ambitious programme of nuclear disarmament before the UN. Though, this proposal was
not accepted by the other members of the UN, India stands committed to the cause of universal
disarmament even today. India has played a key role in preserving world peace by helping in
the decolonization process, and through active participation in UN peacekeeping activities. In
order to make the composition of the Security Council more realistic and democratic, India has
proposed and supported the reform of Security Council and other UN agencies. India is one of
the claimants of permanent membership of the Security Council.

India’s Five Foreign Policy Goals

These public articulations, combined with the nature, outcomes, and timings of Modi’s
diplomatic activities, offer a clear picture of India’s priorities and strategic objectives. They are
essentially five-fold:

 Prioritizing an integrated neighbourhood; “Neighbourhood First.”

 Leveraging international partnerships to promote India’s domestic development.
 Ensuring a stable and multipolar balance of power in the Indo-Pacific; “Act East.”
  Dissuading Pakistan from supporting terrorism.
 Advancing Indian representation and leadership on matters of global governance.

These are the yardsticks against which the international activities of this government – or, for
that matter, any Indian government – should be measured. In each case, it is important to
assess the progress made, the setbacks experienced, and the long-term or structural
challenges that will continue to confront India.

POLARIZED PERSPECTIVES

A broad overview of the Indian government’s foreign policy, particularly over the past year,
ought to clearly show not just a strategic vision, but progress along every one of India’s major
objectives. It also reveals some of the frustrations and structural limitations that confront the
Indian government, and are likely to confront it for many years going forward. They include the
twin spectres of nationalism and Chinese inroads in India’s neighbourhood, insufficient
commercial integration with Southeast and East Asia, gaps between diplomatic efforts and
agents of domestic implementation, political resistance to engagement with Pakistan, and
relative inexperience with leading on matters of global governance. India clearly has to do a
much better job remaining vigilant in its own neighbourhood, managing or proactively
addressing the domestic political fallout of its Pakistan policy, and better coordinating external
outcomes with internal development, all the while raising its ambitions and improving its ability
to follow through.

What ultimately matters in any assessment, however, is the broad direction or orientation of
India’s international relations, and its implementation. This is often at odds with public discourse,
which often views developments in isolation and sees facts being used to fit preconceptions. For
the television media in particular, Pakistan bashing has become a full-time preoccupation. Of
equal concern is the unnecessary polarisation of much of the foreign policy discourse. Politics
ought to end at the water’s edge. Unfortunately, the last decade has witnessed more fractious
and self-serving discourse on many areas in which there has in fact been remarkable continuity
and consensus. The changing media environment is in part responsible for this, as is the
behaviour of the opposition parties – both past and present. Evaluating India’s advancement of
its international interests will require a clearer assessment of its objectives, the progress made,
and India’s continuing limitations. That challenge will be all the more difficult in a fast-evolving
and unpredictable world.

CHALLENGES THAT INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY

Challenges that India's foreign policy faces are as under :-

 The preservation of unity and territorial integrity of the nation is given highest priority.
 The foreign policy to ensure an environment of peace and stability at regional and global
stage wherein it can focus on its economic progress.
  It should help in creating national defence capability based on indigenous assets and
technologies based on both indigenous and diversified external sources.
 Forging regional co-operation to ensure mutually beneficial relation between South East
Asian and other groups to ensure its security and economic sustenance.
 Strengthen UN, and attain its rightful place in the organisation to play more active role in
the world affairs.

As the after effect of Global economic crisis, the views of developing nations are being taken
into account in formulating policies at international organisations like World Bank and IMF. India
along with China emerged as one of the core state in the emerging world order, its role is crucial
for ensuring and maintaining balance of power, economic growth and security in Asia.

6. PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY

“Our Foreign Policy is one of the friendliness and goodwill towards all the nations of the world
We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation. We believe in the principle
of honesty and fairplay in national and international dealings. Pakistan will never be found
lacking in upholding priciples of the United Nations’ Charter.” (Quaid-e-Azam, Feb: 1948)

Pakistan in terms of population statistics is the second largest Muslim Country after Indonesia; it
is also the only Muslim country with the status of being a nuclear power and hence plays an
important part in International Politics. Pakistan has a direct, independent foreign policy
specifically when it comes to developing nuclear weapons, military purchases from foreign
countries and other issues which are important to its national interests. Pakistan has a great
advantage of having a strategic geo-political location in the center of the world's major maritime
oil supply lines, and is located near the oil rich central Asian states. Pakistan is also an essential
member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and a vital non NATO ally in the War
against terrorism. The state also has a highly orderly military; in fact it is the world's eighth
largest military force.

In history, Pakistan has had difficulty relations with India, specifically because of the central
issue of Kashmir; it has even fought two wars because of this reason. Conversely it has had
strong allied relationships with its other neighboring countries like Afghanistan, Iran and China; it
has also had solid security and economic interests in the Persian Gulf and long stretching two-
sided relations with US and other Western states.

Because of the suspicion of Soviet expansion, Pakistan has had strong relations with both
United States of America and China during most of the Cold-War. Even today they are close
friends of the nation. Coming to the Foreign policy of Pakistan well it is centered on the peace
and security objectives at regional and global levels; its main purpose is socio-economic
progress of the state. In affirmation with the UN charter and international duties Pakistan seeks
alliance and tries to cooperate in its foreign relations on the grounds of sovereignty, respect and
benefit, noninterference and peaceable settling of conflicts.

Pakistan's foreign policy is guided by its colorful history, its strategic location and the aims of its
people. It has a proactive foreign policy, due to the challenges it faces, even though there is little
continuity, change at times is also given importance. The policy at times is reactive to
international happenings. The main objectives on the foreign policy include development of
good relations with Muslim states, superpowers and neighbors as well, to protect the security
and strategic interests of the nation, to aid the resolution of the key conflict of Jammu and
Kashmir according to the needs of the Kashmiri people and the UN resolution, to promote a
progressive, democratic image of Pakistan and finally to promote the state's economic and
commercial interests.

Historically the country has had friendly relations with all Arab and Muslim countries under the
OIC organization. Other than Muslim and Arab countries China and US area also allies of
Pakistan. Coming to its Rivals, Pakistan has fought 3 wars with India, while Pakistan an Israel
have no diplomatic relations. The continuing conflict of Kashmir is what creates diversity of
opinion and makes alliance very difficult in both these rival states.

BASIC GOALS OF PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY

1.Maintenance of territorial integrity.

2.Maintenance of its political independence.

3.Acceleration of social and economic development.

4.Strengthening its place on the globe.

5.Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.

DETERMINANTS OF PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY

1. Security,

2. Ideology

3. National Interests

4. Diplomacy

5. Public Opinion

6. Decision making

PRINCIPLES OF PAKSITAN’S FOREIGN POLICY

Following are the principles of Pakistan's Policy:

1. Protection of freedom and sovereignty

Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of millions of Muslims ,like any other country, she
also considers with deep regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not
allow any country to harm its freedom . Therefore, the principle of protection of independence
and sovereignty is the corner stone of Pakistan's Foreign Policy.
2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries

Pakistan always tries to establish cordial and friendly relations with Muslim countries. It has
always moved its concern against Israel, India and U.S.S.R capturing Palestine, Kashmir and
Afghanistan respectively. She has shouldered high responsibilities and used her influence for
safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active member of the Islamic
Conference.

3. Non Interference in Internal Affairs of Other countries

Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially its
neighboring countries, on the basis of universally acknowledge the principle of national
sovereignty, on use of force, on-interference in the internal affairs of state.

4. Implementation of U.N Charter

Pakistan's policy is to act upon UN Charter and to support all moves by the UN to implement it.
Pakistan has been the member of UN since the year of its birth.

5. Promotion of World Peace

Pakistan policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs against any
country. Neither does it support any such action. Pakistan has always held that the international
disputes should be settled through negotiations rather than non-battlefield.

6. NON-ALIGNMENT

Pakistan follows the policy of Non-Alignment i.e. to keep away from alignment with any big
power bloc and avoids taking sides in the cold war. It has also given up its association with
SEATO and CENTO and was included in NAM in 1979.

7. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination

Pakistan is a staunch supporter of the right of self-determination and has been in the fore front
of efforts to eliminate colonialism. It has advocated the right of self determination of Kashmir.

8. Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament

Pakistan is deeply conscious of the fact that international peace and security cannot be
achieved and sustained in the world with arms. Disarmament is the imperative condition for truly
durable peace in the world. Pakistan has a vital stake in promotion of disarmament both in the
nuclear and conventional fields. It is included in the principles of its foreign policy that a
collective endeavour by countries at the regional level to promote disarmament and enhance
security at the lowest possible level of armaments is an indispensable result to their advocacy of
global disarmament.

9. Member of International Organization

Pakistan had become the member of the British Commonwealth with the time of its
establishment. In addition it is the member of United Nations (U.N), Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM), Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO),
South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC), Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN), and D-Eight. Being a member of International Organizations the objectives of
Pakistan are to struggle for world peace, to unify the Muslim countries and to promote regional
co-operation.

FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES

In light of the guiding principles laid down by the founding fathers and the constitution as also
aspirations of the people of Pakistan, the objectives of foreign policy can be summarized as
under:

 Promotion Pakistan as a dynamic, progressive, moderate, and democratic Islamic

country.
 Developing friendly relations with all countries of the world, especially major powers and
immediate neighbours.
 Safeguarding national security and geo-strategic interests, including Kashmir.
 Consolidating our commercial and economic cooperation with international community.
 Safeguarding the interests of Pakistani Diaspora abroad.
 Ensuring optimal utilization of national resources for regional and international
cooperation.

FEATURES OF PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY:

1. protection of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Pakistan

The 1st feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is protection of independence, sovereignty and
territorial integrity of Pakistan, primary concern of Pakistan and for that matter every state is its
security and survival. This is for key concern of Pakistan’s foreign policy and Pakistan is in a
position all the times to conduct its foreign policy and domestic affairs on the basis of its national
interests and goals as defined by the leadership. Therefore attention has to be paid to the
security affairs. When we talk about security there are couple of things that have to be kept in
mind.

First, for security diplomacy is must that you interact with other states and develop relations with
other states and you try to deal with the issues with peaceful means through negotions by
opening different channels of communications, so we can say that diplomacy is compulsory for
the security of a country. For security we also need strong trained and professional and
equipped military although problems and issues should be resolved peacefully through
diplomatic means but there are some situations where non peaceful method are resorted too,
when some other state may impose aggression on you then you need strong military to deal
with the situation.
Along with that you also need security arrangements to deal with the conditions. In addition to
military you need all kinds of security arrangements. An integral part of security system is social
mobilization. You involve people in security and defense of the country because modern warfare
is not limited to the border areas or to particular or specific battle fields. When modern war
breaks out all parts of the country becomes the battle field because you can use Air Force, a
country can use missiles and a lot of other ways therefore a perfect defense requires that the
military must enjoy the sport of the nation as a whole. If nation as a whole stands up to the
security challenge only then you can meet with the threats to security and sovereignty of your
country.

Pakistan’s relations and problems with India have greatly influenced its foreign policy options
and security issues, but we will talk about Indo-Pak relations later on.

2. Relations with all states:

The second feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is the relations with all states. Pakistan
maintains its relations with all kinds of states irrespective with the type of the political system;
these states are adopting that s not Pakistan’s concern, so Pakistan maintains relations with all
kinds of states and the relations at the international level are maintained on the bases of
common interest, what you need is certain areas of common interest. Those commonalities of
interests are the bases of good relations. So if you have more common interests between
Pakistan and other country relations would improve. Another thing that influences the relations
is the relationship must provide some benefits; some rewards to both sides, relationship cannot
be one way traffic. Let’s say if Pakistan has relations with Iran then that relationship must be
viewed by the both govts as serving their interests. So the basic criteria for Pakistan’s friendly
relations with other countries is that there must be some common areas identified to work
together and this relationship must be of use to benefit to both the countries. Another
consideration which affects Pakistan’s relations s non interference with each others affairs.
Pakistan does not interfere in the internal domestic affairs of all the states with which it has
relationship. Similarly Pakistan will not like other states interfering in it domestic and internal
affairs.

 Relations with Major Powers:

The nature of relations with major powers has varied. Here we can briefly mention Pakistan’s
relation with the major powers to have an idea of the fact that Pakistan conduct relationship with
different and diverse types of countries.

 United States

First let’s say few words about United States, Pakistan-US relations have been generally
friendly, smooth and cordial but problems developed from time to time and there are issues on
which Pakistan and United States do not see eye to eye but despite differences they still work
together for example some areas of differences are on nuclear issue, this is an area on which
Pakistan and the United states have differences and there are certain other issues on which
both countries have reservations like arms sales, Kashmir etc. However there are common
grounds and shared areas on the bases of which Pakistan have maintained smooth relationship
with the United Sates.

 China

Since the 60s China proved to be a reliable trustworthy and consistent friend over the periods of
decades and despite the fact Pakistan and China have different domestic political systems, their
domestic priorities are different but still they maintain very close cooperation and interaction.
China had provided affective and consistent economic assistance to Pakistan and it had also
contributed to the industrial development of Pakistan and in this context it is also important to
note that China had also made significant contribution to Pakistan’s Defense Industry and it also
extends support on diplomatic forums and on Kashmir Chinese policy is symphatic to Pakistan’s
position and emphasizes a peaceful resolution of the disputes which Pakistan has with India.
Pakistan supported China diplomatically in the UN and the Outside. Both the countries have
developed close relations in the areas including science and technology, environment and
trade.

 Russia:

With Soviet Union before 1991 and now Russia Pakistan has working relations with Russia but
frequent problems remained unsolved during the period of Cold War. Within the South Asian
context Russia had always been remained favorable to India at the cost of its relations with
Pakistan. On Kashmir issue, her attitude has been ranged from pro India to neutrality.

Despite these kinds of problems Pakistan and Russia have working relations and they regularly
interact and try to expand the areas of common interests. Some economic relations
strengthened the bilateral relations when Russia provided economic and technological
assistance to Pakistan in establishing steel mill in Karachi. Russia had also helped Pakistan
from time to time in oil exploration. In post-Cold War era, Pakistan is trying to normalize the
relations.

So what we have seen here is that Pakistan has maintained relations with different countries on
the bases of sovereign equality, mutuality of interests, shared goals and consideration which
give benefits and rewards to both sides.

3. Economic Issues, Trade, Investment:

The third important feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy relates o economic issues, trade and
investment. These issues are important all the times even in the past but now for the last 10
years economic issues, trade and investment have gained a lot of importance in the foreign
policy of all the countries and Pakistan also pursued that objective. For that purpose Pakistan
deals with other countries and several other international financial institutions in order to obtain
economic assistance for its development projects and to obtain loans which Pakistan gets from
international financial institutions and also from the states. International financial institutions may
be described as World Bank, IMF, Asian Development Bank and Islamic Development Bank.
The issue of trade that is Pakistan goods go abroad is also important then investment Pakistan
has been striving hard for attracting international investment for different kinds of industrial and
other projects in the country because if you obtain international financial support and investment
it speeds up the process of industrialization and economic development.

Issue of transfer of technology to Pakistan, issue of favorable trade that the trade is done in a
manner that it provides advantage to Pakistan and also humanitarian assistance. Sometimes
there are natural calamities in Pakistan and these calamities are in rest of the World. So
Pakistan extends technical and humanitarian assistance to other countries when they face
problems like Earthquakes, Floods and other problems. Similarly when Pakistan is confronted
with these kinds of problems it also seeks assistance from abroad. Economic relations are both
bilateral and multi-lateral. Technology, trade, access to market and investment are keys to the
cordial relations between the two countries. Pakistan is also trying to establish its relations with
other countries on the same footings.

4. Muslim States:

The 4th feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is its relations with the Muslim states. Pakistan
attaches great importance to developing relations and the ties with the Muslim States. It is one
of the basic principles of Pakistan’s foreign policy but we are not going to discuss this
relationship in detail at this stage. We will devote one of our lectures to this aspect that is
Pakistan’s relation with Muslim World and in that lecture we will discuss this topic in detail.
Being Islamic country, Pakistan has been always in search of good relations with the Muslim
countries. It has been a central point in the ideology of Pakistan even before Independence.

5. Solidarity with the Developing States:

The next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is solidarity with the Developing States. Pakistan is
a developing country, trying to develop itself in all fields of life in economic development in
industry and in other areas. Pakistan had been concerned with the issues and problems of the
states of Asia, Africa and Latin America. As it is developing countries it is well aware of the
problems of underdevelopment, poverty, disease, famine, civil strife and border disputes,
refugees and drug addiction. Pakistan has always cooperated with the developing countries so
that they can meet with the problems of underdevelopment and poverty. In fact if you examine
and study the social, economic and cultural problems of states of Asia and Africa and Latin
America then you will find a lot of common problems, problems of underdevelopment, poverty,
illiteracy, civil strifes, interstate wars, human migration and the problem of refugees. These are
the issues which are common in varying degree in the developing World. So Pakistan works at
two levels to deal with this kind of issue.

1. Pakistan raises these kinds of issues or the problems of the developing countries at the
international forums like the United Nation and other forums and urges the industrialized and
developed countries to contribute in solving these problems in the developing World because
peace cannot be maintained in the international system if half of humanity is suffering with these
kinds of problems. Stable peace can only be possible if globe as a whole prospers and
develops. The disparity in the international system is reduced. This is one level on which
Pakistan is working for the developing countries.
2. When Pakistan urges other developing countries to collaborate with each other that is
Cooperation among developing countries in the areas of economic and technical assistance,
trade and diplomacy. They can help and cooperate with each other for addressing the problems
that I have highlighted. Since problems are common then you should learn from each other
experience, you could also transfer technology from one developing country to an other. I give
you an example, in Pakistan literacy rate is low but there are developing countries where
literacy rate is very high, you can take the example of Sri Lanka a neighboring country of
Pakistan where the literacy rate is over 90 percent therefore Pakistan can learn from their
experience that how they have dealt with this problem and then Pakistan can also adopt the
methods suitable to our conditions to raise literacy. Similarly Pakistan can help other country in
the areas where Pakistan had made progress. So the issue is that for improving your conditions
you should not look towards the developed and civilized World but you should also make effort
and take certain steps to deal with the situation.

6.United Nations:

Next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy relates to its membership with UN and other
international bodies. Pakistan joined the UN as a new member on Sept. 30, 1947. And since
then it has commitment to the UN Charter and is an active member in UN bodies. One Pakistani
has served as the president of the UN General Assembly and Pakistan has been a non
permanent member of the UN Security Council for 6 times and the latest membership for the SC
is the year 2003-04. In addition to the UN Pakistan is also a member of other international
bodies and within UN Pakistan has been active in different specialized agencies and organs of
the UN. An important role played by Pakistan relates to Peace Keeping Mission. It has been a
part of UN Peace-Keeping Missions all over the world. UN sends its forces to different countries
for peace keeping where conflicts exists and UN doesn’t have its own forces and then the UN
sends the forces from different member countries and Pakistan has been contributing in this
mission by sending its Army, Police personnel and others for UN peace keeping operations.
Even today Pakistani army and other official are serving under UN to different countries which
help Pakistan to build its image at the international level.

7.Anti-Colonialism, Right of Self Determination

Next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is Pakistan’s support to anti-colonialism and opposition
to the racial discrimination that existed in the past and sometimes it now manifest in certain
parts of the World. As we have been suffering from colonial rule after our independence and we
always support decolonization for Asia and Africa. Pakistan always opposed racial
discrimination in the World for example Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) suffered from apartheid or racial
discrimination where white minority was ruling the black population by force and Pakistan was
the part of the global effort to eradicate this kind of injustice and ultimately Rhodesia became an
independent state with majority rule under the name of Zimbabwe, We can talk about South
Africa where similar case existed, Namibia another case of racial discrimination etc. So in all
three examples majority rule was established and Pakistan supported UN effort to promote the
principle of equality and opposed racial discrimination.
Pakistan has always supported right of self determination for the people and the areas whose
political future is not as yet settled. It is not merely in Kashmir that Pakistan supports the right of
self-determination, Pakistan supports the Palestinian cause their national rights and their
freedom, Pakistan had also supported very strongly Algeria’s freedom movement because that
was another case of right of self-determination. In Afghanistan when Soviet troops marched in
December 1979 and occupied Afghanistan. Pakistan opposition to Soviet occupation and
support to Soviet resistance to Soviet occupation was part of its commitment to the right of self
determination and the presence of foreign troops in a country.

8.Arms Control:

The next feature of foreign policy is Arms Control. Pakistan is not in favour of spread of
weapons and arms in the international system because it diverts resources to non development
purposes and if arms and weapons proliferate there is a danger of wars and conflict therefore
Pakistan had joined global efforts to control weapons and that control. Pakistan believes that
arms races to be controlled, resources to be used for human development. It has spoken for this
cause in the UN and the outside. It opposed arms race not only at the superpower level
because arms race in the past was at the super power level, I am talking about the period
before the 1991 when Soviet Union and United States were competing so there was an arms
race between them. But also at the regional and bilateral levels both for conventional and non
conventional arms. It stressed that the root causes of arms races should be curtailed. Pakistan’s
point of view is that the best way to control arms proliferation is to address the issues, the
causes the factors which contributes to arms race, the factors that lead a country to obtain
weapons and to engage in wars, conflicts and similar actions

9.Nuclear Policy:

Pakistan has been a great champion and supporter of peaceful uses of nuclear technology
although Pakistan has acquired nuclear manufacturing capabilities in the mid 80s but Pakistan
avoided making weapons. Pakistan avoided nuclear explosions despite having the knowledge
and capability of processing Uranium, Plutonium. It was only for the sake of deterrence and
reaction to India’s nuclear explosions. Pakistan was of the view that this technology should
primarily be used for economic development and for betterment of the people rather than for
making weapons. Pakistan exploded nuclear weapons in May 1998 in response to India’s
nuclear explosions. India’s nuclear explosions created strategic imbalance in the region.
Pakistan decided to rectify and remove this imbalance there at the end of May 1998 Pakistan
exploded its nuclear explosions. So had India not exploded the nuclear devices Pakistan would
not have gone for that strategy. Even after its explosions Pakistan talked about nuclear
restrained regime in this region that India and Pakistan should agree on basic principles for
control of convential weaponry and also containment of Nuclear weapons proliferation.