SCIENCE Q3 - Biology

Lesson 1: Nervous System

Biology is a branch of science that focuses on living things.
Bio means life and logy which means to study.
I. The Brain: Areas and Parts
1. Brainstem – the oldest part of the brain,
beginning where the spinal cord swells and
enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic
survival functions.
Parts of the Brainstem:
- Medulla – the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.
- Pons – helps with the movement and facial expression. it stimulates
breathing and controls the sleep cycle.
- Reticular Formation – a nerve network in the brainstem that
controls arousal and alertness.
- Thalamus – the brains sensory switch board. It directs messages
to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the
cerebellum and medulla. It receives information of all senses except for
smell.
- Inferior to the brainstem is the spinal cord. It is the longest part of the
CNS. It is made up of spinal nerves and is protected by
bones called vertebra.
2. Cerebellum – called the “little brain” and is attached to
the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary
movements and balance. It also plays a part in memory,
emotion regulation, timing, emotion modulation, and sensory
discrimination.
3. The Limbic System – a doughnut-shaped system of
neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum,
associated with emotions such as fear, aggression, and drives for
food and sex. It is possible that some addictive behavior may be
related to a genetic disorder. The system includes:
- Hippocampus – processes memories.
- Amygdala – consists of two almond-shaped neural clusters link
to the emotions of fear and anger.
 - Hypothalamus – lies below the thalamus. It directs several maintenance
activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, control of emotions,
and sex drive. It helps control the endocrine system by giving directions
to the pituitary gland.
4. Cerebrum – the reason why you can learn, remember, and perceive. It has
two hemispheres: the right and left. It is the largest part of the brain.
II. The Cerebral Cortex
- The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral
hemisphere. It is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center. It
is the outer layer of the brain where the complex thinking
occurs.
Structure of the Cerebral Cortex
Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes that are
separated by prominent fissures. These lobes are:
1. Frontal lobe – judgement/reasoning
2. Parietal lobe – senses
3. Occipital lobe – vision
4. Temporal lobe – hearing
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
• The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control
voluntary movements.
• The Sensory Cortex is the area at the front of the parietal lobes that receives
information from skin surface and sense organs.
• The Visual Cortex is located in the occipital lobe of the brain.
• The Auditory Cortex is in the temporal lobe of the brain.
Association Areas
- The association areas integrate sensory information and stored memories. More
intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the
cortex.
Language
- Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage
either to Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or Wernicke’s Area (impaired
understanding).
Specialization & Integration
- Brain activity when hearing, seeing,
and speaking words.
The Brain’s Plasticity
• The brain is sculpted by our
genes but also by our
experiences.
• Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some type of
injury or illness. Usually when the brains areas are damaged or missing, they
develop the ability to function as a part of the new system. For example, in
blind people, the visual cortex may register and process touch and/or
hearing; heightening those senses.
• Our brains demonstrate more plasticity when we are children.
The Divided Brain
- It is divided into two hemispheres
• The Left Hemisphere
- Processes logical tasks (reading, writing, speaking, mathematics, and
comprehension skills)
- Controls the right side of our body.
- In the 1960s, it was called the dominant brain.
• The Right Hemisphere
- Processes non-verbal tasks/perceptual (spatial relationships, muscal/artistic
ability, and mental imagery)
- Controls the left side of our body
- May also be related to some negative emotions.
• The Corpus Callosum is a wide band of axon fibers that connects the two
hemispheres and allows them to communicate.
Splitting the Brain
- A procedure where the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the
connecting fibers between them. Usually done to prevent uncontrollable seizures in
patients with severe epilepsy.
Split Brain Patients
- With the Corpus Callosum severed, objects presented
in the right visual field can be named. Objects in the left
visual field cannot.
Lateralizations also occurs in Non-Split Brains
- People with intact brains also show left-right
hemispheric differences in mental abilitys. A number of
studies show normal individuals engage their right brain
when completing a perceptual task and their left when
carrying out a linguistic task.

Lesson 2: Nerve Cell and Nervous Impulse

• Neuron – the basic structural unit of the nervous system
• Neurotransmitters – signal molecules that allow neurons to communicate
- Excitatory Neurotransmitter – excites the postsynaptic neuron and
increase the likelihood of a response.
- Inhibitory Neurotransmitter – suppresses the action of potential and
decreases the likelihood of of a response.
• Presynaptic Neuron – the neuron that passes through transmission
through its axon.
• Postsynaptic Neruon – the neuron that receives the transmission through
its dendrites.
• Synapse – the junction at which a neuron meets another neuron.

Lesson 3: Endocrine System

Parts of the Endocrine System
- Parathyroid Gland – increases blood calcium levels when needed
- Adrenal Gland – Stimulates response to stress, controls blood pressure,
heart rate, breathing, etc.
 - Thyroid Gland – regulates metabolism, temperature, and heart rate.
lowers blood calcium levels when needed.
- Thymus – stimulates development of
disease-fighting cells.
- Hypothalamus – it sends a signal to the
pituitary gland. it is a busy part of the
brain. it is the boss of all the endocrine
glands.
- Testes – responsible for the development
of male characteristics and production of
sperm
- Ovaries – responsible for the development
of female characteristics and prepares the
female body for pregnancy and
menstruation.

Glands and Hormones

There are two types of glands
- Endocrine Gland
- Exocrine Gland
A duct is a tube-like structure that transports secreted materials to other body parts.
Endocrine gland does not have a duct while exocrine does.
Hormones –produced by the adrenal gland and remains in the body for a long time
Neurotransmitter – produced by neurons and remains in the body for a short time
Negative Feedback Mechanisms – a kind of mechanism that protects your body
when it is experiencing imbalance.
The hypothalamus sends a signal to the pituatary gland, and this gland in turn
releases different hormones commanding other endocrine glands to release
hormones.
Hormones of the Endocrine Glands
• Thymus – located between the lungs and produces thymosin.
• Thyroid – located in front of the neck and produces thyroid hormones &
calcitonin.
 • Parathyroid – located behind the thyroid gland and produces parathyroid
hormones.
• Adrenal Glands – located on top of each kidney and produces
epinephrine & cortisol.
• Ovaries – located in the lower abdomen in females and produces estrogen
& progesterone.
• Testes – located behind the penis inside the scrotum and produces
testosterone.
The hormone erythropoietin is secreted by the kidneys. This hormone is vital for
the production of red blood cells. People with kidney disease lack red blood cells
which can lead to anemia and gas transport problems.
Anabolic Steroid Hormones
Used by athletes to build muscles by receiving injections of steroid hormones. It
immitates the effects of the male hormone testosterone.

Lesson 4: Male Reproductive System

Parts and Their Function
- Epididymis - The sperm cells are matured in a very long, coiled tube.
This is where most of the sperm cells are
stored.
- Vas Deferens - After the sperm cells mature,
they move through another long tube.
- Seminical Vescile - Sperm cells require
fluids to aid them, these fluids are called
semen. These glands secrete a fluid that has
fructose in it. This simple sugar is the source
for sperm movement.
- Prostate Gland – this organ secretes alkaline
fluid th at neutralizes the acids in the female
reproductive system.
- Urethra – it is where the urine passes as it is
excreted from the body. It also aids in the ejection of the semen.
 - Penis – the male external organ that deposits semen into the female
reproductive system during intercourse. the organ gets filled up with
blood during sexual arousal, causing it to get bigger.
Sperm Cell and Testosteron Production
Sperm cells are produced in the seminierous tubules. The testes are organs that
produce testosterone. The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which signals the
pituitary gland to release two hormones, follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH).

Lesson 4: Female Reproductive System

Parts and Their Function
- Fallopian Tubes – an ovum is released by the ovaries passes through the
fallopian tube. This tube assists the movement of an ovum. It is
commonly the site of fertilization, and is
usually where the egg cell meets the sperm cell.
- Uterus – it is a hollow, muscular organ.
When fertilization occurs, the zygote implants
itself on the lining of the uterus. It is where the
development of the fetus happens.
- Cervix – it is connected to the vagina. It
widens during childbirth and allows the
passage of the fetus from the uterus to the
vagina.
- Vagina – it is where sperm is deposited. When a fetus is developed, the
baby leaves the mothers body through the vagina. If fertilization does not
happen, menstruation happens and the flow exits the body through the
vagina.
Female Reproductive Hormones
The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-realsing hormones (GnRH), which
signals the pituitary gland to release two hormones, follicle-stimulating hormones
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). They are responsible for the production of
estrogen and progesterone.
The Ovarian Cycle
It is a series of events that occur when the ovaries prepare and release an ovum.
The release of ovum by the ovary is ovulation. The cycle varies in duration from
female to female, but it normally lasts 28 days. Since it is a cycle, after 28 days,
Day 1 begins again.

Lesson 6-7: DNA Replication

In a DNA molecule, two sides are
joined in the middle. These two
sides are called DNA strands.
These strands are twisted around
each other, and that’s why it is a
double helix. It is twisted because
it needs to fit inside the tiny
nucleus
A DNA molecule can be broken
down into its subunits called
nucleotides. It has three main
parts: a phosphate group, a sugar called
deoxyribose, and a nitrogenous base. All
nucleotides have the same kind of phosphate
groups and sugar molecules. However, they
differ in nitrogenous bases, which are: guanine
(G), cytosine (C), adenine (A), and thymine (T).
A DNA sequence is a chain of nucleotides. The
nucleotides on the same strand are joined
together by the phosphate group-sugar backbone.
On the other hand, the nucleotides between the
two strands are joined together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases.
There are base-pairing rules for DNA nitrogenous bases. An adenine is always
paried with a thymine; a guanine is always paired with a cytosine, and there are
hydrogen bonds between them. It is because of this particular pairing and hydrogen
bonding that the other side of the DNA is upside down.

DNA REPLICATION
The DNA is opened up like a
zipper during replication
because of an enzyme called
helicase. This way, the two
DNA strands are separated
from each other. Helicase
breaks down the hydrogen
bonds between the
nitrogenous bases of the
complementary base pairs.
The helicase continously
unzips the DNA molecule,
and the DNA polymerase
continously adds nucleotides
to each of the separated
strands. When this process is finished, there will be two identical DNA molecules.

Lesson 8: Transcription
RNA is a single-stranded molecule. Its sugar is ribose. The RNA sequence also has
guanine, cytosine, and adenine but it does not have thymine. Instead, it has uracil
(U).
RNA is created using the
DNA as a blueprint. The
resulting sequence is called
the RNA transcript.
Types of RNA
- Messenger RNA
(mRNA) – carries the information from the DNA in the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – are cell structures that make proteins. it is the
RNA part of ribosomes.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) – its main function is to transfer amino acids to
the ribosomes
Process of Transcription
1. Initiation – RNA Polymerase attaches to the promoter region on DNA.
2. Elongation – mRNA is being built from the 3’ end of the nucleotide
polymer.
3. Termination – RNA polymerase and mRNA are released following
transcription of the terminator region of the DNA.

Lesson 9: Translation
Codon VS Anticodon
CODON ANTICODON
Complementary to the nucleotide Complementary to the codon
triplet in the DNA
Located on the mRNA molecule Located in the tRNA molecule
Present on the mRNA sequentially Present on the tRNAs individually
Determine the amino acid’s position Responsible for bringing the specified
amino acid by the codon

The tRNA does not start reading the codons anywhere on the mRNA. It begins
from a very specific codon - AUG. This 3-letter combination is the one that codes
for the amino acid methionine. Because it is the codon where translation always
starts, AUG is referred to as the start codon.
On the other hand, the tRNAs do not read throughout the entire length of the
mRNA and transfer amino acids accordingly. At some point, the translation has to
stop. The process ends at the following codons: UAA, UGA, and UAG.
Lesson 10: Genetic Engineering
It is a process of manipulating
genes. When we combined the
DNA of two organisims, the
resulting union is called a
recombinant DNA.
There are two major
requirements before genetic
engineering can be performed:
1. The gene of interest, or the gene that has the desired phenotype.
2. A vector, or a DNA molecule in a different organism that will carry the gene
of interest. One of the common vectors used in experiments is:
- Bacteria Plasmid – it is a circular genetic material that can replicate on its
own.
Basic Steps of Genetic Engineering
CUT COMBINE CLONE SCREEN
Using special The insulin gene Recall that After cloning,
enzymes, the is combined with bacteria reproduce those bacterial
insulin gene is cut the bacterial by binary fission. cells with the
from the DNA of plasmid. Bacteria Every time insulin gene are
a human cell. The that contain bacteria divide, isolated. There are
bacteria plasmid is recombinant the recombinant some bacteria that
cut at the same plasmid are called plasmid is copied do not take up the
region too. transgenic as well. vector with the
bacteria. insulin gene.

Bacteria uses the same code

human cells use in producing
protein because the genetic
code is universal.