Lesson3 FIGURE2.6 This igure shows the generalized structure ofa prokaryotic cell. ‘Al prokaryotes have chromosomal DNA localized in a nucleo, ribosomes, a cell membrane, and a cellwall The other structures shown are present in some, but rotall, bacteria. 50. Chapter2 PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC CELLS Prokaryotic Cell A prokaryote is a simple, mostly single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell: the nucleoid (Figure 2.6). Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 2.6). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. ‘The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell. Pil ‘Chromosomal DNAS localized ina region ‘led the nucleoid Cell Size tea ; At 0.1 to 5.0 um in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have diameters ranging from 10 to 100 jim (Figure 2.7).'The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter them to quickly diffuse to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly diffuse out. This is not the case in eukaryotic cells, which have devel- oped different structural adaptations to enhance intracellular transport. Stnall size, in general, is necessary for all cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Let's examine why that is so. First, we'll consider the area and volume of a typical cell. Not all cells are spherical in'shape, but most tend to approximate a sphere. You may remember from your high school geometry course that the formula for the surface area ofa sphere is 4ner, while the formula for its volume is (4/3), Thus, as the radiusMicroblologist The most effective action anyone can take to prevent the spread of contagious illnesses is to wash his‘or her hands. Why? Because microbes are ubiquitous. They live on door- knobs, money, your hands, and many other surfaces. ~ “If someone sneezes into his hand and touches a doorknob, and afterwards you touch that same doorknob, the microbes from the ‘sneezer’s mucus are now on your hands.fyou touch yourhandstoyour mouth, nose, or eyes, those microbes .; | canenter your body and could make ‘icune £7 Ths gue shorelines of Fepresentsb 10 old increase However, not all microbes (also called micfoorganisms) cause dis- ese; most ae actually beneficial You’ have microbes in your gut that make vitamin K. Other microorganisms are used to ferment beer and wine, Microbiologists are sclentists who study microbes. Microbiologists, can pursue a number of careers. Not only do they workin the food indus- tty, they are also employed in the. veterinary and medical fields. They can work'in'the pharmaceutical sector, serving kéy roles in research! ‘and development by identifying new sources of antibiotics that could be Used to treat bacterial infections CAREER, Contra Environmental microbiolo- gists may look for new ways to use specially selected or genetically engi- eered microbes for the removal of pollutants from soil or groundwater, 2s well as hazardous elements from contaminated sites. These uses of microbes are called bioremediation technologies. Microbiologists can also workin the field of bioinformat- ics, providing specialized knowledge and insight for the design, develop- ment, and specificity of computer models of, for example, bacterial epidemics. rmcabes on ogame sale Gea that each unif increase na logarthmie scale he quant beng nesured. ket 1 tetge eee CeluaiStuctute 5152. Chapter? ofa cell increases, its surface area increases as the square of its radius, but its volume increases as the cube of its radius (much more rapidly). ‘Therefore, as a cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. This same principle would apply if the cell had the shape of a cube (Figure 2.8). Ifthe cell grows too large, the plasma membrane will not have sufficient surface area to support the rate of diffusion required for the increased volume. In other words, as a cell grows, it becomes less efficient. One way to become more efficient is to divide; another way is to develop organelles that perform specific tasks. These adaptations lead to the development of more sophisticated cells called eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic Cells Have you ever heard the.phrase “form follows function?” It is a phi- losophy practiced in many industries. In architecture, this means that buildings should be constructed to support the activities that will be carried out inside them. For example) a skyscraper should be built with several elevator banks; a hospital should be built so that its emergency room is easily accessible Our natural world also utilizes the principle of form following func- tion, especially in cell biology, and this will become clear as we explore eukaryotic cells (Figure 2.9). Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have: 1) a membrane-bound nucleus; 2) numerous membrane-bound organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloro ‘plasts, mitochondria, and others; and 3) several rod-shaped chromosomes. Because a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus'is surroutided by a membrane, it is often said to have a “true nucleus” The word “organelle” means “Mittle organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have specialized cellular functions: At this point, it should be clear to'you that eukaiyotic cells have a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells. Organelles allow different functions to be compartmentalized in different areas of the cell. The Nucleus : ‘Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 2.9). The nucleus (plural = nuclei) houses the cell's DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let’s look at it in more detail (Figure 2.10). The Nuclear Envelope ‘The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus (Figure 2.10). Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers. ‘The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm andART Cortisate Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. What advontoges might small cell size confer on a cell? What advantages might large cell size have? FIGURE 2.8 Notice that as a cllincreases in size, ts surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. When there insufficient surface ‘area to support a cells increasing volume, acell will either divide (or die.The cell on the left has a volume of 1 mm? and a surface area of 6 mm?, with a surface area-to-volume ratio of6 to 1, whereas the cellon the right has a volume of 8 mm? and a surface ‘area of 24 mm with a surface areato-volume ratio of 3 to 1. Endoplasmic reticulum: smooth rough ‘mitotic spindle and ‘nucleus. Protein-ined ‘maintain cell shape ‘pores allow material to movein and out. Centrosome: microtuble- Plasmodesmata: organizing center channels connect twoplantcels, ‘Intermediate filaments: bs ‘animal cell fibrous proteins thathold Cell wa: ‘organelles in place maintains cellshape ‘Chromatin: DNA pl -Microfilaments fibrous proteins; form the cellular cortex ‘vacuole: filed wath cel sap | that maintains pressure’ ‘against cell wall ytoskeleton: microtubules Intermediate filaments reticulum ‘microfilaments Rough: associated ‘with ribosomes; mais Srv an Chloroplast site ‘membrane proteins. St phowbeyashests ‘Smooth: makes lipids b FIGURE 2.9 These figures show the major organelles and other cell components of a) atypical animal cell and (b) atypical eukaryotic plant cell. The plant cell has a cell wal, chloroplasts, plastids, and a central vacuole—structures not found in animal cells Plant cells do ot have lysosomes or centrosomes. : lf the nucleolus were not able to carry out its function, what other cellular organelles would be affected? CelllarStucture 53.FIGURE 2.10 The nucleus stores chromatin {DNA plus proteins) in ageblike substance ‘called the nucleoplasm. The nucleolus sa ‘condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs. The boundary of ‘the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope. tt Consists of two phospholipid bilayers: an ‘outer membrane and an inner membrane. ‘The nuclear membranes continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores. allow substances toenter and exit the nucleus. Endoplasmic reticulum, ‘Chromatin Nucleoplasm Nuclear pore Nuclear envelope aitelait ‘The nucleoplasm is the semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus, where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus. Chromatin and Chromosomes To understand chromatin, itis helpful to first consider chromosomes, Chromosomes aré structures within the nucleus that are made up’ of DNA, the hereditary material: You may remember that in prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every eukaryotic species has a specific ruber of chromosomes in the nuclei of its body's cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome nimber is 46, while in fruit flies, it is eight. ‘Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide. When the cell is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, proteins are attached to chro- mosomes, and they resemble an unwound, jumbled bunch of threads. ‘These unwound protein-chromosome ‘complexes are called chromatin (Figure 2.11); chromatin describes the material that makes up the chro- ‘mosomes both vtien condensed and decondensed, The Nucleolus We already know that the ‘ula directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how does it do this? Some chromosomes have reactions of DNA. that encode ribosomal RNA. A darkly straining area within the nucleus called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli) aggregates the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are trans- ported out through the pores in the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm.Ribosomes Ribosomes are the cellular organelles responsible for; protein ithe When viewed through an electron microscope, ribosomes appear either as clusters (polyribosomes) or sirigle, tiny-dots that float freely,inithe cytoplasm. They maybe attached to the cytoplastric side of the'plasma membrane or the cytoplasnii¢ side of the endoplasmic reticulum and the outer membrane of the’riuclear envelope (Figure 2:9). Electron microscopy has shown us that'ribosomes, which are large complexes of protein and RNA, consist of wo subunits, aptly called large arid small (Figure 2.12). Ribosomes receive their “orders” for protein synthesis from the nucleus where the DNA is transcribed into messenget: RNA (mRNA). The mRNA travels to the ribosomes, which translate the cade provided by the sequence of the nitrogenous bases in the mRNA into a specific order of amino acids in a protein. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Because proteins synthesis is an essential function of all cells (includ- ing enaymes, hormones, antibodies, pigments, structural components, and surface receptors), ribosomes are found in practically every cell. Ribosomes are particularly abundant in cells that synthesize large amounts of protein. For example, the pancreas is responsible for creat- ing several digestive enzymes and the cells that produce these erizymes contain many ribosomes. Thus, we see another example of form fol- lowing function, ‘Amino acd FIGURE2.11 (a) hisimage shows various levels ofthe organization of chromatin (ONA ‘and protein). b) This mage shows palred ‘chromosomes. (Credit b: modification of ‘work by NI: scale-bar data from Matt Russel) FIGURE2.12 Ribosomesare madeupofa 4 large subunit (top) anda small subunit {bottom} During proten synthesis ribosomes assemble amino aids nto proteins. Cellular Structure 55FIGURE 2.13 This electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed witha transmission electron microscope This ‘organelle has an outer membrane and an {nner membrane: Thé Inner membrane contains folds, called cristae, which increase Its surface ara. The space between the two smembranesis called the intermembrane space, andthe space inside theinner membranes called the mitochondrial mati. ATP synthesis takes place onthe inner membrane. (Credit: modification of 56 Chapter2 Mitochondria Mitochondria (singular= mitochondrion) are often called the “pow- erhouses” or “energy factories” of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy carry- ing molecule. ATP represents the short-term stored energy of the cell. Cellular respiration is the process of making ATP using the chemical energy found in glucose and other nutrients. In mitochondria, this pro- ‘cess uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as waste product. In fact, the carbon dioxide 'that you exhale with every breath comes from the cellular reactions that produce carbon dioxide as a by-product. In keeping with our theme of form following function, itis important to point out that muscle cells have a very high concentration of mito- chondria that produce ATP: Your muscle cells need a lot of energy to keep your body moving. When your cells don't get enough oxygen, they do not make a lot of ATP. Instead, the small amount of ATP they make in. the absence of oxygen is accompanied by the production of lactic acid. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles (Figure 2.13) that have their own ribosomes and DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The inner layer has folds called cristae. The area surtounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The étistae and the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration. ‘Outer membrane Inner membrane Peroxisomes ~ me Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. ‘They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. (Many of these oxidation reactions release hydrogen peroxide, H,O,, which would be damaging to cells; however, when these reactions are con- fined to peroxisomes, enzymes safely break down the H,O, into oxygen and water.) For example, alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells. Glyoxysomes, which are specialized peroxisomes in plants, are responsible for converting stored fats into sugars.Vesicles and Vacuoles Rob Q Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Other than the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, there is a very subtle distinction between them: the mem- branes of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other membrane systems within the cell. The membrane of a vacuole does not fuse with the membranes of other cellular components. The Endomembrane System ‘The endomembrane system (endo = “within”) isa group of membranes and organelles (Figure 2.14) in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, which we've already men- tioned, and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which we will cover shortly. Although not technically within the cell, the plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system because, as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles. ‘The endomembrane system does not include the membranes of either mitochondria or chloroplasts. , : ar batt anitsatro “if peripheral membrane protein were synthesizediin the lumen (inside) of the ER, would it end up on the inside or outside of the plasrna membrane? FIGURE 2.14 Membrane and secretory proteins are synthesized inthe rough ‘endoplasmic reticulum (RER).The RER ‘also sometimes modifies proteins. In this Ilustration, a(green) integral membrane protein inthe ER s modified by attachment ofa (purple carbohydrate. Vesicles bud from the ER and fuse with the cs face of the Golgl apparatus. As the protein passes through the Golgi’s cisternae, itis further modified by the addition of more carbohydrates. After its synthesis Is complete, It exits via vesicles that bud from the Golgi’ trans face and, fuses with the cell membrane. (Credit: ‘modification of work by Magnus Manske) Cellular Structure 57